Geoexploration, 20 (1980) 225-232 225

Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

PALEOGEOID CHANGES AND THEIR POSSIBLE IMPACT ON THE

FORMATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES IN AFRICA

NILS-AXEL M~RNER
Geological Institute, Stockholm University, Box 6801, S-l 1386 Stockholm (Sweden)
(Accepted for publication March 30, 1982)

ABSTRACT

Morner, N.-A., 1982. Paleogeoid changes and their possible impact on the formation of
natural resources in Africa. Geoexploration, 20: 225-232.

Paleogeoid changes are investigated as a mechanism for processes leading to the for-
mation of various natural resources. Africa has experienced numerous such paleogeoid
changes. Via their secondary effect on pressure, migration of fluids, boundary conditions,
etc., paleogeoid changes may have had significant impact on the formation of natural
resources. This means that such resources may be located where they previously would
not have been “expected” to occur.

INTROJECTION

Natural resources are often searched for in areas where they could be ex-
pected from a structural-geological point of view. If, however, their forma-
tion would be related to paleogeoid changes, they could occur “anywhere”.
Consequently, the possible effects of geoid changes are well worth investigat-
ing. Paleogeoid changes are a novel factor in the discussion of the formation
of various types of natural resources (Morner, 1980a). The present paper
gives a short review of the background and some possible effects with respect
to Africa,

AFRICA

Africa consists of several separate Precambrian cratons which have inter-

mittently been flooded by the sea and subjected to a variety of tectonic
activities through time, Its geodynamic history is very complex, both geo-
graphically and geochronologically. Furthermore, there is a close interaction
between different geodynamic variables. The latitudinal position has shifted,
and Africa has suffered extensive Pre-Quatern~ glaciations. In the Cretace-
ous, it was covered by huge “inland-seas”. The South Atlantic rapidly opened
in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. During the Cenozoic, Africa has been sub-

0016-7I~2/82/0000-0000/$02.75 Q 1982 Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company

226

jetted to drastic changes between dry and wet period. East Africa has been
characterized by its Rift Valley dynamics. Africa today is certainly not
geodynamically “calm”, though the activity differs remarkably over the
continent. It is located between two distinct geoid minima and two geoid
maxima (Fig.1).
These mass redistributions and mass irregularities mean that the geoid
must have changed considerably through time in Africa and will continue
to do so in the future.

I ----uYJJ
0

-1OOm

Fig.1. Geoid map of Africa and surrounding areas according to the GEM 10 model (Lerch
et al., 1979). Contours in 10 m above and below the reference ellipsoide. Separate geoid
profiles are given for the Equator and 20” E.

THE GEOID AND PALEOGEOID CHANGES

The geoid is the equipotential surface of the rotational and gravitational

potentials. The oceanic geoid is measured via satellites with an acuracy of a
few meters. These records are combined with terrestrial gravity data. Several
global geoid computations have been published (e.g., Gaposchkin, 1974;
Lerch et al., 1979). There is a very good general agreement between these
models.
While the higher harmonics of the geoid field are related to irregularities
in the crust and upper mantle, the lower harmonics seem to originate from
processes and irregularities in the lower mantle and outer core. Hide and
Malin (1970; confirmed for the lower harmonics by Eckhardt, 1979) showed
that the lower harmonics of the Earth’s gravity field correlate with those in
 227

the geomagnetic field. This suggests that they have a mutual origin in the
region of the core/mantle interface (Hide and Malin, 1970; Morner, 1976).
Any change in the gravitational or rotational potentials will affect the
geoid (Morner, 1976). Mass redistributions (motions, displacements) and
density changes (compositional and thermal changes) in the crust/lithosphere,
the upper mantle, lower mantle and core/mantle region are quite different
and tend to affect the higher, “middle” and lower harmonics, respectively
(Morner, 1980b).
The geodynamic changes which Africa has undergone during its evolution
to its present situation inevitably must have lead to significant paleogeoid
changes.

PRIMARY EFFECTS OF PALEOGEOID CHANGES

The ocean mean sea level or the geodetic sea level is the geoid, and hence
immediately responds to any change in a factor controlling this equipotential
surface. The continental geoid is, of course, also deformed (Miirner, 1978a).
Its direct and indirect effects are not obvious, however. Still, it is just those
effects which may be of great significance for the creation of natural resources
as well as for the origin of many other geological phenomena. The crustal
level will also have to respond to geoid changes (Morner, 1978a), but these
crustal movements are generally slow and will therefore lag behind the geoid
changes. Rapid deformations may, however, also occur (N.C., 1980; Morner,
1981a). Consequently, there is a triple primary effect of geoid changes
(Morner, 1978a, fig.1; 1980b, fig.4), viz. the deformation of (1) the ocean
surface (the geoid), (2) the continental geoid, and (3) the crustal level.

EFFECTS OF CONTINENTAL PALEOGEOID CHANGES

The ground-water table is by no means the continental geoid surface. It

must, however, be strongly affected and controlled by this surface. Conse-
quently, the ground-water level should be significantly affected by geoid
changes. This has been discussed by Mijrner (1978a, b) who found that low
ground-water levels, dried lakes, major drought periods (and related mammali-
an extinctions) and desert expansions coincided with drastic eustatic regres-
sions, i.e., lowerings of the oceanic geoid (at around 38 Ma, 5 Ma and 20,000
BP), while high ground-water levels, high lake levels and expansions of the
vegetation corresponded to periods of eustatic transgressions (as in the early
Holocene).
Changes in the ground-water level are of great significance for the forma-
tion of evaporites, precipitates, eolian and fluvial concentrates, organic produc-
tion and accumulation. Similarly, geoid changes are likely to affect the
migration and level of hydrocarbon and ore-forming solutions (and hence
their precipitation).
The geopressure and the thermal gradient are essential factors in the for-
228

mation of gas and petroleum (e.g. Hedberg, 1980; Jones, 1980). There are
all reasons to expect that rises and falls of the paleogeoid have affected the
boundary for critical processes (the anaerobic biogenesis, the thermochmical
genesis, etc.). The formation of mud diapirs and mud volcanos (Hedberg,
1980) is likely to be strongly affected by geoid changes. More important;
the volcanic activity and occurrence of intrusions (and maybe especially the
intrusions of kimberlites) are likely to be affected by geoid changes via the
changes in pressure and compression/tension. It seems significant that cor-
relations between eustasy and volcanism have been reported (see Morner,
1972) and that ‘various episodes of igneous activity , . , occurred in unison
over large areas’ (Kennett and Thunell, 1975) and that the extrusion of lava
occurred synchronous in widespread hot spots (Vogt, 1972).
Geoid changes give rise to immediate changes of the topography with
respect to the equipotenti~ surface. This means that geodetic “basins” may
be formed without real crustal movements, that the water-shed may shift
and rivers may change their direction totally. Sediment accumulation in
such a geodetic “basin” would generate sedimento-isostatic subsidence
(Bronguleev and Pshenin, 1980) which would enlarge the size and depth of
the “basin” (cf. Fig.ZB-D).

SOME PALEOGEOID CHANGES IN AFRICA

As mentioned above, there are numerous geodynamic processes and

events in Africa through the geological time which must have affected the
paleogeoid. A few significant examples will be discussed here.
Large “inland seas” covered parts of Africa in the Cretaceous. Faure
(1972) has shown that these “inland seas” and other “basins” migrated
laterally with time. He suggested that this was due to differential movements
of the lithosphere with respect to the asthenosphere (i.e., “plate tectonic”)
with the latter possessing an irregular topography. This is ilmstrated in Fig.2A
(note, however, that an asthenospheric depression would give rise to a
geoid depression counteracting the crustal depression). Faure (1972) found
that these “basins” had a width of 100-2000 km, a depth of l-10 km and
lasted for some 10-100 Ma. He calculated the speed of lateral displacement
to be between 0.1 and 10 cm per year.
Artemjev (1980, fig.1) has given a spectrum of Russian isostatic anomalies,
on the basis of which he attributed anomalies of the wavelengths of about
1000-1500 km to the low viscosity asthenosphere. This may be taken to
support an upper-mantle origin of the migrations of African “basins” (cf. Fig.
2A-C).
However, there are other possible mechanisms to explain Faure’s findings
than a simple deformation of the lithosphere. This is illustrated in Fig.2B-D,
An asthenospheric bump would give rise to a corresponding geoid bump
(Fig.2B), creating a geodetic “basin” or “inland sea”. It should be noted that
sediment infill in such a “basin” would give rise to sedimento-isostasy (Bron-
 229

dearesion

c
Fig.2. Four schematic models of the origin and migration of “basins” and “inland seas”.
The four main figures represent segments of the outer part of the earth consisting of an
upper lithosphere and a lower asthenosphere. A. The lithosphere bends down in an as-
thenospheric depression giving rise to a surface basin (Faure, 1872). B. A bump in the as-
thenosphere generates a geoid bump, i.e., a geodetic “basin” where sediment could ac-
cumulate. C. An internal asthenospheric density bump generates a geoid bump. D. The
geoid bump is caused by deeper seated sources like a core/mantle bump. The geoid
bumps in B-D drift with respect to the displacement of their generating struclures.

guleev and Pshenin, 1980). The geoid bump could as well be caused by
density difference (inbomogeneities~ in the asthenosphere fFig,BC). Horizon-
tal drifting of those asthenospheric features would cause migration of a
“basin” as observed by Faure (1972) with significant corresponding secondary
paleogeoid effects (pressure, migration of gases, liquids and magma, displace-
ments of boundaries and boundary conditions, geographic changes of erosional-
depositional processes, etc.).
A geoid bump may also originate from deeper seated sources (Fig.BD) like
a bump at the core/mantle interface (Morner, 1980b). A core/mantle inter-
face bump (Hide, 1969; Mijrner, 1976) may migrate laterally quite rapidly
(e.g., via core/mantle dislocation) as in the case of the related migration of
the geomagnetic field (Hide and Malin, 1970; Mijrner, 1976,198Ob). This
would give rise to quite drastic primary and secondary paleogeoid changes.
Fig.3 iIlustrates the primary effect of a horizontal drift of the present
geoid profile (Fig.1) due to core/mantle “dislocation”‘. It is a theoretical
model but illustrated the possibilities of rapid and drastic paleogeoid
changes without an origin in upper mantle or lithospheric structures and
conditions. It would cause the formation of geodetic “basins” and ‘*heights”,
totally new ground water profiles, changed migrations of water, hydrocar-
bon and other solutions and semiliquid matter, pressure changes that may
critically affect delicate boundary conditions, etc.
230

sea AFRICA sea

core/mantle ‘dislocation”

Fig.3. Horizontal displacement of the equatorial geoid profile (in Fig.1) due to core/
mantle “dislocation”. The size and sign of the geoid changes will differ, and the changes
may occur quite rapidly (Morner, 1976, 1980b).

The eustatic sea level has changed considerably through time. General
transgressions and regressions caused by changes in the oceanic basin-volume
(tectono-eustasy) or changes in the oceanic water-volume (glacial eustasy)
lead to vertical deformations of the global geoid; not by simple parallel dis-
placement but giving rise to a new geoid relief (Fig.4) as discussed by Morner
(1980b). Drastic paleogeoid changes have been identified (Miirner, 1978a)
in connection with significant eustatic regressions at around 38 Ma, 5 Ma and
20,000 yr. BP, when the ground water level fell, lakes dried out, vegetation
suffered crises (hence the extinction of mammalians at those levels; Morner,
1978b) and deserts expanded. Surely, such periods were associated with
different secondary effects.
During the Cretaceous (135-64 Ma ago), Mbrner (198Oc) identified large-
scale north-south migrating gravitational waves having a periodicity of about
15 Ma prior to the Cenomanian (100 Ma ago) and about 2-4 Ma after the

sea AFRICA sea

glacial eustatic regression

Fig.4. Vertical displacement of the equatorial geoid profile (in Fig.1) due to a general
glacial eustatic lowering of the sea level by about 100 m. The new geoid profile (hypo-
thetically drawn here) will not be parallel to the old one (in this case the present one).
Drastic ground water changes on the continents are associated with such lowerings
(Morner, 1978a).
 231

Cenomanian. Similar gravitational waves have later been identified in the

Pliocene and with less precision in the Miocene (Morner, 1981b), and are
believed to reveal a fundamental geodynami~ process. These geoid waves
(primary paleogeoid changes) inevitably must have caused drastic secondary
changes and effects in Africa (somewhat like type C-D in Fig.2).
All these different types of paleogeoid deformations must have had sig-
nificant effects on processes and conditions that have lead to our present
day natural resources. They are therefore worthy of consideration and fur-
ther investigation.

CONCLUSIONS

(I) Paleogeoid changes have not been considered previously from the
point of their ~ont~bution to the formation of natural resources.
(2) Paleogeoid changes have occurred and must have had a significant im-
pact on the lithospheric and Earth’s surface conditions in Africa.
(3) The effects (via various secondary processes) of paleogeoid changes
for the origin of natural resources open new possibilities to locate such
resources in areas and at depths where they otherwise may not be expected
to be found.

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