Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

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Geological Society of Africa Presidential Review No. 13

Cenozoic stratigraphy of the Sahara, Northern Africa

Christopher S. Swezey *
US Geological Survey, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, MS 956, Reston, VA 20192, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents an overview of the Cenozoic stratigraphic record in the Sahara, and shows that the
Received 9 April 2008 strata display some remarkably similar characteristics across much of the region. In fact, some lithologies
Received in revised form 26 August 2008 of certain ages are exceptionally widespread and persistent, and many of the changes from one lithology
Accepted 27 August 2008
to another appear to have been relatively synchronous across the Sahara. The general stratigraphic suc-
Available online 1 November 2008
cession is that of a transition from early Cenozoic carbonate strata to late Cenozoic siliciclastic strata. This
transition in lithology coincides with a long-term eustatic fall in sea level since the middle Cretaceous
Keywords:
and with a global climate transition from a Late Cretaceous–Early Eocene ‘‘warm mode” to a Late
Africa
Sahara
Eocene–Quaternary ‘‘cool mode”. Much of the shorter-term stratigraphic variability in the Sahara (and
Cenozoic even the regional unconformities) also can be correlated with specific changes in sea level, climate,
Tertiary and tectonic activity during the Cenozoic. Specifically, Paleocene and Eocene carbonate strata and phos-
Miocene phate are suggestive of a warm and humid climate, whereas latest Eocene evaporitic strata (and an end-
Stratigraphy Eocene regional unconformity) are correlated with a eustatic fall in sea level, the build-up of ice in Ant-
arctica, and the appearance of relatively arid climates in the Sahara. The absence of Oligocene strata
throughout much of the Sahara is attributed to the effects of generally low eustatic sea level during
the Oligocene and tectonic uplift in certain areas during the Late Eocene and Oligocene. Miocene sand-
stone and conglomerate are attributed to the effects of continued tectonic uplift around the Sahara, gen-
erally low eustatic sea level, and enough rainfall to support the development of extensive fluvial systems.
Middle–Upper Miocene carbonate strata accumulated in northern Libya in response to a eustatic rise in
sea level, whereas Upper Miocene mudstone accumulated along the south side of the Atlas Mountains
because uplift of the mountains blocked fluvial access to the Mediterranean Sea. Uppermost Miocene
evaporites (and an end-Miocene regional unconformity) in the northern Sahara are correlated with the
Messinian desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea. Abundant and widespread Pliocene paleosols are attrib-
uted to the onset of relatively arid climate conditions and (or) greater variability of climate conditions,
and the appearance of persistent and widespread eolian sediments in the Sahara is coincident with the
major glaciation in the northern hemisphere during the Pliocene.
Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................. . . . . 90
2. The Cenozoic stratigraphic record. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................. . . . . 91
2.1. Mauritania–Senegal Basin (area 1 on Fig. 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . . 91
2.2. Tindouf–Ouarzazate Basin in Morocco (area 2 on Fig. 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . . 91
2.3. Saoura Basin and nearby basins in Algeria and Morocco (area 3 on Fig. 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . . 93
2.4. Tademaït region and Tinrhert region in central Algeria (area 4 on Fig. 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . . 95
2.5. Taoudenni Basin (area 5 on Fig. 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . . 95
2.6. Iullemmeden Basin in Niger (area 6 on Fig. 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . . 96
2.7. Chotts Basin in Algeria and Tunisia (area 7 on Fig. 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . . 97
2.8. Central Chad (area 8 on Fig. 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . . 98
2.9. Northern Libya (areas 9–11 on Fig. 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . . 99
2.10. Northern Egypt (area 12 on Fig. 1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . 104
2.11. Central Egypt (area 13 on Fig. 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. . . . 105

* Tel.: +1 703 648 6444; fax: +1 703 648 6419.

E-mail address: cswezey@usgs.gov

1464-343X/$ - see front matter Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.08.001
90 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121

3. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 107

3.1. Regional unconformities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 108
3.2. Paleocene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 110
3.3. Eocene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 112
3.4. Oligocene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 113
3.5. Miocene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 113
3.6. Pliocene–Pleistocene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 115
4. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 115
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 116
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 116

1. Introduction
The Sahara is an area of about 8–9 million km2 in North Africa
that extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea, between the
latitudes of approximately 16° and 34° North (Fig. 1). In some
descriptions, this region is divided into two parts, with the eastern
area being called the Libyan Desert and the central and western
areas being called the Sahara Desert. In this paper, however, the
term ‘‘Sahara” is applied to this entire region from the Atlantic
Ocean to the Red Sea. In northwest Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tuni-
sia) the Sahara is bounded on the north by the Atlas Mountains,
whereas farther east (Libya, Egypt) the Sahara is bounded on the
north by the Mediterranean Sea. The Sahara is bounded on the
south by a region called the Sahel, which is characterized by vege-
tated sand dunes. Today, the Sahara is a desert, and mean annual
rainfall over most of the region is less than 100 mm/year (Dubief,
1963). The landscape of the Sahara is characterized primarily by
exposed rock of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age, with accumulations
of Cenozoic strata occupying structural and topographic basins. Eo-
lian sand (sand sheets and ergs) of Quaternary age covers much of
the Cenozoic strata.
This paper presents an overview of the Cenozoic stratigraphic
record in the Sahara. Although much has been written on Qua-
ternary strata in the Sahara (e.g., Gasse et al., 1987; Swezey,
2001; Kröpelin et al., 2008), the emphasis in this paper is on
pre-Quaternary strata of Cenozoic age. The Cenozoic strati-
graphic record is generally considered to be ‘‘remarkably sparse”
(Ruddiman et al., 1989), poorly documented, and difficult to
characterize on account of various differences in published
descriptions, interpretations, and stratigraphic nomenclature. A
closer examination, however, reveals that this record may not
be as sparse as previously believed. As outlined in this paper,
the Cenozoic strata of the Sahara display some remarkably sim-
ilar characteristics across much of the region. In fact, some
lithologies of certain ages are exceptionally widespread and per-
sistent, and many of the vertical changes from one lithology to
another appear to have been relatively synchronous across the
Sahara. As outlined in greater detail below, the general strati-

Fig. 1. Map of northern Africa showing topographic relief and the locations of selected Neogene volcanic rocks [modified from Burke and Wells (1989) and Wilson et al.
(1998)]. The numbers 1–13 (in boxes) denote the locations of stratigraphic columns shown in Fig. 2.
 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121 91

graphic pattern is that of a transition from lower Cenozoic car- following outline of the basin stratigraphy are compiled from
bonate strata to upper Cenozoic siliciclastic strata. This transi- Flicoteaux et al. (1977, 1979), Hébrard et al. (1983), Conrad and
tion in lithology coincides with a long-term eustatic fall in sea Lappartient (1987), Bellion (1989a), Pascal and Cheikh Faye
level since the middle Cretaceous and with a global climate tran- (1989), Pascal and Sustrac (1989), Lang et al. (1990), and Davison
sition from a Late Cretaceous–Early Eocene ‘‘warm mode” to a (2005). According to these authors, Upper Paleocene (Thanetian)
Late Eocene–Quaternary ‘‘cool mode” [climate ‘‘mode” terminol- sandstone in this region is overlain by Lower–Middle Eocene
ogy from Frakes et al. (1992)]. Much of the shorter-term strati- mudstone, limestone, phosphate, sandstone, and conglomerate.
graphic variability in the Sahara can also be correlated with In some places, the uppermost unit of Lower–Middle Eocene stra-
specific changes in sea level, climate, and tectonic activity. How- ta is a 3 m thick sandstone that is mapped as the Grès de Gorgol
ever, the chronostratigraphic resolution is relatively poor, and (Gorgol Sandstone). The Lower–Middle Eocene strata are overlain
the data and correlations presented in this paper should be con- by Upper Eocene (or possibly Oligocene) mudstone that in places
sidered as only a rough template for future studies of greater contains some beds of chert, aluminum phosphate, glauconite,
resolution and refinement. and sandstone (mapped collectively as the ‘‘formation jaune” or
‘‘yellow formation”, so named because of the yellow color of the
strata). These Upper Eocene (or possibly Oligocene) strata are
2. The Cenozoic stratigraphic record
overlain by Oligocene–Pliocene white sandstone (‘‘Grès de Kaédi”
or ‘‘Kaédi Sandstone”) with bands of kaolinitic clay, ferruginous
In an early study of Saharan geology, Kilian (1931) outlined
tubular structures, and local pebbles and silicified wood. This
the following six broad stratigraphic intervals: (1) ‘‘Le Continen-
white sandstone is interpreted as a fluvial deposit, and it is con-
tal de base”, which consists of pre-Ordovician conglomerate and
sidered to be part of the ‘‘Continental terminal” strata identified
sandstone; (2) ‘‘La Couverture tassilienne”, which consists of Or-
by Kilian (1931). Eolian dunes of Quaternary age rest unconform-
dovician and Gothlandian (Silurian) marine strata; (3) ‘‘La Série
ably upon the Oligocene–Pliocene white sandstone and older
post-tassilienne”, which consists of Frasnian (Upper Devonian)
strata. In some places, however, the Oligocene–Pliocene white
to Namurian (middle Carboniferous) marine strata; (4) ‘‘Le
sandstone is capped by a 0.5–1.0 m thick ferruginous crust (‘‘ferri-
Continental intercalaire”, which consists of Moscovian (middle
crete” or ‘‘cuirasse”), which is thought to be of Pliocene age. Near
Carboniferous) to Cenomanian (Upper Cretaceous) sandstone
Dakar in Senegal (Fig. 1), this ‘‘cuirasse” overlies a volcanic flow
and mudstone; (5) ‘‘La Série hamadienne”, which consists of
that is dated at 5 Ma, and the ‘‘cuirasse” is overlain by another
Cenomanian to Danian (Lower Paleocene) marine strata; and
volcanic flow that is dated at 1.5 ± 0.10 Ma. Ferruginous crusts
(6) ‘‘Le Continental terminal”, which consists of Cenozoic sand-
and lateritic crusts of pedogenic origin are common across much
stone not including the Lower Paleocene Danian Stage. Subse-
of the southern margin of the Sahara (Michel, 1959, 1973, 1978;
quent studies have refined this view of Saharan stratigraphy,
Tessier et al., 1969; Nahon and Démoulin, 1970, 1971; Nahon
but overall the Cenozoic stratigraphic record remains poorly
and Ruellan, 1970; Nahon, 1976, 1980; Nahon et al., 1977; Beau-
documented.
det et al., 1981; Sponholz, 1994). In the Mauritania–Senegal Basin,
This paper focuses on several regions across the Sahara where
the ferruginous crusts extend across Paleozoic strata as well as
representative Cenozoic stratigraphic records are more compre-
Miocene–Pliocene ‘‘Continental terminal” strata identified by Kil-
hensive and better documented. Such regions where Cenozoic
ian (1931). These crusts are thought to have formed by intense
stratigraphic records are more comprehensive and better docu-
weathering during Miocene–Pliocene humid episodes. In con-
mented include the following (Fig. 1): the Mauritania–Senegal Ba-
trast, the lateritic crusts (bauxitic, in places) extend across Creta-
sin (area 1 on Fig. 1), the Tindouf–Ouarzazate Basin in Morocco
ceous and Eocene strata, and are thought to have formed by
(area 2 in Fig. 1), the Saoura Basin in Algeria (area 3 in Fig. 1),
intense weathering during Eocene humid episodes.
the Tademaït and Tinrhert regions in central Algeria (area 4 in
Fig. 1), the Taoudenni Basin in Mali (area 5 in Fig. 1), the Iullemme-
2.2. Tindouf–Ouarzazate Basin in Morocco (area 2 on Fig. 1)
den Basin in Niger (area 6 in Fig. 1), the Chotts Basin in Algeria and
Tunisia (area 7 in Fig. 1), central Chad (area 8 in Fig. 1), northern
Typical stratigraphic sections in the Tindouf–Ouarzazate Ba-
Libya (areas 9–11 in Fig. 1), northern Egypt (area 12 in Fig. 1),
sin of southern Morocco are shown in Fig. 4. The information
and central Egypt (area 13 in Fig. 1). As described below and out-
presented in this figure and the following outline of the basin
lined in Fig. 2, Cenozoic strata in these regions display certain
stratigraphy are compiled from Gauthier (1957), Gorler et al.
broad lithologic similarities that may be correlated across the Sa-
(1988), Herbig (1991), Trappe (1992), Gheerbrant et al. (1993,
hara, and many of the changes from one lithology to another ap-
1998), Herbig and Trappe (1994), and El Harfi et al. (1996,
pear to have been relatively synchronous.
2001). According to these authors, Upper Cretaceous strata [the
This paper does not attempt to describe every outcrop or basin
‘‘série rouge superieure” of Gauthier (1957)] in this region are
that contains Cenozoic strata. In other words, certain regions
overlain by Paleocene–Middle Eocene limestone and siltstone
where Cenozoic strata have been identified but not described in
of shallow marine origin (mapped as the Asseghmou, Jbel Guers-
great detail are omitted from this paper. Such regions include
if, Jbel Ta’louit, Ait Ouarhitane, and Jbel Tagount Formations).
many locations in Niger (Faure, 1954, 1962a,b, 1966; Greigert
These strata, in turn, are overlain by Upper Eocene gypsiferous
and Pougnet, 1967; Bellion, 1989a; Genik, 1992, 1993; Sponholz,
red mudstone that is interpreted as sabkha deposits (mapped
1994; Zanguina et al., 1998) and northern Sudan (Andrew, 1948;
as part of the Hadida Formation). The Upper Eocene gypsiferous
Barazi, 1985; Prasad et al., 1986; Barazi and Kuss, 1987; Germann
red mudstone interfingers with medium-grained, cross-bedded
et al., 1990; Schwarz et al., 1990; Wycisk et al., 1990). Furthermore,
sandstone that is interpreted as eolian deposits (also mapped
this paper does not describe many basins along the Red Sea or in
as part of the Hadida Formation).
Ethiopia, Djibouti, or Somalia.
The Upper Eocene gypsiferous red mudstone is capped by an
unconformity, above which lies a unit of Lower–Middle Miocene
2.1. Mauritania–Senegal Basin (area 1 on Fig. 1) breccia, conglomerate, and sandstone that is mapped as the lower
member (‘‘Alluvial Base Member”) of the Ait Kandoula Formation.
A typical stratigraphic section in the Mauritania–Senegal Basin This unit is interpreted as mostly alluvial fan deposits. Most of the
is shown in Fig. 3. The information presented in this figure and the pebbles within this alluvial fan unit are composed of Mesozoic and
92 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121

Fig. 2. Predominant lithologies and regional unconformities of Cenozoic strata in the Sahara. The numbers at the tops of the columns denote location numbers shown in
Fig. 1. The time scale is from Gradstein et al. (2004).

Cenozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks derived from the High
Atlas region to the north, although some pebbles are thought to
be derived from Precambrian and Paleozoic strata to the south
and deposited by fluvial systems.
The Lower–Middle Miocene strata (‘‘Alluvial Base Member”) are
overlain by a unit of Miocene to Pliocene mudstone (with rare
interfingering sandstone, conglomerate, bituminous marl, lime-
stone, and gypsum) that is mapped as the middle member (‘‘Lacus-
trine Member”) of the Ait Kandoula Formation. Fossils in this unit
include plant stems, charophytes, gyrogonites, stromatolites, gas-
tropods, fish, ostracods, and diatoms. Fossil ostracods and teeth
of small mammals both indicate an age range of Middle Miocene
(Serravallian) to Early Pliocene, and other mammal fossils indicate
a Late Miocene age (Turolian = upper Tortonian to Messinian,
approximately 9.0–5.3 Ma; Steininger et al., 1996). This unit is
interpreted as open lacustrine to saline lacustrine deposits, and
measurements of imbrication and cross-bedding suggest that
water associated with this unit drained out of the basin towards
the south. These measurements of imbrication and cross-bedding
are presumably taken from the ‘‘rare” conglomerate and
sandstone.
The Miocene to Pliocene mudstone (‘‘Lacustrine Member”) is
overlain by a 600–700 m thick unit of conglomerate beds that is
mapped collectively as the upper member (‘‘Alluvial Top Member”)
of the Ait Kandoula Formation. This unit is interpreted as an allu-
vial deposit, and paleocurrent indicators suggest that the general
transport direction was from north to south. Although no fossils
have been found within the conglomerate beds, the age of this unit
is thought to be possibly Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene (based
on stratigraphic position).
 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121
Fig. 3. Measured section of Cenozoic strata near Matam, Senegal (area 1 in Fig. 1). This section is modified from Pascal and Cheikh Faye (1989). The key to colors depicted in
this figure (and other figures) is given in Fig. 2.
2.3. Saoura Basin and nearby basins in Algeria and Morocco (area 3 on
Fig. 1)
As described by Conrad (1969), the Saoura Basin, Daoura Basin,
Touat Basin, and Ahnet–Mouydir Basin are four major drainage ba-
sins in Algeria and Morocco (Fig. 5). The Saoura and Daoura Basins
are occupied by particularly large fluvial (wadi) systems that trend
north–northwest. The interfluvial area west of the Daoura Basin is
called the Hamada du Dra, the interfluvial area east of the Daoura
Basin (i.e., between the Daoura Basin and the Saoura Basin) is called
the Hamada du Guir, and the interfluvial area east of the Saoura Ba-
sin is called the Hamada Chammar. The northern part of the Hamad-
a Chammar is occupied by the Grand Erg Occidental. The Touat
Basin, which is located to the northeast of the Erg Chech, is at pres-
ent a basin of interior drainage. During some time in the past, how-
ever, the Touat Basin was probably part of a drainage system that
was connected to the greater Saoura Drainage Basin. The Ahnet–
Mouydir Basin, which lies southeast of the Hamada Chammar, is a
roughly circular depression that drains toward the northwest. Dur-
ing some time in the past, the Ahnet–Mouydir Drainage Basin was
probably also connected to the greater Saoura Drainage Basin.
Most studies of Cenozoic stratigraphy in the Algerian Sahara
have focused on the Saoura Drainage Basin and Saoura Valley
(Fig. 5), which exhibit a general pattern of thicker accumulations
of Cenozoic strata toward the north. Typical stratigraphic sections
in the Saoura Drainage Basin and Saoura Valley of Algeria (area 3 in
93
Fig. 1) are shown in Fig. 6. The information presented in this figure
and the following outline of the stratigraphy are compiled from
Alimen and Chavaillon (1959), Alimen et al. (1959), Chavaillon
(1964), Conrad and Roche (1965), and Conrad (1969). According
to these authors, Neogene fluvial sandstone, mudstone, and con-
glomerate (pedogenically altered in places, and containing pebbles
derived from Paleozoic strata) rest unconformably upon Paleozoic
strata in the Saoura Drainage Basin and Saoura Valley. These Neo-
gene strata are capped by a 1–10 m thick mappable unit of lacus-
trine and (or) pedogenic carbonate crust (‘‘première dalle
néogène”). This carbonate crust is overlain by fluvial sandstone,
mudstone, and conglomerate (pedogenically altered in places,
and containing pebbles derived from Paleozoic strata), which are
capped by a 2–6 m thick mappable unit of lacustrine and (or) ped-
ogenic carbonate crust (‘‘dalle hamadienne inférieure”). In turn,
this carbonate crust is unconformably overlain by a 3–40 m thick
unit of fluvial sandstone, mudstone, and conglomerate (pedogeni-
cally altered in places, and containing pebbles of reworked Paleo-
zoic strata), which were named the ‘‘sables et grès de Mazzer”
(‘‘sands and sandstone of Mazzer”) by Schoeller (1945). These sed-
iments (‘‘sables et grès de Mazzer”) that overlie the ‘‘dalle hamadi-
enne inferieure” are thought to be of Villafranchian (Late Miocene
to Early Pleistocene) or Pliocene–Villafranchian age. In the region
of Beni-Abbès (Fig. 5), the ‘‘sables et grès de Mazzer” contain pollen
assemblages that are dominated by typical desert flora with some
elements of Mediterranean and tropical flora (Beucher, 1967, 1971,
94 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121

Fig. 4. Composite measured section of Cenozoic strata from the Tindouf–Ouarzazate Basin in Morocco (area 2 in Fig. 1). The lower part of this composite section is from the
east-central part of the Ouarzazate Basin, and the upper part of this composite section is from Aifer in the Ouarzazate Basin [modified from Herbig and Trappe (1994) and El
Harfi et al. (2001)]. The key to colors depicted in this figure (and other figures) is given in Fig. 2.

1975). In turn, the ‘‘sables et grès de Mazzer” are capped by a 2–
9 m thick mappable unit of lacustrine and (or) pedogenic carbon-
ate crust (‘‘dalle hamadienne supérieure”), which is overlain by a
2–45 m thick unit of fluvial conglomerate, sandstone, sand, and
gypsiferous sandy mud (‘‘Haute terrasse de Mazzer”). These sedi-
ments (‘‘Haute terrasse de Mazzer”) are dated as Late Villafran-
chian, on account of the presence of an ‘‘industrie sur galets”
(‘‘pebble-culture” artifacts) within the conglomerate [Note: Balout
(1967) has suggested that the term ‘‘Pre-Acheulian” be substituted
for ‘‘Pebble-Culture”]. Finally, the ‘‘Haute Terrasse de Mazzer” is
capped by a 0.6–2 m thick sandy, calcareous crust of pedogenic
origin.
Detailed information on Cenozoic strata is lacking for the Dao-
ura Drainage Basin and for locations along the northern border of
the Hamada du Guir (Fig. 5), although some stratigraphic data for
this region have been published by Hindermeyer (1950), Lavocat
(1954), Alimen (1957), Joly (1962), Conrad and Roche (1965),
Conrad (1969), Gevin et al. (1974), Mahboubi et al. (1986),
Vianey-Liaud et al. (1994), Thiry and Ben Brahim (1997), and Mah-
boubi et al. (2002). According to these authors, Upper Cretaceous
sandstone and muddy carbonate in this region are overlain uncon-
formably by Eocene lacustrine limestone containing the fresh-
water mollusk Ceratodes. This Eocene limestone is capped by an
unconformity, above which lies sandstone and conglomerate over-
lain by a carbonate crust (‘‘dalle”). This carbonate crust contains the
terrestrial mollusk Clavator, which Lavocat (1954) considered to be
of Oligocene age. Subsequent studies by Truc et al. (1987), however,
suggest that these strata are fluvial deposits (with numerous paleo-
sols), and that the fossils previously identified as Clavator are in-
stead Romanella and Vicentinia (‘‘faune à Bulimes”) of Eocene
(Lutetian–Bartonian) age. In some places, the Eocene strata consist
of siltstone and sandstone with vertebrate fossils. The Eocene stra-
ta, in turn, are overlain by Miocene sandstone and conglomerate
(with some local lenses of limestone), capped by a carbonate crust
(‘‘dalle”) of lacustrine and (or) pedogenic origin that contains gas-
tropods (Limnaea boulleti Mich.) of Early Pliocene age.
 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121
Fig. 5. Map showing locations of selected drainage basins in Algeria and Morocco [modified from Conrad (1969)].
As with the Daoura Drainage Basin, detailed information on
Cenozoic strata is lacking for the Touat Drainage Basin (Fig. 5),
although some stratigraphic data for this region have been pub-
lished by Conrad (1969) and Conrad and Conrad (1983). According
to these authors, strata of the middle Carboniferous–Upper Creta-
ceous ‘‘Continental intercalaire” are capped by an unconformity,
above which lie Neogene and (or) Pliocene–Villafranchian sand-
stone and mudstone (interpreted as fluvial and lacustrine deposits)
containing fossils of fish, crocodile, ostracods, and gastropods. The
mudstone and sandstone are overlain by Pliocene–Villafranchian
sandstone and dolomitic limestone (interpreted as lacustrine depos-
its) containing fossils of Cardium (Cerastoderma), Chara (charo-
phytes), and ostracods. In turn, the sandstone and dolomitic
limestone are overlain by Pliocene–Villafranchian sand and mud
(interpreted as fluvial deposits) containing root traces, termite
structures, and beds containing abundant in-place ostracod shells
(‘‘lumachelles à Ostracodes”). The sand and mud are capped by
dolomitic limestone (interpreted as lacustrine deposits) containing
Chara, Planorbidae (freshwater snails), ostracods, and root structures.
2.4. Tademaït region and Tinrhert region in central Algeria (area 4 on
Fig. 1)
Outcrops of Cenozoic strata are present in the Tademaït region
and the Tinrhert region of central Algeria, along the southern mar-
gin of the Grand Erg Oriental. A typical stratigraphic section in this
area is shown in Fig. 7. The information presented in this figure and
95
the following outline of the stratigraphy are compiled from Lefranc
(1952), Busson and Grambast (1965), Amard and Blondeau (1979),
Amard et al. (1981, 1992), and Amard (1994). According to these
authors, Upper Cretaceous limestone and dolomite in this area
are overlain by Upper Cretaceous–Lower Paleocene muddy lime-
stone (with some beds of phosphate) that is capped by an uncon-
formity. Above this unconformity lie Lower Eocene marine
limestone and dolomite, which are also capped by an unconfor-
mity, above which lie Lower Eocene lacustrine limestone with
charophytes, discorbides (foraminifera), and ostracods. The Lower
Eocene lacustrine limestone is capped by an unconformity. In some
places, this unconformity is overlain by Upper Eocene–Oligocene
fluvial sandstone (with fossil wood), conglomerate, and green silic-
icastic mudstone. In other places, the Upper Eocene–Oligocene
strata are absent, and the unconformity that caps the Lower Eocene
limestone is overlain directly by Miocene–Pliocene fluvial sand-
stone and conglomerate.
2.5. Taoudenni Basin (area 5 on Fig. 1)
In the Taoudenni Basin, Cenozoic strata are present in outcrop
about 120 km north–northeast of the town of Gao (Fig. 1), in east-
ern Mali. A typical stratigraphic section in this region is shown in
Fig. 8. The information presented in this figure and the following
outline of the basin stratigraphy are compiled from Cornet
(1943), Bellion (1989a), Pascal and Traore (1989), Bellion et al.
(1992), and Moody and Sutcliffe (1993). According to these
96 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121

Fig. 6. Measured sections of Cenozoic strata in the Saoura Basin and Saoura Valley, Algeria (area 3 in Fig. 1). The measured sections are modified from Conrad (1969).
Horizontal distances are not to scale. Locations of measured sections are shown on Fig. 5. The key to colors depicted in this figure (and other figures) is given in Fig. 2.
Unconformities are present above the carbonate crusts, which are identified as follows: DHI = Dalle hamadienne inférieure; DHS = Dalle hamadienne supérieure;
PDN = Première dalle néogène.

authors, Cretaceous strata in this region are overlain by Paleocene
marine limestone (Terrecht I and Terrecht II Limestones), shale,
and sandstone. The Paleocene strata are overlain by Lower–Middle
Eocene carbonate mudstone and phosphate-bearing limestone that
are interpreted as shallow marine to lagoon deposits. In turn, the
Lower–Middle Eocene strata are overlain by Upper Eocene pink
clay that contains some beds of evaporitic strata. The pink clay is
capped by an unconformity, above which lie Miocene to Pliocene
sand and sandstone [mapped as the ‘‘Continental terminal”, using
the terminology of Kilian (1931)] that contain clay and fossil
wood. In some places north of Gao (Fig. 1), ferruginous crusts of
pedogenic origin cover outcrops of Cretaceous strata as well as
Miocene–Pliocene ‘‘Continental terminal” strata (Cornet, 1943;
Michel, 1978; Beaudet et al., 1981). These crusts are thought to
have formed during Miocene–Pliocene humid periods, and they
may be chronologically equivalent to ferruginous and lateritic
crusts along the southern margin of the Sahara in Mauritania
and Senegal.
2.6. Iullemmeden Basin in Niger (area 6 on Fig. 1)
A typical stratigraphic section in the Iullemmeden Basin (Niger)
is shown in Fig. 9. The information presented in this figure and the
following outline of the basin stratigraphy are compiled from
Greigert (1966), Machens (1973), Dubois and Lang (1981), Kogbe
(1981), Boudouresque et al. (1982), Lang et al. (1986, 1990),
Thanikaimoni et al. (1988), Dikouma et al. (1993), and Moody
and Sutcliffe (1993). According to these authors, Upper Cretaceous
limestone, sandstone, and mudstone of marine origin in the
Iullemmeden Basin are capped by an unconformity, above which
lie Paleocene marine limestone and mudstone that are mapped
as the Garadoua Formation. The Paleocene limestone and mud-
stone are overlain by Lower–Middle Eocene mudstone and muddy
sandstone (these strata contain beds that are described as ‘‘oolitic”,
although it is not clear that these ‘‘oolitic” beds are comprised of
true marine oolites). The Lower–Middle Eocene strata are inter-
preted as shallow marine deposits, and they are mapped as the
‘‘Continental terminal” Ct1 unit [or ‘‘La série sidérolithique de
l’Adar Doutchi” of Greigert (1966)]. The Lower–Middle Eocene stra-
ta, in turn, are capped by an unconformity, above which lie Mid-
dle–Upper Eocene mudstone and sandstone with lignite [mapped
as the ‘‘Continental terminal” Ct2, or ‘‘La série argilo-sableuse à lig-
nites” of Greigert (1966)]. The Middle–Upper Eocene mudstone
and sandstone with lignite is capped by an unconformity, above
which lie beds of red sandstone and muddy sandstone with inter-
fingering 0.5–3 m thick ‘‘oolitic” beds [mapped as the ‘‘Continental
terminal” Ct3, or ‘‘Les grès argileux du Moyen-Niger” of Greigert
(1966)]. The red sandstone and muddy sandstone are interpreted
as fluvial deposits, and the ‘‘oolitic” beds are interpreted as having
been reworked from the underlying ‘‘Continental terminal” Ct1
‘‘oolitic” beds. No fossils have been found in the Ct3 red sandstone
and muddy sandstone, but these strata are thought to be of
Miocene–Pliocene age based on stratigraphic position. The Ct3
sandstone is capped by 4 m thick laterites (the ‘‘Surface intermedi-
aire” unconformity and paleosol), which are overlain by Quater-
nary eolian dunes and alluvial sediments.
 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121 97

Fig. 7. Measured section of Cenozoic strata near Oued Mya, approximately 220 km southeast of El Menia, in the Tademaït region of Algeria (area 4 in Fig. 1). The measured
section is modified from Amard et al. (1992). The key to colors depicted in this figure (and other figures) is given in Fig. 2.

2.7. Chotts Basin in Algeria and Tunisia (area 7 on Fig. 1)
Typical stratigraphic sections in the Chotts Basin of southern
Tunisia and adjacent Algeria are shown in Fig. 10. The information
presented in this figure and the following outline of the basin stra-
tigraphy are compiled from Burollet (1956), Coque (1962), Robin-
son and Wiman (1976), Fournié (1978), Aissaoui (1986), Ben
Ferjani et al. (1990), Keller et al. (1998), Zaïer et al. (1998), Bolle
et al. (1999), Mahboubi et al. (2003), Swezey (2003), Zaaboub
et al. (2005), Habani and Haddoum (2006), Henchiri and Slim-
S’himi (2006), and Saidane et al. (2008). According to these
authors, Upper Cretaceous limestone in the Chotts Basin is overlain
by Lower Paleocene (Danian) marine shale that contains some beds
of limestone (mapped collectively as the El Haria Formation). The
Paleocene shale is overlain by Middle Paleocene–Lower Eocene
(Selandian–Ypresian) limestone, phosphate, mudstone, and gypsif-
erous mudstone (which are mapped collectively in Tunisia as the
Metlaoui Formation, and are interpreted as marine and marginal
marine deposits). In some places, the Metlaoui Formation is over-
lain by Middle to Upper Eocene (Lutetian to Priabonian) gypsum,
which is mapped as the Djebs Formation. In other places, the Met-
laoui Formation is overlain by Middle to Upper Eocene (Lutetian to
Priabonian) shale, which is mapped as the Souar Formation. In
eastern Algeria, strata that are equivalent to the Metlaoui Forma-
tion and the Djebs Formation are sometimes referred to as the
Nementcha Formation (Faid, 1999; Ducrocq et al., 2001). Towards
the south in Tunisia, the Middle to Upper Eocene (Lutetian to Pri-
abonian) strata grade into and are overlain by Eocene conglomer-
ate, red clay, limestone, and caliche (mapped collectively as the
Bou Loufa Formation). In a few locations in Tunisia, an Oligocene
green clay of terrestrial origin (Sehib Formation) overlies the Eo-
cene Djebs Formation and is capped by an unconformity
(Fig. 10). In most places, however, Oligocene strata are absent
and Eocene strata are capped by an unconformity, above which
lie Miocene conglomerate and sandstone with some beds of mud-
stone (mapped collectively as the Beglia Formation in Tunisia, and
as the Djerid Sandstone and the Ferkane Formation in Algeria). The
Miocene sandstone and conglomerate are interpreted as the depos-
its of estuaries and north-flowing fluvial systems that developed
under humid conditions. The presence of shark and fish fossils in
the Beglia Formation in southern Tunisia suggest that there was
some communication with marine environments and that the At-
las Mountains had not yet completely blocked drainage from
southern Tunisia to the Mediterranean Sea. Vertebrate fossils
(e.g., Hipparion) within the Beglia Formation suggest a Serravallian
(late Middle Miocene) to Tortonian (early Late Miocene) age. The
Miocene sandstone and conglomerate are overlain by mudstone
that contains a few beds of sandstone with southward-oriented
paleocurrent indicators. This mudstone, which is mapped in Tuni-
sia as the Segui Formation, is interpreted as brackish water depos-
98 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121

Fig. 8. Measured section of Cenozoic strata at Tamaguilel, on the southeastern margin of the Taoudenni Basin in Mali (area 5 in Fig. 5). The measured section is modified from
Pascal and Traore (1989). The key to colors depicted in this figure (and other figures) is given in Fig. 2.

its that ponded on the south side of the Atlas Mountains as these
mountains were uplifted by the collision of the African and Euro-
pean plates (although it is possible that at least some of the Segui
Formation may be of marine origin). Foraminifera within this mud-
stone suggest a Tortonian and (or) Messinian (Late Miocene) age.
Higher in the section, gypsum is present within the mudstone in
Tunisia. Robinson and Wiman (1976) have tentatively correlated
this appearance of gypsum with the Late Miocene desiccation of
the Mediterranean Sea (dated at 5.96–5.32 Ma; Krijgsman et al.,
1999). In some places, the Segui Formation is capped by an uncon-
formity, above which lies sandstone that is interpreted as alluvial
deposits derived from the Atlas Mountains.
2.8. Central Chad (area 8 on Fig. 1)
Typical stratigraphic sections in central Chad are shown in
Fig. 11, and a location map for these sections is shown in Fig. 12.
The information presented in these figures and the following out-
line of the stratigraphy are compiled from Pias (1970), Schroeter
and Gear (1973), Servant-Vildary (1973, 1978), Maley (1980), Ser-
vant and Servant-Vildary (1980), Mathieu (1983), Servant (1983),
Bellion (1989a), Schneider and Wolff (1992), Genik (1992, 1993),
and Guiraud et al. (2005). According to these authors, Cenozoic
siliciclastic strata in central Chad rest in some places on Upper Cre-
taceous strata and in other places Cenozoic strata rest unconform-
ably upon Paleozoic sandstone and (or) crystalline basement. The
thickness of Cenozoic strata is greater around Lake Chad, and the
strata thin to the northwest. The lowermost Cenozoic unit consists
of mudstone and sandstone of Oligocene? age. These strata are
capped by an unconformity, above which lie by Miocene–Pliocene
sandstone and mudstone (collectively referred to as the Bodélé
Series) that are interpreted as fluvial deposits. Vertebrate fossils
indicate that the Bodélé Series is of Late Miocene and (or) Early Pli-
ocene age, and fossil wood suggests that the paleoclimate during
that time was as humid as that of the modern Sudan savanna (Cop-
pens and Koeniguer, 1976a,b).
 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121 99

Fig. 9. Composite section of Cenozoic strata in the Illummeden Basin (area 6 in Fig. 1). Stratigraphic data are from Lang et al. (1990) and Dikouma et al. (1993). Details of the
Paleocene Garadoua Formation are from the Monts In Touhount outcrops, approximately 10 km NE of Kao, Niger. Details of the transition from the Middle–Upper Eocene Ct2
to the Miocene–Pliocene Ct3 are from the Souguera well (‘‘forage Souguera”), approximately 90 km NE of Niamey, Niger. The key to colors depicted in this figure (and other
figures) is given in Fig. 2.

The Bodélé Series is overlain by a unit of Pliocene mudstone,
diatomaceous mudstone, and gypsiferous mudstone. In turn, the
unit of Pliocene mudstone is overlain by beds of sandstone, mud-
stone, and rare conglomerate. Collectively, the Pliocene mudstone
and the overlying strata are referred to as the Bahr-el-Ghazal Ser-
ies, and they are interpreted as predominantly lacustrine deposits.
In some places, the Pliocene mudstone contains sand grains, which
have been interpreted as eolian sediments that were blown into a
lacustrine environment. These sand grains are thought to mark the
first appearance of an arid, eolian-dominated climate (Servant-Vil-
dary, 1978; Servant and Servant-Vildary, 1980; Servant, 1983).
Fossil wood and vertebrate fossils in the Bahr-el-Ghazal Series
indicate that these strata are of Pliocene–early Quaternary age,
and the fossil wood suggests that the climate was much drier dur-
ing the accumulation of the Bahr-el-Ghazal Series than during the
accumulation of the older Upper Miocene and (or) Lower Pliocene
strata (Coppens and Koeniguer, 1976a,b).
Some outcrops in the vicinity of Koro Toro (Fig. 12) in northern
Chad consist of Upper Miocene sandstone that is at least 6 m thick,
overlain by an approximately 0.5 m thick unit of green mudstone
(Brunet et al., 1995; Vignaud et al., 2002). The upper 2 m of the
sandstone, which is dated at approximately 7–6 Ma, contain abun-
dant root traces and fossils of hominids, equids, bovids, probosci-
deans, giraffids, suids, fish, turtles, crocodiles, and many other
vertebrate species (Brunet et al., 1995, 2002, 2005; Beauvilain
and Le Guellec, 2004). Initial interpretations suggested that the
strata were of fluvial and lacustrine origin (Brunet et al., 1995; Bru-
net and M.P.F.T., 2000). Using these initial interpretations, the
sandstone might be considered to be equivalent to the Bodélé Ser-
ies of Schneider and Wolff (1992). Some subsequent interpreta-
tions, however, have divided the sandstone into a lower unit
(>4 m thick) of cross-bedded sandstone that is interpreted as eo-
lian deposits, and an upper unit (2 m thick) of cross-bedded sand-
stone with root traces and vertebrate fossils that is interpreted as
perilacustrine deposits (Vignaud et al., 2002; Schuster et al.,
2006). However, this eolian interpretation of the lower sandstone
unit has been questioned (Swezey, 2006).
Sponholz (1994) has described ferruginous (lateritic) crusts of
pedogenic origin in eastern Niger, and it is possible that similar
crusts may be present in Chad. In Niger, the ferruginous crusts ex-
tend across the Miocene–Pliocene ‘‘Continental terminal” strata
and older strata, and the crusts are thought to have formed by in-
tense weathering during early Cenoizoic humid episodes.
2.9. Northern Libya (areas 9–11 on Fig. 1)
Although some Cenozoic strata have been described in central Li-
bya (Wight, 1980), the more comprehensive Cenozoic stratigraphic
100 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121

Fig. 10. Stratigraphic sections from the north side of the Chotts Basin, Algeria and Tunisia (area 7 in Fig. 1). The western section is from the Negrine Mountains, Algeria
[modified from Aissaoui (1986)]. The eastern section is from the Oued Tjeldja in the Metlaoui Mountains, Tunisia [modified from Bolle et al. (1999), Zaaboub et al. (2005) and
Henchiri and Slim-S’himi (2006)]. The distance between the two sections is approximately 65 km. The key to colors depicted in this figure (and other figures) is given in Fig. 2.

records in Libya are present at the following three locations: (1)
Offshore northwestern Libya; (2) the coastal region of Central Li-
bya; and (3) Northeast Libya and the Sahabi Channel region. Strati-
graphic nomenclature in Libya varies greatly over short
geographical distances, but the general stratigraphic successions
in the three locations follow the patterns shown in Figs. 13–15.
A composite stratigraphic section from wells offshore north-
western Libya (area 9 in Fig. 1) is shown in Fig. 13. The information
presented in this figure and the following outline of the stratigra-
phy are compiled from Hammuda et al. (1985), Tawadros (2001),
and Hallett (2002). According to these authors, the Cenozoic strata
in this region are interpreted as coastal and marine accumulations.
In greater detail, Paleocene limestone (Ehduz Formation) is over-
lain by Lower Eocene (Ypresian) limestone and dolomite (Farwah
Group). The Lower Eocene limestone and dolomite are overlain
by Middle–Upper Eocene siltstone and shale, with beds of lime-
stone, dolomite, and anhydrite (mapped collectively as the Tellil
Group, and thought to be laterally equivalent to some fossiliferous
shale and marl that are mapped as the Ghalil Formation in the
more distal regions offshore northwestern Libya). These Middle–
Upper Eocene strata are capped by an unconformity, above which
lies a unit of Oligocene–Lower Miocene limestone, dolomite, and
shale (mapped collectively as the Dirbal Formation). In turn, the
Oligocene–Lower Miocene strata are capped by an unconformity,
above which lie Middle–Upper Miocene calcareous shale and mud-
dy sandstone (mapped collectively as the Al Maya Formation). The
Al Maya Formation is overlain by Upper Miocene (Tortonian) lime-
stone and argillaceous limestone (mapped collectively as the Tub-
tah Formation). The Tortonian Tubtah Formation is overlain by
Upper Miocene (Messinian) micritic limestone, argillaceous lime-
stone, and gypsum (mapped collectively as the Marsa Zoughah For-
mation). The Messinian strata are capped by an unconformity,
above which lies Pliocene white-gray silty sandstone with some
beds of limestone (Assabria Formation). Farther offshore, Pliocene
gray to green clay and shaly clay (mapped as the Sbabil Formation)
are interpreted as a deeper-water equivalent of the Assabria For-
mation. In places, the clay of the Sbabil Formation contains some
fine-grained to very fine-grained, well-sorted sand.
A composite stratigraphic section from the coastal region of
central Libya (area 10 in Fig. 1) is shown in Fig. 14. The information
presented in this figure and the following outline of the stratigra-
phy are compiled from Selley (1969), Barr and Weegar (1972), Be-
zan, 1996, Bezan and Malak (1996), Wennekers et al. (1996),
Guiraud and Bosworth (1999), Guiraud et al. (2001), Tawadros
(2001), Hallett (2002), Ghummed and Jerzykiewicz (2003), and
Guiraud et al. (2005). According to these authors, Paleocene shal-
low marine limestone, marl, and mudstone (e.g., Zimam Forma-
tion) in this region are overlain by Upper Paleocene through
Middle Eocene limestone, dolomitic limestone, marl, and gypsifer-
ous marl (e.g., Shurfah, Bishimah, and Al Jir Formations). These
Upper Paleocene through Middle Eocene strata are overlain by a
unit of Middle to Upper Eocene limestone, dolomitic marl, and
minor beds of gypsum (mapped collectively in some places as
the Wadi Thamat Formation). The Eocene strata are capped by an
unconformity, above which lie Oligocene limestone and marl
(e.g., Umm Ad Dahiy and Bu Hashish Formations). The Oligocene
strata, in turn, are capped by an unconformity, above which lies
a unit of Lower Miocene (Aquitanian to Burdigalian) cross-bedded
 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121 101

NORTHWEST SOUTHEAST

Kanem 1 well Sedigi 1 well Kosaki 1 well

0 0 0
sand Plio.

Bahr-el-Ghazal Series
and to
mud Quat.
200 200 200
mudstone,

Pliocene
diatomaceous
mudstone, and
gypsiferous
400 400 400
mudstone

-Low. Pliocene
Bodélé Series
Upp. Miocene
sandstone
600 600 600 and
mudstone
end-Oligocene
< unconformity?

Oligocene?
800 800 800 mudstone
and
sandstone

1000 1000 1000

meters meters meters
mud

sand

gravel

mud

sand

gravel
mud

sand

gravel

Fig. 11. Cenozoic stratigraphy in northern Chad (area 8 in Fig. 1). The stratigraphic sections are from wells drilled in the Kanem region of Chad [modified from Schneider and
Wolff (1992)]. Horizontal distances are not to scale. See Fig. 12 for locations of wells. The key to colors depicted in this figure (and other figures) is given in Fig. 2.

Fig. 12. Locations in Chad of wells depicted in Fig. 11 and outcrops described in the text [modified from Schneider and Wolff (1992)].

sandstone, mudstone, and limestone. This unit, which is mapped as age (Savage, 1968, 1971; Savage and White, 1965; Pickford,
the Qarat Jahannam Member of the Maradah Formation, is inter- 1991), as well as shark teeth and silicified wood [interpreted as
preted as predominantly fluvial and estuarine deposits. The being indicative of a ‘‘sudano-guinean biotope”, according to Lou-
cross-bedded sandstone contains vertebrate fossils of Burdigalian vet and Magnier (1973)]. The cross-bedded sandstone, mudstone,
102 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121
Fig. 13. Composite section of Cenozoic strata in wells offshore northwestern Libya (area 9 in Fig. 1). The stratigraphic data are compiled from Hallett (2002). The key to colors
depicted in this figure (and other figures) is given in Fig. 2.
and limestone (Qarat Jahannam Member of the Maradah Forma-
tion) are overlain by a unit of limestone, sandstone, and mudstone
(which is mapped collectively as the Ar Rahlah Member of the Mar-
adah Formation). This unit, which is interpreted as littoral and
shallow marine deposits, is generally considered to be of Early–
Middle Miocene (Aquitanian to Serravallian) age, although ostra-
cod fauna suggest that the strata may be of Late Miocene (Torto-
nian) age (Gammudi, 1996).
A composite stratigraphic section from northeast Libya and the
Sahabi Channel region (area 10 in Fig. 1) is shown in Fig. 15. The
information presented in this figure, and the following outline of
the stratigraphy, are compiled from Barr and Walker (1973), de
Heinzelin et al. (1980), Boaz et al. (1987), Carmignani et al.
(1990), Boaz (1996), Tawadros (2001), Hallett (2002), and Gui-
raud et al. (2005). According to these authors, Cretaceous dolo-
mite in this region is overlain by Paleocene marine chalky
limestone and green marl, which are mapped collectively as the
Al Uwayliah Formation. The Paleocene strata are overlain by Eo-
cene marine chalky limestone, which is mapped as the Apollonia
Formation. The Apollonia Formation is laterally equivalent to and
overlain by Eocene nummulitic limestone and reef limestone,
which are mapped as the Darnah Formation and are interpreted
primarily as shallow marine deposits. The Eocene strata are
capped by an unconformity, above which lie Lower Oligocene
skeletal limestone and marl, which are mapped as the Al Bayda
Formation and are interpreted as open-marine, shallow-water
carbonate platform deposits. The Al Bayda Formation also is
capped by an unconformity, above which lie Upper Oligocene
skeletal limestone and marl, which are mapped as the Al Abraq
Formation and are interpreted as deposits of open-marine shelf
to brackish environments. The Al Abraq Formation, in turn, is
capped by an unconformity, above which lie Lower–Middle
Miocene skeletal limestone and marl that grade south into Low-
er–Middle Miocene sandstone and siliciclastic mudstone. The
 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121 103

Fig. 14. Composite section of Cenozoic strata in the coastal region of central Libya and the western Gulf of Sirt (area 10 in Fig. 1). The stratigraphic data are compiled from
Hallett (2002). The key to colors depicted in this figure (and other figures) is given in Fig. 2.

skeletal limestone and marl are mapped as the Al Faydiyah (Fai-
da) Formation and they are interpreted as shallow marine and la-
goonal deposits, whereas the sandstone and siliciclastic mudstone
are mapped as the Marada Formation and they are interpreted as
fluvial deposits. The Lower–Middle Miocene Marada Formation
and Al Faydiyah (Faida) Formation are capped by an unconfor-
mity, above which lies a unit of Miocene limestone with some
beds of sandstone, mudstone, and gypsum (mapped collectively
as the Al Rajmah Formation or Regima Formation). The Ar Rajmah
(Regima) Formation is divided into four members, of which the
lower two members are of Langhian age and the upper two mem-
bers are of Serravallian–Tortonian age.
The Miocene Ar Rajmah (Regima) Formation is capped by an
unconformity, above which lies a unit of Upper Tortonian through
Lower Messinian gypsum, gypsiferous mudstone, mudstone, sand-
stone, and limestone (mapped collectively as the Sahabi Forma-
tion). These strata, which are interpreted as shallow marine to
lagoon deposits, contain vertebrate remains, paleosols, and marine
fossils. The upper units of the Sahabi Formation interfinger with
oolitic limestone (mapped as the Wadi Al Farigh Member of the
Sahabi Formation), which is interpreted as sandy shoal and oolitic
bar deposits.
The Upper Tortonian to Lower Messinian Sahabi Formation is
capped by an unconformity that forms the base of an erosional
channel system named the Sahabi Channel (Barr and Walker,
1973). This channel, which is shown in Fig. 16, is thought to have
received drainage from relict, north-flowing fluvial systems that
have been identified in southeastern Libya and parts of Egypt
(Pachur, 1982; Albritton et al., 1990; Carmignani et al., 2007;
Drake et al., 2008). In northern Libya, the Sahabi Channel is in-
cised more than 1300 ft (396 m) into Middle Miocene carbonate
strata (Sahabi Formation) on the eastern side of the Sirt Basin
(Fig. 15), and the timing of incision was coincident with the Mes-
sinian drop in sea level. The channel system is filled with quartzitic
104 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121

Fig. 15. Composite section of Cenozoic strata in northeastern Libya and the Sahabi Channel region (area 11 in Fig. 1). The stratigraphic data are compiled from Hallett (2002).
The key to colors depicted in this figure (and other figures) is given in Fig. 2.

sandstone (interpreted as fluvial and eolian deposits) and beds of
sandy, gypsiferous shale containing brackish-water fossils (inter-
preted as alluvial, lacustrine, tidal flat, and sabkha deposits). Di
Cesare et al. (1963) named this sandstone the Garet Uedda Forma-
tion. Based on stratigraphic position, the Garet Uedda Formation
is thought to be of Pliocene–Pleistocene age. Within the Garet
Uedda Formation, there are several lateral facies relations. On
the southeast side of the Sirt Basin, the Garet Uedda Formation
contains fossil mammals and crocodiles, as well as silicified wood,
and the formation is interpreted as a fluvial deposit. On the north-
east side of the Sirt Basin, the upper Garet Uedda Formation
grades into calcareous sandstone and sandy oolitic limestone
(interpreted as marine or coastal sabkha deposits). The Garet Ued-
da Formation is overlain by a 1–2 m thick caliche or calcrete
(paleosol) composed of red, pisolitic sandy limestone with the re-
mains of terrestrial gastropods.
2.10. Northern Egypt (area 12 on Fig. 1)
In Egypt, the more comprehensive Cenozoic stratigraphic re-
cords are located in the northern part of the country along the Nile
River Valley and Nile Delta Embayment. Much has been written
about the stratigraphy of Egypt and stratigraphic nomenclature
in the country varies greatly over short geographical distances,
but the general stratigraphic succession in northern Egypt follows
the pattern shown in Fig. 17 (which is a composite section). The
information presented in this figure and the following outline of
the stratigraphy are compiled from El-Heiny (1982), Bown and
Kraus (1988), El-Beialy (1988), Albritton et al. (1990), Said
(1990), Guiraud et al. (2001), and Tawadros (2001). According to
these authors, Cretaceous strata in northern Egypt are capped by
an unconformity, above which lie Paleocene–Lower Eocene marine
shale containing some beds of marine limestone (Dakhla Shale,
 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121
Fig. 16. Map of northern Libya, showing the location of the Sahabi Channel and the distribution of the Miocene Sahabi Formation and equivalent strata [modified from Hallett
(2002)].
Tarawan Limestone, and Esna Shale). These strata are overlain by
Lower Eocene marine limestone (Thebes Formation, Minia Forma-
tion), which in turn is overlain by several units of Middle Eocene
marine limestone (Samalut, Maghagha, Qarara, and El Fashn For-
mations) that contain a few beds of shale. These units of Middle Eo-
cene marine limestone are overlain by Middle Eocene sandy marl
and marly limestone, which are overlain by beds of clay and sand-
stone (mapped collectively in places as the Beni Suef Formation).
The Middle Eocene sandy marl and marly limestone are overlain
by Middle–Upper Eocene sandstone and siltstone, which are inter-
preted as deposits of a shallow marine environment that received
siliciclastic sediments from exposed land to the south. In many
places, the Middle–Upper Eocene sandstone and siltstone are
mapped as the Maadi Formation. Around the north side of the
Fayum depression (Fig. 1), however, the uppermost Eocene strata
contain beds of gypsiferous mudstone, and are mapped as part of
the Qasr El Sagha Formation.
The Eocene strata in northern Egypt are overlain by Oligocene
strata, which are comprised essentially of two lithology types.
One Oligocene lithology type consists of fluvial sandstone and con-
glomerate in a 20–50 km-wide belt that trends southwest and
northeast through the Fayum depression (Fig. 1) and beyond. In
places, the Oligocene sandstone and conglomerate are mapped as
the Gebel Ahmar, Gebel Akhdar, and Gebel Qatrani Formations.
These strata contain vertebrate fossils and silicified tree trunks that
are thought to be indicative of a wet climate. The other Oligocene
lithology type consists of marine shale and limestone, with some
beds of sandstone. These marine Oligocene strata extend across
much of the rest of northern Egypt, and in places they are mapped
as the Dabaa Formation and the overlying Mamura Formation.
The Oligocene strata of northern Egypt are capped by an uncon-
formity, above which lie Lower–Middle Miocene marine shale
(mapped in places as the Sidi Salem Formation). This marine shale
grades west and southwest into fluvial sandstone (mapped in
places as the Gebel Khashab Redbeds), and the shale grades south
and east into shallow marine limestone (Gharra Formation, Sadat
Formation). Various fossils in the Lower Miocene strata suggest a
tropical to subtropical climate.
105
In the Nile Delta Embayment, marine shale of the Lower–Mid-
dle Miocene Sidi Salem Formation is overlain by Upper Miocene
shale and poorly sorted sandstone that are mapped collectively
as the Qawasim Formation. These Upper Miocene strata are inter-
preted as fluvial and deltaic strata, and they are attributed to the
early development of the Nile River and Delta. The Upper Miocene
sandstone and shale are overlain by a unit of Upper Miocene (Mes-
sinian) gypsum, anhydrite, mudstone, and sandstone. These Mes-
sinian strata are mapped as the Rosetta Formation, and they are
interpreted as sabkha deposits that accumulated during dessica-
tion of the Mediterranean Sea.
The Messinian strata are capped by an unconformity, which is
overlain by a unit of Lower Pliocene sand and mud (Abu Madi For-
mation). Towards the south, this unit contains limestone and sandy
limestone along the peripheries of the Nile Valley. The Lower Plio-
cene sand and mud are overlain by Lower to Upper Pliocene shale,
which is interpreted as open-marine deposits that grade up into
brackish marine deposits. This Lower to Upper Pliocene shale is
capped by beds of Upper Pliocene fluvial and marine fine sand, silt,
and clay that outcrop along the banks of the Nile River. Collec-
tively, the Lower to Upper Pliocene shale and the Upper Pliocene
fine sand, silt, and clay are mapped as the Kafr El Sheikh Formation.
The strata of the Kafr El Sheikh Formation are considered to be lat-
erally equivalent to a 33 m thick outcrop of Middle to Upper Plio-
cene shale and calcareous sandstone (fluvial and marine) that is
exposed at Gar El Muluk (near Wadi El Natrun, approximately
half-way between the Fayum depression and the Mediterranean
Sea). Some of the strata exposed at Gar El Muluk contain abundant
fossil oysters and ostracods, whereas other strata exposed at Gar El
Muluk contain abundant fossil vertebrates (e.g., Hipparion, Hippo-
potamus, and Hippotragus).
2.11. Central Egypt (area 13 on Fig. 1)
In contrast with northern Egypt, much of the younger Cenozoic
record has been eroded or never accumulated in the southern and
western parts of the country. However, some Cenozoic strata
are preserved in the Farafra region of central Egypt. A typical
106 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121
Fig. 17. Composite section of Cenozoic stratigraphy in northern Egypt (area 12 in Fig. 1). The stratigraphic data are compiled from Said (1990). The key to colors depicted in
this figure (and other figures) is given in Fig. 2.
stratigraphic section in this region is shown in Fig. 18. The informa-
tion presented in this figure and the following outline of the stra-
tigraphy are compiled from Hermina (1990), Mansour et al. (2006),
and Obaidalla et al. (2006). According to these authors, Upper Cre-
taceous shale and limestone (Beris Member of the Dakhla Forma-
tion) are capped by an unconformity, above which lies Lower–
Middle Paleocene shale (Kharga Member of the Dakhla Formation).
In places, this Lower–Middle Paleocene shale contains beds of
phosphatic conglomerate. The Lower–Middle Paleocene shale is
capped by an unconformity, above which lies Middle–Upper Paleo-
cene limestone (Tarawan Formation). The Middle–Upper Paleo-
cene limestone is overlain by Upper Paleocene–Lower Eocene
gray shale with some beds of limestone, shaly limestone, sand-
stone, and conglomerate (mapped collectively as the Esna Forma-
tion). The Upper Paleocene–Lower Eocene gray shale is overlain
by Lower Eocene marine limestone (Farafra Formation), which is
capped by an unconformity. Above this unconformity lies Pliocene
limestone with freshwater gastropods and sandstone (mapped col-
lectively as the Minqar El-Talh Formation). The Pliocene limestone
and sandstone are interpreted as lacustrine and fluvial deposits.
Oligocene and Miocene strata are apparently absent at this
locality and at many other localities in central and southern Egypt.
However, space-borne radar images have revealed channels of rel-
ict fluvial systems incised into pre-Miocene bedrock and buried be-
neath Quaternary eolian sand in southern Egypt (McCauley et al.,
1982, 1986, 1996; Issawi and McCauley, 1993). These fluvial chan-
nels are thought to be of Oligocene and Miocene age, and thus
would be equivalent chronologically to the Oligocene and Miocene
fluvial strata identified at many other locations in the Sahara.
Finally, several generations of ferruginous crusts (‘‘ferricrete”)
have been identified by Germann et al. (1990) and Schwarz et al.
(1990) in southern Egypt and northern Sudan. One ferruginous
crust is present on ‘‘an Early Tertiary erosion surface”, and another
ferruginous crust of ‘‘probably Miocene age” is present on the
 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121
Fig. 18. Measured section of Cenozoic strata in the West Dakhla region in central Egypt (area 13 in Fig. 1). The stratigraphic data are modified from Hermina (1990). The key
to colors depicted in this figure (and other figures) is given in Fig. 2.
Mesozoic Nubian Sandstone. These crusts are thought to be of ped-
ogenic origin, having formed by intense weathering during humid
episodes. The crusts may be equivalent chronologically to the fer-
ruginous and lateritic crusts that have been identified along the
southern margin of the Sahara in Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, and
Niger.
3. Discussion
Kilian (1931) observed that certain lithologies are characteristic
of specific time intervals across the Sahara. He noted that most
Upper Cretaceous strata are composed predominantly of lime-
stone, whereas most Cenozoic strata are composed predominantly
of sandstone and mudstone. The transition from predominantly
carbonate strata to predominantly siliciclastic strata is coincident
with certain changes in tectonic activity, sea level, and climate.
Tectonic activity during the Cenozoic is associated with the gener-
ally northward movement of the African plate (Figs. 19–25). Dur-
ing this time, episodic uplift occurred in the central Sahara and
107
on the margins of the Sahara (e.g., Guiraud et al., 2005), influencing
the locations where strata were preserved and also exerting some
influences on the lithology of the strata. Most of this uplift has oc-
curred during the Late Eocene–Quaternary and is associated with
magmatic activity, which may have been caused by a reorganiza-
tion of convection in the upper mantle associated with the Al-
pine–Himalayan collision (Guiraud, 1975; Guiraud et al., 1987;
Bellion and Guiraud, 1988; Wilson et al., 1998; Guiraud and Bel-
lion, 1996). Changes in sea level during the Cenozoic are associated
with a gradual, long-term fall in eustatic sea level from a highstand
during the middle Cretaceous (Graciansky et al., 1998; Gradstein
et al., 2004; Miller et al., 2005). Likewise, during this time the glo-
bal climate changed from a Late Cretaceous–Early Eocene ‘‘warm
mode” to a Late Eocene–Quaternary ‘‘cool mode” (Frakes et al.,
1992). As outlined below and in Fig. 26, the regional unconformi-
ties and much of the lithologic variability of Cenozoic strata in
the Sahara may be correlated with shorter-term changes in sea le-
vel and climate (on orders of a few million years, or less), superim-
posed on the longer-term fall of eustatic sea level since the middle
108 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121

Fig. 19. Paleogeographic setting of the Sahara during the Paleocene (Danian–Thanetian), compiled from data presented in this paper and from paleogeographic maps by
Zeigler and Horvàth (1996), Schandelmeier et al. (1997), Dercourt et al. (2000), and Guiraud et al. (2001, 2005). The position of the African plate during this time is taken from
Smith et al. (1994). Small black circles mark the locations of stratigraphic sections described in the text. The key to colors and letters depicted in this figure (and other figures)
is given in Fig. 2.

Fig. 20. Paleogeographic setting of the Sahara during the Early Eocene (Ypresian), compiled from data presented in this paper and from paleogeographic maps by Zeigler and
Horvàth (1996), Schandelmeier et al. (1997), Dercourt et al. (2000), and Guiraud et al. (2001, 2005). The position of the African plate during this time is taken from Smith et al.
(1994). Small black circles mark the locations of stratigraphic sections described in the text. The key to colors and letters depicted in this figure (and other figures) is given in
Fig. 2.

Cretaceous and the global climate transition from ‘‘warm mode” to
‘‘cool mode” during the Cenozoic.
3.1. Regional unconformities
The stratigraphic sections presented in this paper show a num-
ber of unconformities, some of which appear to be of regional ex-
tent across the Sahara. Regional unconformities that extend across
several basins and (or) several continents are traditionally inter-
preted as ‘‘sequence-bounding unconformities” [in the sense of
Sloss (1963) and Wheeler (1963)] that develop in association with
major falls in eustatic sea level. As discussed below (and depicted
in Figs. 2 and 26), such regional unconformities developed in the
Sahara at the end of the Eocene, the middle Oligocene, the end of
the Oligocene, the middle Miocene, and the end of the Miocene.
An additional regional unconformity may have begun to develop
during the Pliocene and may still be forming today. Of these regio-
nal unconformities, the end-Eocene unconformity, the end-Mio-
 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121 109

30°W 0° 30°E 60°E

30°N

Mm
G
G

Mm
P Mm

0°

Middle Eocene (Lutetian)

Fig. 21. Paleogeographic setting of the Sahara during the Middle Eocene (Lutetian), compiled from data presented in this paper and from paleogeographic maps by Zeigler
and Horvàth (1996), Schandelmeier et al. (1997), Dercourt et al. (2000), and Guiraud et al. (2001, 2005). The position of the African plate during this time is taken from Smith
et al. (1994). Small black circles mark the locations of stratigraphic sections described in the text. The key to colors and letters depicted in this figure (and other figures) is
given in Fig. 2.

Fig. 22. Paleogeographic setting of the Sahara during the Late Eocene (Priabonian), compiled from data presented in this paper and from paleogeographic maps by Zeigler and
Horvàth (1996), Schandelmeier et al. (1997), Dercourt et al. (2000), and Guiraud et al. (2001, 2005). The position of the African plate during this time is taken from Smith et al.
(1994). Small black circles mark the locations of stratigraphic sections described in the text. The key to colors and letters depicted in this figure (and other figures) is given in
Fig. 2.

cene unconformity, and the mid-Pliocene unconformity are clearly
associated with major falls in eustatic sea level that occurred be-
cause of substantial ice build-up at one or both poles. The regional
extent of the other unconformities suggests that they may be asso-
ciated with eustatic falls in sea level that were of relatively short
duration (and thus not necessarily shown at the resolution of the
sea level curve in Fig. 26).
It should be noted that the presence of an unconformity does
not necessarily imply a tectonic component to its origin. A tectonic
component to the formation of the unconformity may be assumed
only in places where a regional unconformity is clearly demon-
strated to be an angular unconformity (e.g., the Jurassic J-2 Uncon-
formity of the Western Interior of North America; Swezey and
Kocurek, 1992). Furthermore, a regional unconformity that formed
because of a fall in eustatic sea level may show a tectonic compo-
nent to its origin in some places but not in others. An example is
the Ordovician Owl Creek Unconformity (or ‘‘Knox Unconformity”)
in North America (Sloss, 1963; Wheeler, 1963; Swezey, 2002). This
unconformity is an angular unconformity in parts of the southern
Appalachian Basin in the southeastern United States, but this same
110 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121

Fig. 23. Paleogeographic setting of the Sahara during the Middle Miocene (Langhian–Serravallian), compiled from data presented in this paper and from paleogeographic
maps by Zeigler and Horvàth (1996), Schandelmeier et al. (1997), Dercourt et al. (2000), and Guiraud et al. (2001, 2005). The position of the African plate during this time is
taken from Smith et al. (1994). Small black circles mark the locations of stratigraphic sections described in the text. The key to colors and letters depicted in this figure (and
other figures) is given in Fig. 2.

Fig. 24. Paleogeographic setting of the Sahara during the latest Miocene (latest Messinian), compiled from data presented in this paper and from paleogeographic maps by
Zeigler and Horvàth (1996), Schandelmeier et al. (1997), Dercourt et al. (2000), and Guiraud et al. (2001, 2005). The position of the African plate during this time is taken from
Smith et al. (1994). Small black circles mark the locations of stratigraphic sections described in the text. The key to colors and letters depicted in this figure (and other figures)
is given in Fig. 2.

unconformity extends without an angular relation across many
other basins in North America (e.g., the Michigan Basin, the Illinois
Basin, the Arkoma Basin, and the Delaware Basin of West Texas)
and even has counterparts elsewhere around the world including
Brazil (Soares et al., 1978) and West Africa (Petters, 1979). Simi-
larly, the end-Eocene regional unconformity in the Sahara is
thought to have developed because of a major fall in eustatic sea
level caused by the build-up of ice in Antarctica. However, in some
places (e.g., in the Atlas Mountains) this end-Eocene unconformity
is reported to be an angular unconformity, and thus it may have a
tectonic component to its origin in that particular region. Detailed
mapping and cross sections are required to show where regional
unconformities have an angular nature.
3.2. Paleocene
During the Paleocene, marine limestone and shale accumulated
in much of the Sahara, and the African plate was located approxi-
 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121 111

30°W 0° 30°E 60°E

Mm
30°N Mm
Mt SM S
S
S

S S

0°

Early Pliocene (Zanclean)

Fig. 25. Paleogeographic setting of the Sahara during the Early Pliocene (Zanclean), compiled from data presented in this paper and from paleogeographic maps by Zeigler
and Horvàth (1996), Schandelmeier et al. (1997), Dercourt et al. (2000), and Guiraud et al. (2001, 2005). The position of the African plate during this time is taken from Smith
et al. (1994). Small black circles mark the locations of stratigraphic sections described in the text. The key to colors and letters depicted in this figure (and other figures) is
given in Fig. 2.

Fig. 26. Chart showing the Cenozoic stratigraphy of the Sahara in relation to changes in eustatic sea level, polar glacial events, Saharan climate, and tectonic activity around
northern Africa. The Saharan stratigraphy is taken from Fig. 2, and the numbers at the tops of the columns denote location numbers shown in Fig. 1. The sea level curve is from
Gradstein et al. (2004). LPTM = Late Paleocene Thermal Maximum; Med. = Desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea; Unconform. = Unconformities. Other information is
compiled from sources cited in the text.
112 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121
mately 10–20° of latitude south of its modern position (Fig. 19).
The climate in the Sahara at this time is thought to have been gen-
erally hot and humid (Bellion, 1989a), although studies of Paleo-
cene strata in southern Tunisia suggest that there was variability
from a warm and humid climate during the Early Paleocene to a
warm and arid climate during the Paleocene–Eocene transition
(Keller et al., 1998; Bolle et al., 1999). Other studies cite evidence
for a major transgression in the Sahara that culminated in a sea le-
vel highstand during the Late Paleocene (Reyment, 1980; Bellion,
1989a,b, 1992). This transgression would be coincident with a glo-
bal warming trend that began during the Late Paleocene and ended
during the Early Eocene (Miller et al., 1987; Zachos et al., 2001). In
addition, a very abrupt and brief episode of global warming (‘‘Late
Paleocene Thermal Maximum” or ‘‘LPTM” on Fig. 24) occurred near
the Paleocene–Eocene boundary, superimposed on the general
Paleocene–Eocene warming trend (Zachos et al., 1993, 2001). Ouda
and Berggren (2003) present detailed paleontological data from
Egypt that reveal biotic responses to extreme warming and oxygen
deficiency in waters during the LPTM.
Most tectonic activity during the Paleocene appears to have
been extensional. This activity included rifting in several basins
along the southern margin of the Sahara in Niger and Sudan (Gui-
raud et al., 1992; Genik, 1992, 1993). Tectonic activity also oc-
curred in the Sirt Basin (Libya), where rifting began during the
Cretaceous and continued during the Paleocene (van der Meer
and Cloetingh, 1996). In addition, uplift associated with magmatic
activity occurred along the Cameroon Line, a 1600 km-long align-
ment of oceanic and cratonic uplifted volcanic massifs and plutonic
complexes that extends southwest from Lake Chad (Fig. 1). Both
the oceanic and cratonic continental igneous centers of the Camer-
oon Line have been active since the end of the Cretaceous, and up-
lift associated with igneous activity in this region has continued
intermittently to the present (Fitton, 1987; Déruelle et al., 1991;
Wilson et al., 1998).
3.3. Eocene
During most of the Eocene, marine limestone, phosphate, and
mud were the predominant sediments that accumulated in the Sa-
hara (Figs. 20–22). Marine limestone accumulated in the central
and eastern Sahara, whereas siliciclastic mud and phosphate accu-
mulated in the western Sahara. The siliciclastic mud, which is of
marine origin, accumulated on the western margin of the Eocene
limestone (Figs. 20–22). Phosphate accumulated even further west,
on the western side of the Eocene siliciclastic mud (Figs. 20–22). In
particular, phosphate is present in the Upper Eocene (or possibly
Oligocene) ‘‘formation jaune” in the Mauritania–Senegal Basin, in
Lower Eocene and Middle Eocene strata in the Taoudenni Basin,
and in the Middle Paleocene–Lower Eocene Metlaoui Formation
in the Chotts Basin.
During the Eocene, the climate in the Sahara is thought to have
been humid and warm. Relatively humid conditions are suggested
by the presence of lignite in Middle–Upper Eocene strata of the
Iullemmeden Basin, whereas the presence of phosphate in various
Eocene strata of the Sahara suggests relatively warm conditions.
The appearance of phosphate in the stratigraphic record is usually
attributed to the warming of phosphate-rich marine water, causing
subsequent loss of CO2 and increase in pH. Such conditions tend to
occur in low latitudes, in areas of shallow-water, and in areas of
upwelling in the trade wind zone (Cook and McElhinny, 1979;
Blatt, 1992). A warm and humid climate at this time may have fa-
vored the formation of phosphatic strata by increasing the rate of
continental weathering, and thereby increasing the amount of
phosphate transported to the sea (Föllmi, 1996). A warm and hu-
mid climate is also consistent with the presence of lateritic crusts
(bauxitic, in places) of probable Eocene age along the southern
margin of the Sahara in Mauritania, Senegal, and Niger. These
crusts may be equivalent to the ferruginous crust on ‘‘an Early Ter-
tiary erosion surface” in southern Egypt and northern Sudan. Such
crusts are generally interpreted as pedogenic products of intense
weathering in humid to seasonally humid tropical climates (Na-
hon, 1980, 1986; Herbillion and Nahon, 1988; Nahon and Tardy,
1992).
The oldest non-marine Cenozoic strata in the Sahara are fluvial
deposits of Eocene age in the Daoura Basin (Algeria), the Iullemme-
den Basin (Niger), and the Fayum depression (Egypt). These fluvial
strata consist primarily of sandstone and conglomerate in the Dao-
ura Basin, and sandstone and mudstone in the Iullemmeden Basin
and in Egypt. Studies in Egypt indicate specifically that an Upper
Eocene–Oligocene fluvial system, called the ‘‘Gilf System”, con-
sisted of north-flowing drainage across much of Egypt and west-
flowing drainage from the uplifted flanks of the Red Sea (Bown
et al., 1982; Bown and Kraus, 1988; Issawi and McCauley, 1993;
McCauley et al., 1996).
During the Middle and Upper Eocene (Fig. 22), evaporitic strata
accumulated at many locations across northern Africa (and eolian
strata accumulated in southern Morocco). These strata accumu-
lated during a time of lower eustatic sea level (lower than during
the Late Paleocene Thermal Maximum), suggesting that the nature
of these strata may be related to a fall in eustatic sea level and an
interval of relatively arid climate conditions. A relative fall in sea
level during the Late Eocene is also suggested from studies of bio-
stratigraphic data in northeastern Libya (Barr and Berggren, 1980).
The Upper Eocene strata across much of the Sahara are capped
by a regional unconformity, which is labeled ‘‘end-Eocene” on
Fig. 2. This unconformity is referred to by Guiraud et al. (2005)
as the ‘‘Base Oligocene Unconformity” and also the ‘‘Late Eocene
Unconformity”. Although it is possible that tectonic activity may
have influenced the development of this unconformity in some
locations (i.e., where stratigraphic relations show the unconfor-
mity to be angular), the regional extent of this unconformity sug-
gests that it is best attributed to a fall in eustatic sea level and a
corresponding drop in the position of the water table. The fall in
eustatic sea level during the latest Eocene was caused by the
build-up of large, extensive, and permanent ice sheets in Antarctica
(Shackleton and Kennett, 1975; Kennett and Shackleton, 1976; Ho-
dell et al., 1986; Hodell and Kennett, 1986; Miller et al., 1987,
1991; Barron et al., 1991; Hambrey et al., 1991; Zachos et al.,
1993, 1996, 2001; Flower and Kennett, 1994, 1995; Lear et al.,
2000).
Tectonic activity during the Eocene appears to have been com-
pressional throughout much of the Sahara, as the Africa plate
moved north and counterclockwise to reach a position during the
Late Eocene of approximately 6–8° latitude south of its modern po-
sition (Fig. 20). Although uplift of the Atlas Mountains may have
begun during the Late Cretaceous (Guiraud and Bosworth, 1997),
the first major Cenozoic tectonic event in the Atlas region occurred
during the Late Eocene (Guiraud, 1975, 1990; Aris et al., 1998; Fri-
zon de Lamotte et al., 2000; Bracène and Frizon de Lamotte, 2002;
Guiraud et al., 2005; El Harfi et al., 2006; Missenard et al., 2007).
This compressional event is referred to by Guiraud et al. (2005)
as the ‘‘Pyrenean-Atlasic” event. It is associated with general uplift
of the Atlas Mountains, which is thought to have begun along the
westernmost coast of North Africa during the Eocene and to have
extended progressively eastward to reach Tunisia during the Mio-
cene (Mattauer et al., 1977; Wildi, 1983; Dewey et al., 1989; Mor-
ley, 1992; Vially et al., 1994; El Harfi et al., 1996; Swezey, 1996). In
addition to deformation in Morocco, the Late Eocene tectonic event
caused deformation in northern Mali (Bellion and Guiraud, 1988;
Bellion, 1989a) and significant folding and strike-slip faulting in
Algeria (Marmi and Guiraud, 2006). Further east, however, in the
Sirt Basin in Libya, compression and uplift occurred during the
 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121
Early Eocene, but was followed by subsidence during the Middle–
Late Eocene (van der Meer and Cloetingh, 1996).
Other locations of known uplift associated with tectonic and
(or) igneous activity during the Eocene [summarized by Wilson
et al. (1998) and Guiraud et al. (2005)] include the Guinée Plateau
in west Africa, the Hoggar Massif in Algeria, the Garian High in
northwest Libya, the Tibesti Massif in northern Chad, the Darfur re-
gion of western Sudan, the Jebel Uweinat and the Wadi Araba re-
gions in Egypt, and the Cameroon Line (Fig. 1). The Guinée
Plateau (also called the Léo Uplift, the Liberia-Upper Volta Uplift,
and the Eburnian Shield) has experienced uplift from the Late Eo-
cene to the present, but volcanic activity is not associated with this
uplift (Wilson et al., 1998). The Hoggar Massif in Algeria experi-
enced domal basement uplift during the Late Cretaceous, and sub-
sequent basaltic volcanic activity during the Middle Eocene
(Dautria and Lesquer, 1989; Dautria and Girod, 1991; Ait-Hamou
and Dautria, 1994). According to Almond et al. (1974), the Garian
High experienced uplift and episodes of basaltic volcanism at 55–
50 Ma (Early Eocene) and 40 Ma (Middle Eocene). Basement uplift
of the Tibesti Massif probably occurred before the Early Cretaceous,
and this region has experienced basaltic volcanic activity from the
Middle Eocene through the Holocene (Vincent, 1970). Domal uplift
of the Darfur region may have begun during the Late Cretaceous,
and the region has experienced volcanic activity from 36 Ma (Late
Eocene) to the present (Urlacher and Franz, 1993; Franz et al.,
1994, 1997, 1999). Finally, uplift associated with igneous centers
of the Cameroon Line (Fig. 1) has occurred intermittently from
the end of the Cretaceous to the present (Fitton, 1987; Déruelle
et al., 1991; Wilson et al., 1998).
3.4. Oligocene
In much of the central Sahara, strata of Oligocene age are absent
and this time interval is represented by a regional unconformity,
which is labeled ‘‘end-Oligocene” in Fig. 2. Where Oligocene strata
are preserved, the strata may display another regional unconfor-
mity, which is labeled ‘‘mid-Oligocene” in Fig. 2. The origin of both
the ‘‘mid-Oligocene” regional unconformity and the ‘‘end-Oligo-
cene” regional unconformity may be attributed to falls in eustatic
sea level and corresponding drops in the position of the water ta-
ble. Significant falls in eustatic sea level during these two time
intervals have been identified in studies by Haq et al. (1987), Van
Sickel et al. (2004), and Miller et al. (2005). Burke et al. (2003) spe-
cifically interpreted the lack of Oligocene strata in Africa as the re-
sult of a combination of both eustatic sea level fall caused by the
development of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet and tectonic activity
associated with pinning of the Africa tectonic plate and subsequent
thermally driven uplift over hotter mantle areas.
From the Oligocene strata that are preserved, it appears that
north-flowing fluvial systems became a predominant feature
across some parts of northern Africa during this time. Evidence
for these fluvial systems includes the Oligocene ‘‘Grès de Kaédi”
in the Mauritania–Senegal Basin and the Oligocene fluvial sand-
stone and conglomerate in the Fayum depression in Egypt. The
development of these Oligocene fluvial systems in the Sahara and
the formation of the Oligocene unconformities are coincident with
generally cooler global climates and with lower eustatic sea levels
(Miller et al., 1987, 1991; Zachos et al., 1993, 2001). However, the
Oligocene fluvial strata in Egypt may also have accumulated in re-
sponse to deformation during the Late Eocene or tectonic uplift in
the Red Sea area during the Oligocene (Guiraud and Bosworth,
1999; Bosworth and McClay, 2001; Guiraud et al., 2001; Bosworth
et al., 2005).
On the eastern margin of the Sahara, rifting and tectonic uplift
began during the Early Oligocene (about 30 Ma) in the Red Sea,
Gulf of Aden, and East African Rift System (Bosworth et al., 2005;
113
Chorowicz, 2005). As stated above, the Oligocene fluvial strata in
Egypt may have accumulated in response to this uplift. In the
northern Red Sea, rifting and volcanism also began during the Oli-
gocene (Girdler and Southren, 1987; Coleman and McGuire, 1988;
Guiraud and Bosworth, 1999; Bosworth and McClay, 2001; Gui-
raud et al., 2001; Bosworth et al., 2005), although there is some de-
bate about the exact timing of uplift. According to Bohannon et al.
(1989), rifting and volcanism in the Red Sea began about 32–30 Ma
(Early Oligocene), followed by uplift of the adjacent continents be-
tween 13.8 and 5 Ma (Middle to Late Miocene). In contrast, Omar
et al. (1989) suggested that uplift of rift margins in the northern
Red Sea area occurred between 23 and 21 Ma (Early Miocene),
and Garfunkel (1988) suggested that uplift began during the Late
Oligocene and Early Miocene at the same time as rift faulting
and magmatism. As for the southern Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden,
rifting is thought to have coincided with tectonic uplift and volca-
nic activity in Yemen, dated at 31–19 Ma (Early Oligocene to Early
Miocene) by Menzies et al. (2001). Further south in the East African
Rift System, flood basalts erupted in Ethiopia about 30 Ma (Late
Oligocene) and several major volcanic episodes have occurred from
the Late Oligocene to the Quaternary (WoldeGabriel et al., 1990;
Hofmann et al., 1997; Bosworth et al., 2005; Chorowicz, 2005).
Beyond the area of the Red Sea, tectonic activity during the Oli-
gocene appears to have been relatively modest along most of the
northern margin of the Sahara. In the High Atlas region of Morocco,
some interpretations suggest that tectonic uplift began during the
Late Eocene and continued during the Oligocene (El Harfi et al.,
2006), whereas other interpretations suggest that this region expe-
rienced tectonic quiescence during the Oligocene (Missenard et al.,
2007). Tectonic quiescence is also thought to have occurred in
Algeria during the Oligocene and Early Miocene (Frizon de Lamotte
et al., 2000; Bracène and Frizon de Lamotte, 2002). Further east, the
Sirt Basin (Libya) experienced low and decelerating rates of tec-
tonic subsidence during the Oligocene through Early Miocene
(van der Meer and Cloetingh, 1996).
Despite the relatively modest tectonic activity, the Oligocene
was a time during which several episodes of magmatic activity (in
some instances associated with local uplift) occurred around the Sa-
hara. Locations of known uplift associated with tectonic and (or)
igneous activity during the Oligocene [summarized by Wilson
et al. (1998) and Guiraud et al. (2005)] include the Guinée Plateau,
the Air Massif in Niger, the Tibesti Massif, the Darfur region, and the
Cameroon Line (Fig. 1). The Guinée Plateau has experienced uplift
from the Late Eocene to the present. Uplift of the Air Massif in Niger
began during the Early Cretaceous, and this region has experienced
volcanic activity from the Oligocene to the Quaternary (Cantagrel
and Karche, 1983; Pouclet et al., 1994). The Tibesti Massif has expe-
rienced volcanic activity from the Middle Eocene through the Holo-
cene (Vincent, 1970), and the Darfur region has experienced
volcanic activity from 36 Ma (Late Eocene) to the present (Urlacher
and Franz, 1993; Franz et al., 1994, 1997, 1999).
3.5. Miocene
In contrast with Oligocene strata, which are absent from several
locations in the central Sahara, strata of Miocene age are preserved
across much of the Sahara. Most of these Miocene strata were
deposited by fluvial systems that reached a maximum extent dur-
ing the Langhian–Serravallian (Fig. 23). Borrowing a term from Ko-
curek and Havholm (1992), one could describe the transition from
the Oligocene to the Miocene in the Sahara as a change in
terrestrial ‘‘preservation space”. This change from the erosion (or
non-accumulation) of Oligocene strata to the accumulation and
preservation of Miocene strata is coincident with a gradual rise
in sea level and progressively warmer and more humid climate
conditions. Greater humidity during the Miocene would have
114 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121
facilitated the preservation of terrestrial strata via a rise in water
table and an increase in the abundance of vegetation. Such controls
on the preservation of stratigraphic records are described in great-
er detail in Swezey (2003).
The accumulation of Miocene fluvial strata was coincident with
renewed uplift of the Atlas Mountains and other regions around
the Sahara (Guiraud, 1975; Guiraud et al., 1987, 2005; Guiraud
and Bellion, 1996; Babault et al., 2008). This uplift, however, ap-
pears to have been episodic, as a result of alternating compres-
sional and tensional tectonic events (Aris et al., 1998; Marmi and
Guiraud, 2006). Concerning the Atlas Mountains in particular,
stratigraphic data (Fig. 2) provide some details on the timing of up-
lift. In Morocco, for example, the appearance of conglomerate in
the Lower–Middle Miocene basal member of the Ait Kandoula For-
mation is equated with the beginning of a major Cenozoic tectonic
event, which culminated during the Late Pliocene or Early Pleisto-
cene with the accumulation of conglomerate in the upper member
of the Ait Kandoula Formation (El Harfi et al., 2006; Missenard
et al., 2007). Further east in southern Tunisia, sandstone of the Be-
glia Formation was deposited by a fluvial system that flowed north
toward the Mediterranean Sea during the Serravallian to Tortonian
(late Middle Miocene to early Late Miocene). The appearance of
mudstone of the overlying Segui Formation corresponds with ini-
tial uplift of the Atlas Mountains in Tunisia, as drainage toward
the Mediterranean Sea was blocked and water ponded on the south
side of the mountains during the Tortonian or Messinian (Late Mio-
cene). A similar scenario probably occurred earlier in the Tindouf–
Ouarzazate Basin, with the accumulation of lacustrine mud during
the Middle–Late Miocene (Fig. 2).
At the transition from Lower Miocene strata to Middle Miocene
strata, an unconformity is present in some parts of the eastern Sa-
hara. This unconformity is labeled ‘‘mid-Miocene” on Fig. 2, and
may be of regional extent. This unconformity may be the same
as the ‘‘Burdigalian–End Aquitanian Unconformity” mentioned by
Guiraud et al. (2005). If the ‘‘mid-Miocene” unconformity is indeed
of regional extent, then its origin may be related to a fall in eustatic
sea level that occurred during this time, and a corresponding drop
in the position of the water table. Brief but significant falls in
eustatic sea level during the early Middle Miocene have been iden-
tified in studies by Haq et al. (1987), Van Sickel et al. (2004), and
Miller et al. (2005).
In central and southern Egypt, the Upper Eocene–Oligocene
north-flowing fluvial system (the ‘‘Gilf System”) was replaced dur-
ing the Miocene by a south-flowing fluvial system (the ‘‘Qena Sys-
tem”), which had connections with the Chad Basin and created
most of the channels seen in space-borne radar images of southern
Egypt (Bown et al., 1982; Bown and Kraus, 1988; Issawi and
McCauley, 1993; McCauley et al., 1996). This change from Eo-
cene–Oligocene north-flowing to Miocene south-flowing fluvial
systems was approximately coincident with uplift along the mar-
gins of the Red Sea, although there is some dispute about the exact
chronology of uplift. Garfunkel (1988) states that uplift adjacent to
the Red Sea began during the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene,
Omar et al. (1989) state that uplift of rift margins in the northern
Red Sea area occurred between 23 and 21 Ma (Early Miocene),
and Bohannon et al. (1989) state that uplift of the regions adjacent
to the Red Sea occurred between 13.8 and 5 Ma (Middle to Late
Miocene). Nevertheless, the major change in fluvial drainage sys-
tems coincides approximately with the timing of uplift on the mar-
gins of the Red Sea [see reviews by Guiraud and Bosworth (1999),
Bosworth and McClay (2001), Guiraud et al. (2001, 2005) and Bos-
worth et al. (2005)].
In northern Egypt and Libya, marine strata rather than fluvial
strata accumulated during the Middle Miocene (Fig. 23). These
marine strata probably accumulated in response to a eustatic rise
in sea level during the Middle Miocene (Fig. 26), whereas uplift
of the Atlas Mountains may have prevented marine incursions in
northwest Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia) during this time. Bel-
lion (1989a,b, 1992), in particular, claims that there is evidence for
a major transgression in the Sahara during the Miocene, culminat-
ing in a sea level highstand during the Middle Miocene. This trans-
gression would have been coincident with the higher eustatic sea
level and generally warm climate that characterized the late Mid-
dle Miocene (Zachos et al., 2001).
A warm and humid climate during the Miocene is consistent
with the presence of ferruginous crusts of probable Miocene–Plio-
cene age along the southern margin of the Sahara in Mauritania,
Senegal, Mali, and Niger. These crusts may be equivalent to the fer-
ruginous crust of ‘‘probably Miocene age” in southern Egypt and
northern Sudan. Such crusts are generally interpreted as pedogenic
products of intense weathering in humid to seasonally humid trop-
ical climates (Nahon, 1980, 1986; Herbillion and Nahon, 1988; Na-
hon and Tardy, 1992).
In contrast with the Middle Miocene strata, Upper Miocene
(Tortonian–Messinian) strata in the Sahara display a great variety
of lithologies, including sandstone, mudstone, evaporites, and
paleosols (Figs. 24 and 26). Of particular note, Upper Miocene
evaporites are present in many regions of the northern Sahara
(e.g., Egypt, northern Libya, and the Chotts Basin of Algeria and
Tunisia). These evaporites are correlated with a major fall in sea le-
vel, isolation of the Mediterranean Sea from the world ocean, and
general desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea during the latest
Miocene. The Upper Miocene strata are capped by a regional
unconformity (labeled ‘‘end-Miocene” on Fig. 2), which is the same
as the Sahabi Channel unconformity in Libya. This unconformity is
referred to by Guiraud et al. (2005) as the ‘‘Messinian Unconfor-
mity” and also the ‘‘Tortonian Unconformity”. In Libya, the Sahabi
Channel unconformity (‘‘end-Miocene” unconformity) is appar-
ently younger than the evaporites of the Upper Miocene Sahabi
Formation. Nevertheless, both the accumulation of the evaporites
and the formation of the ‘‘end-Miocene” regional unconformity
correspond approximately with the major drop in sea level and
general desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea during the Messinian
(Fig. 26). These events are also thought to have created the modern
Nile fluvial system, which came into being through headward ero-
sion and piracy of the older Qena System (Said, 1981, 1983; Issawi
and McCauley, 1993; McCauley et al., 1996).
In terms of tectonic activity, the African plate continued to
move north and counterclockwise during the Miocene, reaching a
position during the Late Miocene (Tortonian–Messinian) approxi-
mately 4° of latitude south of its modern position (Fig. 24). Accord-
ing to Guiraud et al. (2005), a change in motion of the African plate
occurred at approximately 22 Ma (Early Miocene), as Africa began
to move to the northeast. This event caused uplift along the north-
ern margin of Africa, as well as uplift further south in various re-
gions. Another change in motion of the African plate occurred at
approximately 8.5 Ma (Late Miocene), as Africa began to move to
the northwest (Guiraud et al., 2005). Locations of known uplift
associated with tectonic and (or) igneous activity during the Mio-
cene [summarized by Wilson et al. (1998) and Guiraud et al.
(2005)] include the Atlas Mountains, the Guinée Plateau, the Hog-
gar Massif, the Air Massif, the Garian High in northwest Libya, the
Jebel el Haruj in Libya, the Tibesti Massif, the Darfur region, the
Cameroon Line, and various regions around the Red Sea, Gulf of
Aden, and East African Rift System (Fig. 1). Most of these episodes
of uplift are described above in the ‘‘Eocene” and ‘‘Oligocene” sec-
tions. In addition, Almond et al. (1974) indicate that the Garian
High experienced uplift and episodes of basaltic volcanism dated
at <12 Ma (Late Miocene to the present), and Ade-Hall et al.
(1974) and Busrewil et al. (1996) indicate that the Jebel el Haruj
in Libya experienced uplift and volcanism from at least 6 Ma (Late
Miocene) to the present.
 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121
3.6. Pliocene–Pleistocene
Pliocene strata in the Sahara include sandstone, mudstone, and
paleosols (Figs. 25 and 26). In particular, the abundant and wide-
spread paleosols in Pliocene strata may signify the onset of rela-
tively arid climate conditions and (or) greater variability in
climate conditions. This interpretation is consistent with the Plio-
cene generally being a time of great fluctuations in sea level and
ice volume. As outlined by Shackleton et al. (1984), Haug et al.
(1999), Prueher and Rea (2001), and Maslin et al. (1998, 2001),
some cooling and small-scale ice sheet expansion occurred in the
Arctic from 10 to 6 Ma, followed by a slight warming trend and
ice sheet contraction from 6 to 3.2 Ma. After 3.2 Ma, however,
extensive ice sheets were present in both the Arctic and the Ant-
arctic, and pole to equator temperature gradients were greatly in-
creased. The sudden increase in ice sheet extent in the Arctic
occurred at approximately 3.1–2.5 Ma. Based on records from the
Ocean Drilling Program, it appears that major glaciation developed
at approximately 2.74 Ma in the Eurasian Arctic and Northeast
Asia, at approximately 2.70 Ma in Alaska, and at approximately
2.54 Ma in northeastern North America. Abundant glacial-marine
ice-rafted sediments began to appear in Arctic oceans at approxi-
mately 2.8–2.7 Ma. Between 2.8 and 1 Ma, the high-latitude cli-
mate oscillated between moderate glacial and interglacial
conditions, at a dominant periodicity of approximately 41,000
years.
In addition to great climate variability, the Pliocene was a time
of much tectonic and magmatic activity in the Sahara. Locations of
uplift associated with tectonic and (or) magmatic activity in and
adjacent to the Sahara during the Pliocene [summarized by Wilson
et al. (1998) and Guiraud et al. (2005)] include the Atlas Moun-
tains, the Guinée Plateau, the Hoggar Massif, the Air Massif, the
Jos Plateau and the Biu Plateau of Nigeria, the Garian High, the Je-
bel el Haruj, the Tibesti Massif, the Darfur region, the Cameroon
Line, and various regions around the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and
East African Rift System (Fig. 1). Most of these episodes of tectonic
and (or) magmatic activity are described above in the ‘‘Eocene”,
‘‘Oligocene”, and ‘‘Miocene” sections. In addition, the Jos Plateau
and the Biu Plateau of Nigeria contain basaltic lava flows that have
yielded dates ranging from 5 Ma (Early Pliocene) to <0.8 Ma (Pleis-
tocene–Holocene), although the timing of uplift is not well con-
strained (Grant et al., 1972).
Additional stratigraphic evidence for Pliocene arid conditions
and great climate variability in the Sahara may be found in north-
east Libya in the Pliocene–Pleistocene Garet Uedda Formation,
which contains quartz sand that is interpreted as fluvial and eolian.
Likewise, in Chad, the Pliocene–Quaternary Bahr-el-Ghazal Series
consists primarily of lacustrine mudstone, but also contains some
sand grains that are interpreted as eolian sand that was blown into
a lacustrine environment. In addition, the stratigraphic setting and
various petrographic data suggest that at least some Quaternary
eolian sand and sandstone in southern Tunisia are derived from
reworking of Miocene fluvial sandstone such as the Beglia Forma-
tion (Swezey, 1997). Data from marine cores taken off the north-
west coast of Africa also support a Pliocene age for the first
appearance of widespread and persistent desert conditions in the
Sahara (e.g., Dupont et al., 1989; Ruddiman et al., 1989; Leroy
and Dupont, 1994, 1997; deMenocal, 1995; Dupont and Leroy,
1995). Although the available chronological resolution does not
permit extremely detailed correlations, the appearance of persis-
tent and widespread eolian sediments in the Sahara is approxi-
mately coincident with the development of large, extensive, and
permanent ice sheets in the northern hemisphere during the Plio-
cene (Kroepelin, 2006; Swezey, 2006).
As ice sheets expanded in the northern hemisphere during the
Pliocene, much of the Saharan landscape changed from regions of
115
net sediment accumulation to regions of generally erosional condi-
tions. This situation is another example of a regional unconformity
being coincident with the build-up of ice sheets at one or both
poles, a drop in eustatic sea level, and a corresponding drop in
the position of the water table. Such regional unconformities are
denoted as ‘‘sequence-bounding unconformities” in the sense of
Sloss (1963) and Wheeler (1963). Even in tectonic settings where
stratigraphic records might have a greater probability of being pre-
served, much of the Quaternary stratigraphic record is currently
experiencing net erosion. For example, in the Atlas foreland basin
(‘‘Chotts Basin”) in Tunisia and adjacent Algeria, much of the pre-
served Quaternary stratigraphic record encompasses only the last
ca. 12,000 years and rests unconformably on Miocene strata (Swe-
zey, 1997, 2003). In many such regions of the Sahara, a late Quater-
nary stratigraphic record was preserved by high eustatic sea level,
high position of the water table, and relatively humid climate con-
ditions from approximately 10,000 to 7000 years BP (Swezey,
2001). However, much of this Quaternary stratigraphic record
has been eroded (and is currently being eroded) during the late
Holocene regression and return to more arid conditions. In fact,
the long-term prospects for preservation of Quaternary strata are
not good for much of the Sahara. If viewed from a perspective of
several million years from today, most of the Late Pliocene through
Quaternary time will most likely be represented by a regional
unconformity in the stratigraphic record of the Sahara.
4. Conclusions
A broad perspective on the Cenozoic stratigraphic record in the
Sahara reveals that certain lithologies are widespread and persis-
tent, and that many of the changes from one lithology to another
were relatively synchronous across the region at the subcontinen-
tal scale. The general stratigraphic pattern is that of a transition
from early Cenozoic carbonate strata to late Cenozoic siliciclastic
strata. More specifically, Paleocene and Eocene strata are primarily
carbonate. Exceptions are present in the Daoura Basin (Algeria), the
Iullemmeden Basin (Niger), and the Fayum Depression (Egypt),
where Eocene strata are primarily mudstone and sandstone. Latest
Eocene strata throughout much of the Sahara consist primarily of
mudstone and evaporites. Oligocene strata consist of carbonate
along the margins of the Sahara, whereas Oligocene strata consist
of sandstone and mudstone (or are absent) in most of the interior
regions of the Sahara. Most Miocene strata consist of sandstone
and conglomerate, although Middle–Upper Miocene carbonate
strata are present in northern Libya, and Upper Miocene mudstone
is present along the south side of the Atlas Mountains. In addition,
the uppermost Miocene (Messinian) strata contain evaporites
throughout much of the northern Sahara. Pliocene strata consist
primarily of sandstone, mudstone, and paleosols.
The changes in lithology of the Cenozoic stratigraphic record
(and the development of regional unconformities) in the Sahara
may be correlated with specific changes in tectonic activity, sea le-
vel, and climate. The general transition from early Cenozoic car-
bonate strata to late Cenozoic siliciclastic strata coincides with
the generally northward movement of the African plate, with a
long-term eustatic fall in sea level since the middle Cretaceous,
and with a global climate transition from a Late Cretaceous–Early
Eocene ‘‘warm mode” to a Late Eocene–Quaternary ‘‘cool mode”.
More specifically, Paleocene and Eocene carbonate strata and phos-
phate are suggestive of a warm and humid climate, whereas latest
Eocene evaporitic strata (and an end-Eocene regional unconfor-
mity) are correlated with a eustatic fall in sea level, the build-up
of ice in Antarctica, and the appearance of relatively arid climates
in the Sahara. The absence of Oligocene strata in many regions of
the Sahara is attributed to the effects of generally low eustatic
sea level during the Oligocene and tectonic uplift in certain areas
116 C.S. Swezey / Journal of African Earth Sciences 53 (2009) 89–121
during the Late Eocene and Oligocene. Miocene sandstone and con-
glomerate are attributed to the effects of continued tectonic uplift
around the Sahara, generally low eustatic sea level, and enough
rainfall (seasonal precipitation) to support the development of
extensive fluvial systems. Middle–Upper Miocene carbonate strata
accumulated in northern Libya in response to a eustatic rise in sea
level, whereas Upper Miocene mudstone accumulated along the
south side of the Atlas Mountains because uplift of the mountains
blocked access to the Mediterranean Sea. The uppermost Miocene
evaporitic strata (and an end-Miocene regional unconformity) in
the northern Sahara are correlated with the Messinian desiccation
of the Mediterranean Sea. The abundant and widespread Pliocene
paleosols are attributed to generally low sea level, the onset of rel-
atively arid climate conditions, and (or) greater variability of cli-
mate conditions. Finally, the appearance of persistent and
widespread eolian sediments in the Sahara is coincident with ma-
jor glaciation in the northern hemisphere during the Pliocene.
Acknowledgements
This paper benefitted from constructive reviews by USGS geol-
ogists Joseph P. Smoot, David W. Houseknecht, and James L. Cole-
man, Jr. Subsequently, this paper was greatly improved by
comments from journal reviewers William Bosworth and René
Guiraud, journal editor Patrick Eriksson, and Selene K. Deike.
Thanks to Joseph A. East (USGS) for cartographic assistance with
Fig. 1.
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