Chapter 1 – Introduction

Chapter 1.1 – Project Background

Agriculture plays an important role in the economy of the country, thus it should
be sustained and developed in order to utilize it in an effective manner. Due to indefinite
drought (El Niño) that occurred in the past few years in the fields of Barangay Malibong
in the municipality of Urbiztondo, province of Pangasinan, farmers are having trouble
watering their plants as they are still using the less advanced method of irrigation, with
only means of a hand water pump instead of a powered pump. We came up with an
idea to develop their means of irrigation by using modern methods and applying
engineering principles for the benefit of the client.

Chapter 1.2 – The Project

Due to lack of rainfall during dry season, and tedious method of irrigation, the
project aims to develop the irrigation system powered with an effective water pump to
distribute water to approximately 19.45 hectares (194,500 sqm) of rice fields for the
benefit of the agriculture in Barangay Malibong.

Chapter 1.3 – Project Location

The project is located at Barangay Malibong, in the municipality of Urbiztondo,
province of Pangasinan. The Barangay’s population is 3,069 people and 90% of them
are relying on the agricultural sector. It comprises of an area of 24.01 hectares with a
perimeter of 2006.44 meters.

Fig.
1.3- A Vicinity map of Brgy. Malibong, Urbiztondo Source: Urbiztondo Brgy. Hall
Fig. 1.3.2
Lot area for Irrigation system at Brgy Malibong, source: Google Maps

Fig. 1.3.3 Ilocos Region in the Philippines

Fig 1.3.4 Pangasinan province in Ilocos region (Region 1)

LEGEND

PROJECT
SITE

Fig 1.3.5 Brgy Malibong in Urbiztondo, Pangasinan

Source: Urbiztondo Brgy. Hall
Chapter 1.4 – Project Client
The clients of the project would be Rodel Dansel (4.3 ha), Leni Paraino (4.3 ha),
Adelino David (4 ha), Ricardo Ramos (7 ha) and Ponciano Kilates (4.3 ha). The clients
implied that the irrigation system must be economical and efficient.

Chapter 1.5 – Project Objectives

1.5.1 General Objectives
The irrigation development project aims to apply modern engineering principles
to develop a sustainable and effective irrigation system that would be of benefit to the
client and farmers.

1.5.2 Specific Objectives

The irrigation development project aspires to accomplish:
1.To analyze the advantages and disadvantages of the given trade-offs in order to
differentiate the most effective design choice
2. To design the irrigation system based on applicable codes, standards, and
specifications for the design of the irrigation system by quantifying them based on
available data.
3. To provide detailed manual calculations in determine the efficiency of the irrigation
system.
4. To provide total material costs needed in the project.
1.6. Scope and Limitation

1.6.1. Scope
 The design project will be focusing on the development of irrigation
system in Brgy. Malibong, Urbiztondo, Pangasinan.
 The design project will be using computer software programs for
the design such as AutoCad and irrigation-related software.
 The design project will compute and estimate the total project cost.
 The design project will assess the effectiveness of design’s trade-
offs.
 The design project will be referring to the National Structural Code
of the Philippines (NSCP, 2015) computations.
 The design project will be based on the design standards of
National Irrigation Administration (NIA)

1.6.2. Limitation
 The design project will not give comprehensive computations of
Plumbing, Mechanical and Electrical design.
 The design project will not provide complete estimate of labor cost.
 The design project will only provide designs on the qualified trade-
offs only.
 The design project will only consider constraints that are related to
the design.
1.7 Project Development Plan

In order to assure the efficiency of the development project, different stages will
be done in order to ensure the positive progress of the project all throughout the
duration. The development of the project will mainly start in the planning stage. In line
with this, the designers need to search for a solution to the existing problems
encountered in the fields in coordination with the clients.

The second is collection of data. This will serve as the basis of the standards of
development to be used. It will also serve as the primary evidence that the project
location is experiencing the problems discussed.

The third method is the identification of design standards, specifications, and

constraints for the computation of the design project shall proceed. The constraints and
standards will give the designers the idea of the specific factors to be considered that
affects the current situation of the location in which the designers are expected to come
up with the different solutions and trade-offs.

After identifying the constraints, the next stage will be establishing the trade-offs
based on the given constraints. The designer is expected to come up with a solution
using engineering applications. The effects of the multiple constraints be considered in
order to come up with different trade-offs, each composed of a design of different
design properties that is unique to the other. Basically, the trade-offs to be identified will
possess a distinct quality which makes it different from the other and furthermore be
evaluated as the project goes by.

After identifying the different trade-offs to be used, the designers will design the
project according to the different tradeoffs. The results and data obtained from the
design procedure will serve as a guide in the future by selecting the most efficient and
effective project design which will base on the client’s preference.
 PLANNING

COLLECTION OF DATA

IDENTIFYING CONSTRAINTS
STANDARDS AND DETAILS

STRUCTURAL WATER
ENGINEERING RESOURCES

TRADE-OFF 2 TRADE-OFF 2

TRADE-OFF 1 TRADE-OFF 3 TRADE-OFF 1 TRADE-OFF 3

EVALUATION OF
EVALUATION OF PRELIMINARY DESIGN
PRELIMINARY DESIGN

SELECTION OF DESIGN
SELECTION OF DESIGN

FINAL DESIGN
Chapter 2 – Design Criteria

Chapter 2.1 Preliminary Data

The project site is located a Barangay Malibong, Urbiztondo, Pangasinan beside the
Agno River. The designers researched about topographic report to determine the
elevation of the project site and the Agno River.
2.1.1 Topography

LEGEND:
PROJECT
AREA

Fig. 2.1.1-A Topographic Map of Brgy Malibong, Urbiztondo, Pangasinan

Source: https://en-ie.topographic-map.com/maps/dxyc/Pangasinan/

The topographic map illustrates the elevation of the project site itself
near the Agno River. The importance of identifying the elevation of the river and project
site is we can layout the pumping station properly and in laying out the canal and
irrigation system. Based on this data, the difference in elevation between the river and
the pumping station is 34 feet.
2.1.2 Flood Hazard Map

Fig 2.1.2-A Flood Hazard Map of Brgy. Malibong, Urbiztondo, Pangasinan

Source: Department of Environment and Natural Resources – Mines and Geosciences
Bureau
The figure illustrates the proneness of floods in the area. These parameters will
be used as basis in order to identify the comprehensive amount of water needed to
distribute in the irrigation system. It will also affect the effectiveness of the irrigation, as
the flood could cause it to become redundant. The location of the project (red plotted
area) is under very high and high flood susceptibility. This will serve as an important
factor for the design of the irrigation system because the irrigation system will also
consider on the rate and occurrence of precipitation in the area to identify how much
water is demanded by the crop fields respectively.
Different colors are used to indicate the level of susceptibility in the fig above:
Very high flood susceptibility (Dark Blue)
The affected area will cause flood heights of greater than two meters and/or flood
duration of more than three days. These areas are flooded right away during heavy
rains of several hours; include landforms of topographic lows such as used river
channels, inactive river channels and area along riverbanks; also dangerous to
flashfloods.
High flood susceptibility (Blue)
Areas likely to cause flood elevations of larger than one up to two meters and/or flood
duration of more than three days. These areas are immediately flooded during heavy
rains of several hours; include landforms of topographic lows such as active river
channels, abandoned river channels and area along riverbanks; also prone to
flashfloods.
Moderate flood susceptibility (Violet)
Areas likely to experience flood heights of greater than 0.5 meter up to 1 meter and/or
flood duration of 1 to 3 days. These areas are subjected to widespread inundation
during prolonged and extensive heavy rainfall or extreme weather condition. Fluvial
terraces, alluvial fans, and infilled valleys are areas moderately subjected to flooding.
Low flood susceptibility (White)
Areas likely to experience flood heights of greater than 0.5 meter or less and/or flood
duration of less than 1 day. These areas include low hills and gentle slopes. They also
have sparse to moderate drainage density.
2.1.3 Average Rainfall Data
MONTHLY AVERAGE RAINFALL OF URBIZTONDO FOR 2014 - 2018(mm)
Monthly Average
Month 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 (mm)
January 1.79 4.59 3.79 10.08 4.54 4.273308654
February 11.09 3.98 8.51 25.31 8.23 9.521102306
March 22.89 11.84 3.9 7.37 9.35 9.385733965
April 111.2 30.13 24.29 14 22.06 30.20320257
May 107.31 94.26 150.11 73.72 44.19 86.86749875
June 135.36 165.54 166.04 155.48 313.38 178.5132126
July 176.2 231.47 264.37 299.68 363.13 259.350169
August 172.88 176.52 269 214.55 341.88 226.9544138
September 274.58 239.99 146.17 97.69 225.35 184.1982896
October 98.87 237.51 152.95 113.55 310.65 166.1693352
November 40.66 3.09 12.76 36.04 78.6 21.45046797
December 24.73 85.52 13.12 10.29 104.2 31.23933263
1177.5 1284.4 1215.0 1057.7 1825.5
Total 6 4 1 6 6 1208.126067
Yearly 44.638 40.635 45.551 66.586
average 53.967 1 3 5 4 49.49086539
Table 2.1.3-A Monthly Average Rainfall of Urbiztondo for 2014 – 2018, Source: World
weather online - Urbiztondo

Monthly average rainfall data are included in the design criteria because we need this
for future data analysis in the irrigation system such as, crop yield and the sustainability
of the water source (river), because the water supply will primarily depend upon the
source, which is the river, and rainfall will be a factor to increase the capacity of the
river.
Based on the data given by the World Weather Online, the lowest yearly average in the
table is in the year 2016, with a value of 40.6353 mm, while the highest yearly average
rainfall is in the year 2018, with a value of 66.5864 mm. Based on these data alone, we
can say that Urbiztondo is a place that spends the rest of the year with dry weather.
2.1.4 Soil Suitability
The soil in Brgy Malibong has five types; known as San Manuel Silt Loam, San
Manuel Sandy Loam, San Manuel Loam and Bantog Silt. These types of soil are good
for growing crops such as rice, corn, eggplant etc. and trees like Mango tree, Mahogany
tree etc.
Soil Fertility Indicators
Inherent fertility High
Soil pH Slightly acid to neutral (5.5 – 7.2)
Organic matter Low
Phosphorus High
Potassium (K) Moderate
Nutrient retention (CEC) High
Base saturation High
Salinity hazard Low

Physical Soil Qualities

Relief Flat areas to gently sloping
Water retention Moderate
Drainage Moderate
Permeability Moderate
Workability/tilth Easy
Stoniness None
Root depth Deep
Erosion None
Flooding Seasonal
Fig. 2.1.4-A Soil Description for the Project Area Source: Simplified keys to soil series:
Pangasinan pg. 26

a.) San Manuel Silt Loam – this type of soil can be found in the farmlands of
Urbiztondo. The surface soil can be found from 0 to 10 cm deep from the
ground and its color is brown to dark brown.
b.) San Manuel Sandy Loam – this type of soil can also be found in the
farmlands and is widely distributed in the earth roads of Urbiztondo. This
brown colored soil is mre fine than San Manuel silt loam
c.) San Manuel Loam – This type of soil is located near Agno River and its solum
thickness ranges from 70 to 150 cm.
d.) Bantog Silt – this type of soil is widely distributed along the Ilocos region. Its
surface soil is characterized as fine to medium textured and has a color that
ranges from grayish brown to dark brown.
2.2 Design Input
2.2.1 Design Parameters for Irrigation system
Irrigation is a method of watering crop fields with controlled amount of water. The
main goal of an irrigation system is to provide ample amounts of water demanded in
farmlands. In designing an irrigation system, we should first evaluate the design criteria
needed in order to identify the most suitable type of irrigation based on the given trade-
offs.
2.2.1.1 Soil Water Relationship
The storage and movement of soil water are important factors in irrigation
planning because it involves the efficiency of the field capacity of irrigation and its
permanent wilting point. Field Capacity is the value of water settled in the soil after
surfeit water has filtered away and the rate of it going downward has decreased. While
permanent wilting point is the content of soil water that is beyond recovery for plants
due to water stress, though there is water in the soil, it is still not adequate to use for
planting. Crucial points on the curve include the field capacity and permanent wilting
point. An efficient irrigation methodology should be related on these points.

Fig. 2.2.1
-A
soil

moisture retention curve (pF curve) Source: University of Debrecen within the
framework of TÁMOP 4.1.2
 2.2.1.2 Infiltration
Infiltration is the movement of water that penetrated the soil. It has an important
role in irrigation system because it determines the amount of water that entered the soil
within a certain time. Thus, the water demand for the rice field can be controlled with a
sufficient amount of water that will be distributed for each respective user.

Soil infiltration rate relies on elements that are scalar, such as the soil texture. It
also depends on elements that denotes vector quantity, such as the soil moisture
content. Coarse soils have mainly large particles in between which there are large
voids. While fine soils have mainly small particles in between which there are small
voids.
Low infiltration rate less than 15 mm/hour

Medium infiltration
15 to 50 mm/hour
rate

more than 50
High infiltration rate
mm/hour

Table 2.2.1.2-A Range of infiltration rates

Source: FAO 2.2.2 Infiltration rate

2.2.1.3 Water Requirements and Irrigation Performance

The total water requirement for an irrigation system, denoted as the diversion
requirement qd , comprises of water demanded by the crop added by the wastage
associated with the application and delivery of water. If the direct method of identifying
total water requirement is unavailable, estimation will be made by calculating the crop
water requirement; for example, the consumptive use, U c. Consumptive use of water by
a crop is the amount of water absorbed by the crop during its growth, in the process of
evaporation and transpiration.
 Hydrologic balance can be calculated in order to identify the overall consumptive
use for large areas. If consumptive use of water is unavailable, maximum
evapotranspiration at full crop yield is applied. Another type of consumptive use is
optimum consumptive use. Optimum consumptive use is the most favorable
consumptive use it produces a maximum crop yield.

Fig 2.2.1.3-A Rice yields in southeast Asia from 1961 to 2006 Source:
https://www.newmandala.org/more-on-thailands-low-agricultural-productivity/
The graph shows the crop yields for different countries in Southeast Asia.
Indonesia ranks first in the crop yield, followed by Philippines ranking second, ranking in
the third place is Laos, the fourth is Malaysia, and in the fifth rank is Thailand.
Performance of an irrigation can be determined by the irrigation efficiency and
consumptive-use coefficient. From a crop-production point of view, the irrigation system
performance is identified as the irrigation efficiency. While coming from a hydrologic
balance point of view, the use of water by agriculture can be identified as the
consumptive-use coefficient.
volume of irrigation water beneficially used
E I= x 100%
volume of irrigation water supplied

volume of irrigation water consumptively used

C cu= x 100 %
volume of irrigation water supplied
2.2.1.4 Crop- Irrigation Requirements
The crop-irrigation requirement is part of the consumptive use that is required to
be stocked by irrigation. In the process of growing crops, precipitation that occurred at
the same time is efficient considering the fact that it stays in the soil and is serviceable
to plants. Calculating steps are provided in order to determine the amount of water
needed in the irrigation needed for paddy rice.
 START
DETERMINE THE REFERENCE
CROP
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION: ETo

DETERMINE THE CALCULATE THE

CROP WATER
CROP FACTORS
NEED:
ET crop = ETo x Kc

DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF WATER

NEDED TO SATURATE THE SOIL FOR LAND
PREPARATION BY PUDDLING: SAT

DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF

PERCOLATION AND SEEPAGE WATER NEEDED TO ESTABLISH
LOSSES: PERC A WATER LAYER: WL

CALCULATE HE CROP-
IRRIGATION WATER NEED: IN=
ET crop + SAT + PERC + WL - PE

END
FIG 2.2.1.4-A Steps in identifying crop-irrigation water needed for crop fields
Source: FAO, Chapter 4.4 Irrigation water need of rice
2.2.1.5 Farm-delivery and Diversion Requirements
Wastage of water from the farm during irrigation includes deep seepage and
surface runoff. Surface runoff is the flow of excess water in the ground, it should not
exceed 5% of the water distributed with appropriate irrigation method. The amount of
water qf, expressed as a depth per year that must be delivered to the farm is the
difference of surface runoff and effective rainfall divided by the difference of one and
Losses at the farm during irrigation.

The ratio of irrigation consumed to amount of water that delivered to the farm is
called the farm-irrigation efficiency. Diversion requirement accounts for the water lost in
delivery to the farm. This loss consists of evaporation from the canal, transpiration by
vegetation along the canal bank, seepage from the canal and operational waste. The
farm delivery and project diversion requirements expressed in terms of volume by
multiplying qf and qd by the respective net areas to be irrigated.

Description Formula
Amount of water (U c −Peff )
qf =
1−Lf
Diversion requirement qf
qd=
1−Lc
Farm- irrigation efficiency (U −P eff )
FI eff = c
qf
Table 2.2.1.5-A Farm-delivery and diversion formulas Source: Water
Resources Engineering II, slide 13, Engr. Eugene C. Herrera
 2.2.1.6 Irrigation Water Quality
Water that is not suited for irrigation may be composed of poisonous substances
that could harm plants or persons that consume the plants as food, chemicals that
respond to the soil to produce unwanted moisture diagnostics, and bacteria that could
harm persons or animals consuming plants that are irrigated with unsuitable water.
Irrigation water quality is the concentration of a build up in the soil solution that
identifies the kind of hazard. Free drainage of soil allows the movement by gravity of
salts and aids the prevention of dangerous accumulations. In order to maintain the soil
solution at concentration Cs, the theoretical depth of water qa of salinity can be
identified as follows:
C s (U c −Peff )
q a=
C s −C
2.2. Design Parameters for Irrigation Canal
The soil in barangay Malibong, Urbiztondo, Pangasinan is already stable and
doesn’t require any soil stabilizer anymore. The soil is already suitable for canal
irrigation, the design parameters will only focus on the discharge, velocity and effective
depth of the open channel.
2.2.2.1 Open Channel Cross Sectional Area
Open channel is a type of stream that is not fully enclosed by rigid boundaries
and also exposed to atmospheric pressure. The flow in the open channel is caused by
gravitational pull in relation to the slope of channel. The flow in the channel may
consistent in speed or not.
2.2.2.2 Specific Energy
The specific energy is the energy per unit weight relative to the bottom of the
channel.

v2
H= +d
2g
2.2.2.3 Losses
The head loss between any two points in the channel is:
h L =S L

Where,
S- slope of the energy grade line
L- length or run of the channel
The seepage loss for lined canal is 30 mm/day and twenty times more than for
the unlined canal. It is computed as:
qs PL
Qs =
84600
Where,
Qs = flow loss to seepage in canal reach (cms)
P = wetted perimeter (m)
L = length of canal reach (km)
qs = rate of infiltration (mm/day =1/m2/day).
 Since open channel is exposed to the atmospheric surface, evaporation loss may
occur. The evaporation loss ranges from 0.25 to 1% of the Canal’s total discharge
(Shreyasi Sen, 2015).
2.2.2.4 Discharge and Velocity
From Darcy- Weisbach relation:
fL 2
∗v
D
h L=
2g
Where D = 4R
fL
∗v 2
4R
h L=
2g
f
∗v 2
hL 8 g
=
L R
Where h L =S L
8g
v 2= RS
f
0.5
8g
v= ( ) f
( RS )0.5

0.5
8g
For a given channel shape and bottom roughness,
f ( ) is a constant that can be
denoted as C. The equation will be:
v=C √ RS
Q= AC √ RS

30 m0.5 90 m 0.5
The value of C varies from for small rough channels to for large smooth
s s
channels.
There are three equations to identify or to find the value of C, v and Q. The researchers
used Manning’s Formula because it is the most simplified and easy to use formula
among other formulas.
1
1
C= R 6 , S.I. Units
n
 1
1.486 6
C= R , English Units
n
2 1
1
v= R 3 S 2 ,S.I. Units
n
2 1
1
Q= A R 3 S 2 , S.I. Units
n
Where, n- roughness coefficient (See table 2.2.2.4 -1)
R- hydraulic radius
S- slope of energy grade line
v – velocity (m/s)
Q – discharge (cms)

n
Nature of surface
Min Max
Neat cement surface 0.01 0.013
Wood-stave pipe 0.01 0.013
Plank flumes, planed 0.01 0.014
Vitrified sewer pipe 0.01 0.017
Metal flumes, smooth 0.011 0.015
Concrete, precast 0.011 0.013
Cement mortar surfaces 0.011 0.015
Plank flumes, unplaned 0.011 0.015
Common-clay drainage tile 0.011 0.017
Concrete, monolithic 0.012 0.016
Brick with cement mortar 0.012 0.017
Cast iron - new 0.013 0.017
Cement rubble surfaces 0.017 0.03
Riveted steel 0.017 0.02
Corrugated metal pipe 0.021 0.025
Canals and ditches, smooth earth 0.017 0.025
Metal flumes, corrugated 0.022 0.03
Canals:    
Dredged in earth, smooth 0.025 0.033
In rock cuts, smooth 0.025 0.035
Rough beds and weeds on
sides 0.025 0.04
Rock cuts, jagged and irregular 0.035 0.045
Natural Streams    
Smoothest 0.025 0.033
Roughest 0.045 0.06
Very weedy 0.075 0.15
Source: Chapter 8: Open Channel, Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics 4 th edition by DIT
Gillesania

2.2.2.5 Uniform Flow

A simply designed open channel has uniform flow and to achieve the uniform
flow in an open channel the area, velocity and effective depth of flow from one point to
another in every point in the entire channel span must be equal ( A1= A 2, v1 =v 2, d 1=d 2).
This condition must meet the requirement of energy gradeline slope equal to the slope
of channel bed, S. It also means that the energy grade line slope and slope of channel
bed must be parallel to each other.
2.2.2.6 Boundary Shear Stress
The average boundary shear stress acting over the wetted surface of the
channel is:
τ o=γRS

KN
Where, γ = unit weight of water (9.81 )
m3
R- hydraulic radius
S- slope of energy grade line
2.2.2.7 Normal Depth
The normal depth can be determined using the Chezy’s formula with S=S o by the
use of trial and error method. The normal depth identified by the use of Chezy’s formula
is an essential value because the uniform flow will occur on it in the open channel.
2.2.2.8 Most Efficient Cross Sections (MES)
In choosing the most efficient or most economic cross sections the least wetted
2 1
1
perimeter. From Manning’s Formula Q= A R 3 S 2 it indicates that with S, A and n, Q is
n
A
being maximize when the hydraulic radius R is also at maximum value, and since R= ,
P
then R is greater when P is lesser. Therefore, if the wetted perimeter is at minimum
value hence it just requires minimal cost of lining and grading which makes it most
economical.
 Among all the canal shapes, the semicircular shaped open channel is the
efficient cross section. But due to some difficulties on constructing it, the designers used
simple canal shape to avoid difficulties and some delays on having some trouble
building the semicircular shaped open channel.

Proportions for most Efficient Sections

2.2.2.8.1 Rectangular Section

b=2 d, most efficient rectangular section is has a width equal to twice its effective depth
d
R=
2
2.2.2.8.2 Trapezoidal Section

d
R=
2

x=2 y

The most efficient trapezoidal section has

a top width (x) equal to twice its sides (y)

2.2.2.8.3 Triangular Section

The most efficient triangular section has a 90-degree V-notch.

2.3 Site Investigation

The figure shows a portion of farmland in barangay Malibong that clearly shows that
there is no existing type of irrigation. The farmers only use diesel powered pump that
draws water from under the ground up to the farmlands and manually laying pipes in the
ricefield.

Fig 2.3-A Portion of farmland that will be designed with a developed

irrigation system
2.3.1 Site Development Plan

Legend:

Main Canal
60 ft.
Elevation
Pump
 Irrigation System

33 ft.

Agno River

Fig 2.3.1-A Site Development Plan of the irrigation system using Google Maps

Fig 2.3.1-B Elevation Profile of the Project Site using Google Earth
 The site development plan is provided to show the location of the pump, main
canal and irrigation system. Based on the site development plan, the difference in
elevation between the river and the pumping station is 27 feet. Water is pumped from
the river, distributed to the main canal and flows through the irrigation system,
disseminating water throughout the crop fields. The elevation profile of the project
determines the slope of the field. It will serve as a guide on laying the main canals and
irrigation system, and to determine if another pump is needed to distribute water over
the area of the land being irrigated.

2.4 Review of Related Literature

The types Irrigation are Surface, Sprinkler and Drip Irrigation System. Surface
irrigation can be used for all kinds of crops. Sprinkler and drip irrigation, because of their
expensive capital expenditure per square unit, are utilized for high worth money crops,
such as vegetables and fruit trees. They are occasionally used for the lower worth
staple crops. For this project, the irrigation methods that are going to be used are
sprinkler, border and furrow irrigation. Design criteria are to be considered in order to
select the suitable type of irrigation.

Irrigation canal lining is laid out along the channel. It is used to avoid seeping
water in the canal. If we can combine it with an impervious material, canal lining will
make our irrigation more efficient and to avoid wastage of irrigated water due to
seepage. Canal lining plays an important role on constructing an irrigation to help us to
avoid weed growth, water logging and soil erosion.
2.4.1 Foreign Literature

2.4.1.1 Sprinkler Irrigation Concept & Characteristics

Sprinkler irrigation is a classification of irrigation that distribute pressurized water

to the crop fields by mechanical and hydraulic means (i.e. sprinkler, sprays, etc.)
imitating natural rainfall. (A. Quezada et.al., N.D.) By using a pump, water is
disseminated through a series of pipe connections, going to the outlet (spray head) and
to the crops. Sprinkler irrigation is capable of distributing water from small to large scale
crop fields and is also fitted for all types of crops. This type of irrigation can be pressure-
calibrated, therefore the different pressure demands for each crop can be provided. The
disadvantage of sprinkler irrigation is its high maintenance cost, pipes are prone to
clogs due to sediments and the efficiency will be affected as well. (B. Stauffer et.al.,
2019)

Centre-pivot system is the suitable sprinkler system capable of applying irrigation

up to 100 ha. A centre-pivot sprinkler is composed of a set of sprinklers installed on a
lateral pipe, 50 - 800 m in length, supported by mobile towers. Sprinkler irrigation is
applicable and efficient if the soil has uniform grading, thus it is negligible to land
levelling and when the slope of the land is greater than 1%. The drawback of this
system, aside from its high operating and capital cost, is the irrigation is inefficient to
approximately 10- 20% of the land area (corners) at the rectangular plotting of land, due
to the sprinklers' circular motion. (Chaitanya, 2011)

2.4.1.2 Border Irrigation Concept & Characteristics

Border irrigation is a modern methodology of surface irrigation. Border irrigation
uses land formed into strips, bounded by ridges or borders. Borders are usually
prepared with zero aspect slope and a tiny however uniform longitudinal slope not
exceeding I Chronicles. The borders are divided by levees running down the slope at
uniform spacing. The lower end of the border is opened to an emptying ditch or closed
with a levee to produce ponding on the top of the border. Levees are force across the
finish on steeper borders. (Ali, M. H. 2011) In addition, Irrigation water can be fed to the
border in many ways: gap up the channel bank, using little retailers or gates or by
means that of siphons or spiles. A sheet of water flows down the slope of the border,
guided by the bunds on either aspect. (Brouwer Et Al., C. 2001)

Furthermore, when irrigation starts, the infiltration rate is high at the upper finish
of the border however, as the soil becomes saturated, the leading edge of the water
continues to maneuver downhill. Its rate of forward movement depends on soil type,
slope, and quantity of water discharged. To provide enough water at the lower finish of
the sphere while not over watering the higher finish, a high berm is constructed at the
lower finish to carry back a pool of water to irrigate the lower finish once the availability
is discontinued. Peace corps. (1983)

2.4.1.3 Furrow Irrigation Concept and Description

Furrow Irrigation is a type of surface irrigation that has minimal spacing of dug
soil between each layer of crops planted. The dug space is filled with water coming from
the source of water.

Furrow irrigation is one of the oldest controlled irrigation methods. In this method,
water is applied to furrows using little discharges to favor water infiltration whereas
advancing down the field. Furrow irrigation can so be outlined as a partial surface
flooding method of irrigation (normally used with clean-tilled crops), where water is
applied in furrows or rows of sufficient capability to get the designed irrigation system.
Ali, M. H. (2011) In addition, the border system is well adapted to watering forage crops
or other crops that cover the ground entirely. Crops normally grown in rows, such as
grain or vegetable crops, are more frequently irrigated with furrow systems--a series of
furrows and ridges with about 75 to 100 cm between furrows and 15 to 20 cm deep,
Figures 10-6 and 10-7. The furrows run downhill, as with borders. Where the furrows
are constructed 15 to 20 cm deep, it is possible to irrigate a field with a significant
amount of side slope. Peace corps. (1983)

Furthermore, the crop is usually mature on the ridges between the furrows. This
method is appropriate for all row crops and for crops that cannot interchange water for
long periods (e.g. 12-24 hours). Brouwer Et Al., C. (2001)

2.4.1.4 Concrete canal design and characteristics

Concrete canal lining is preferably the most suitable type of lining when the price
of concrete is thrifty. The initial payout of this type of lining may be costly, but if it is
fabricated and sustained properly, it would be functioning well and making it more
profitable for the years to come. (Fao, N.D.)

The purpose of irrigation canals that are laid out along with concrete is to
conserve water, enhancing the effectiveness of the area being irrigated. Field
measurements of water level and from perceptions of changed water availability by the
residents investigate the effect of lining on the availability of water for multiple uses.
According to the said study, it was identified that canal seepage plays an important role
to groundwater recharge. The estimated reduction of annual groundwater recharge is
about 50% This canal lining conserves an acceptable amount of water that can be
utilized to enhance the irrigation area so more people can profit from serviceable
irrigation water. (K. Meijer et. al., 2006)

Canal lining using concrete material must be constructed properly. Poor

construction or maintenance of the concrete must lead to big losses. Since Concrete is
more expensive than the other material, we can use the section with the smallest
parameter to be economical. Semi-circle has smallest parameters. But it is not
applicable because the top portion of the sides are too steep. Steeper slope used on
small laterals where the soil will remain stable. (USBR, 1967)

2.4.1.5 Brick canal irrigation design and characteristics

 The earliest methods of reducing wastage of irrigated water due to seepage and
enhancing canals is to cover the porous soil with clay brick. The clay is moistened and
laid out on the bed and sides of the canal where each layout should be compacted.
However, weed growth and soil erosion could continue on the lining. The connections
should be filled with cement mortar, which requires to have a cement-to-sand ratio of
1:3 to 1:4(one part of cement to 3-4 parts sand, by volume). (Fao, N.D.) Usually, the
brick lining and precast section (both semicircular and rectangular) are durable for about
15 and 10 years, respectively. (M.H.Ali, 2011)

Brick canal lining is usually implemented if standard quality tiles or bricks and
economic labor are available. Clay tiles are very porous and not that efficient in
preventing seepage losses based on the brick/tiles linings that have been tried on
various canals in the sub-continent. The main advantages of brick/tile lining are that the
bricks/tiles can be manufactured in the vicinity of the work. No contraction and
expansion joints are required, and these are easy to lay and maintain.
(Iamcivilengineer, 2018)

2.4.1.6 Earthen Irrigation Canal Design and Characteristics

Compacted earth linings are advised for the canals when the earth is available
near the site of construction or In-situ. If clay is not available near the site, then it
becomes more expensive to construct compacted earth lining. Compaction reduces
void sizes by removing most of the water and air content. Reduction in void size
increases the density, compressive and shear strength of the soil and reduces
permeability. Proper compaction is needed to increase the stability to decrease erosion
and seepage losses. (S. Anupoju, 2016)
 Gravelly and sandy soils with clay binder are the most appropriate materials,
although others may be used. The cost of these linings is approximately 25 percent of
conventional concrete linings, and tests have shown that seepage losses are
comparable to the losses of concrete linings. (W.G. Holtz, N.D.)

2.4.1.7 Irrigation Pump Selection

An irrigation pump is a mechanical equipment that carries water from a source to
the storage. Irrigation pumps come in different types and varies from one another. In
choosing the most suitable irrigation pump type, it depends on these factors; 1.) water
source, 2.) required pumping flow rate, 3.) suction and dynamic head (T.F. Scherer,
2017).

The most commonly used pump in irrigation is the centrifugal pump. Centrifugal
pumps convey water by spinning it in a rapid motion, which causes it to flow outward
and come out of the end of the impeller where the form of the casing surges it to the
pump outlet. Centrifugal pumps have three types that are suitable for this project; 1.)
End-suction, 2.) Submersible, 3.) Turbine. End-suction pumps are capable of conveying
water from any source where the pump is along, or under, the water level. The
disadvantage of this pump is it performs less efficiency when the water source is lower
than the pump. Submersible pumps are completely submerged in water, composed of a
waterproof motor and a pump. A common way of laying out a submersible pump in a
stream is to have it mounted on a floating dock. Compared to end-suction, submersible
pumps are more efficient when it comes to water levels that are inconsistent. A turbine
pump is a type of centrifugal pump installed underwater and mounted by a drive-shaft to
a motor laid above water. Compared to submersible pumps, the efficiency of turbine
pump is greater. They are mainly used for extensive pumping where the motor would
not fit in a submersible structure. Turbine pumps are usually located at farms and
municipal district well. The turbine pump is installed in a vault with a pipe connecting it
to the source. Gravity moves the water from the source through the pipe and into the
vault. From there, a turbine pump conveys water through pipes to the irrigation system.
(J. Stryker, 2018)
 Based on the description and function of each centrifugal pump in these studies,
we have chosen the turbine pump to pump out water from the river to the designed
storage tank.

2.4.2 Local Literature

According to a news article back in April 02, 2019, Lingayen, Pangasinan

improves rice yield amid drought due to proper utilization of irrigation in the crop fields. It
was also stated that 40,000 of 87,000 hectares (46%) of rice fields were irrigated from
the San Roque Dam. This just shows that irrigation could improve crop yield in such a
wide margin.

According to a news article back in February 20, 2019, the Department of

Agriculture (DA) eyes more solar irrigation facilities in Laguna, Rizal. The said crop
fields are to be dependent mostly on rainfall, thus DA Secretary Emmanuel Piñol said
during his visit to Lumban, Laguna that the DA will prioritize farmers in Laguna and
Rizal as they have found the area to still be dependent on rainfall. The said irrigation
system would save money for farmers who will have to use diesel-fueled water engines
for irrigation at least P15,000.