DefineDharma. How It has been defined In Brahmanism?

1.
Aharma has been translated in English as religion in various
e term writings
nern
of scholars; and such interpretation, in fact, has resulted in a distorted
westernscho
d nisleading understanding of the various aspects of ancient Indian soci-
Now, this interpretation has been brought into question and discarded. In
place much broader interpretation has come up in past few decades which
its place much

emphasises upon he various-political, religious, and social-implications

of the term dharma which is largely context specific. The word dharma is
derived from the root dhri which means 'to uphold or to sustain or to hold
secure. In a broader sense dharma in ancient Indian literature has
fast. or to
meaning virtue, right action, the law of nature, accordance
been defined as
code of customs or traditions, righteous-
with what is proper, universal truth,
a

ness, the eternal, unchanging

order, law, and variations of all these. According
Gautama and Baudhayana, dharma comes from Vedas
to Dharmasutras of
this customs of countries
(shruti) and sacred traditiors (smriti); and besides
which were against
not the sacred records
castes, families, and occupations
of dharma (e.g.jati-dharma,
(shruti and smriti) also comes under the purview commands or edicts
kula-dharma, etc.). Another source of law was royal
conflict between
Arthashastra states that in case of a
(rajasashana). Kautilya's etc.), sacred laws
etc.), and sacred laws (Vedas,
the customs (caste, occupation, between sacred lawS
of a conflict
should be given the precedence; but in
a case

legitimately transcend sacred laws.

will
and
royal decrees, then royal decrees rule and take decision in
also noticeable that a king was
expected to a
1s represents to
Dharmashastra
laws. The term,
Ordance with the sacred sutra literature
(1.e., 8rina
It comprises
dnmanical normative literature, literature (eg»
dharmasutras), smriti
SArautasutra, shulvasutra,
and In the
normative
1 commentaries on these texts.
maintenance
, etc.), and various
literature, the
it
literature particularly of post sutra will talk about
Dranmanas, (we
recommendea
aTnashramadharma is highly regions,
occupations,

laws of castes, group to another

bsequently in detail). The stomary

and from one gio
orth differ from one place to another
8roup. These laws were also binary and limited to the people of the o

forth. They were localized laws and

sam lin
caste, region, and ackno
age,
by the king and brahmanical legal
so
literature long as as wledged they not ged
do
oppose
them. They generally were not codified and orally transmitted fromPose
om one
eration to another. For example, maintained
it was should nosn.
that kinggen-
not nter.
of the guilds i.e., professional organization of
Inter.
ferein the functioning
to be governed according to n s
artis
traders, etc. Guilds were recommended own according to its
rules and regulations (shreni-dharma)
as long as guild authorities
they tailed, then king would sten in ble
to resolve the disputes; but in
case
dhis
decision would be accepted by the guild members as the final decision. Ro

decrees or the expression of the king's will to enact laws f

edicts were
its inhabitants. These laws were authoritative but
good of the kingdom and
to the will of king who themselves wa
were impermanent as being subjected were
not permanent. Hence,
with the change in the ruling authority these laws
were subjected to change. In this way the idea of or term dharma, as appear
from above, was concerned to various aspects of society and its functionina
It had a pluralistic and variegated nature, with a considerable flexibility of its
practice at local (i.e., village, caste, occupation, etc.) as well as higher level of
socio-judicial functioning (i.e., royal court).
SHORT NOTES
1. Varnashramadharma: The term varnashramadharma means per
formance of one's duty according to the four fold varna hierarchy
(brahmana, kshatriya, vaisya, and shudra) of the society and four fold
division of life into four ashramas or stages
(brahmcharya, grihastha,
vanaprastha, and sanyasa). According to Romila Thapar varna-dharma
was the theory of ordering of society, while asrama-dharma
was the
theory of the ordering of the individual life-cycle. In a situation when
the boundaries of brahmanical
society was expanding due to the
increasing absorption of a non-brahmanical population (i.e., tribals
and foreigners) which had no
their coercion became
prior exposure to brahmanical way of life,
cal social order. It was
necessary to preserve the sanctity of brahmani-
maintained that for the smooth and
tioning of society preservation of varna just func-
occupation is essential. Therefore, as hierarchy and
varna assignea
be a duty of the
Kshatriya or king
Bhagavat-Gita mentions, it woula
order i.e.,
varnashramadharma (rajadharma) to establish the social
in according to the injunctions laid down
brahmanical normative literature.
The term
varnashrama is made of two
ashrama.The terms in fact different terms-Varna and
whose
origin goes back represent to two
bramanical institution
to later Vedic
period. The four-fold
four-tola
 1U9

Varn ahmanas, kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras are based on

the division ofwork intimately linke with the birth of individuals and
thedivision
strict prohibition on he movement from one varna to another. The
Lahmanas were associated with learning and performance of Vedic
rituals, kshatriyas with state administration and polity, vaishyas with
trade, agriculture and production, and shudras with theservice of other
arnas. The performance of ones varna assigned duty was emphasized
arious brahmanical literature and transgression of it was propa-
ated as a greatest sin. By the first century CE onwards there emerged
umber of castes (jatis) as a result of brahmanization of various tribes
nu.

and absorption of various foreigners (Shakas, Kushanas, Indo-Greeks,

etc.). These castes were arranged within different varnas as being a sub-
roup with its own distinct socio-cultural characteristics. The foreign-
ers were assigned a status of vrata-kshatriya or degenerated-kshatriyas
by Manusmriti as they had given up the performance of Vedic sacrifces
and rituals. On the other hand large number of tribal population was
assigned the status of shudras in brahmanical varna system.
Similarly ashrama system which possibly began to be formed in post
5th century BCE onwards, as appear from Dharmasutra literature repre-
sented to an optional way of life: Brahmacharin, Grihastha, Vanaprastha,
and Sanyasa. It was maintained that a dvija (twice born) could take up
any one of these and live entire life accordingly. But later by first cen-
tury CE onwards by the time of smritis (e.g, manusmriti) these four
optional ways of life, were arranged in a series of four different suc-
cessive stages in an individual's life. Dharmasutras laid great emphasis
upon the grihastha-ashrama as it was the stage linked with the pro
duction and procreation. Hence, the change took place because except
grihastha-ashrama or householder way of life, other three ashramas
were unproductive, in terms of both production of material resources
and procreation. It would have meant a loss of considerable number of
potential producers to unprodáctive activities. Hence, these diferent
ashrams remained no more optional way of life and transformed into a
series of successive stages of an individual's life with a greater empha-
sis upon a householder's ashrama. Ashrama system was not open for
shudras and they were denied the right to renounce the world, but they

were required to observe the varna-dharma.

Z. Purusharthas: The term purushartha refers to the fundamental aspira-

tions, aims, and purposes of a dvija individual consciously pursuedin

his life. There are four aims according to brahmanical literature a dvija is

required to achieve: dharma (morality or virtue), artha (means of life),

kama (pleasure), and moksha (salvation). Both the epics, Mahabharata
 thas as being
about fuur puTuSa7 importantf,
in

dutv,relia
and Ramayana mention

Individual'k life Broadly

the term
dharma comprises
eligion. rel
the law a
ritual oigafions, and wetice
social., and se es The
gious merit, morality. money.
poltical power, and
refers to al oor
while the term artha represents
to not
not
only sexual
only sensa
hand
the other to a desire to enjoy gond
desire to enjoy
term kama on but also ei
and happiness Generally dh
etc. (ienerally dharrma
pleasure. clothes. paintings, spirit.n and
desire. poetry,
linking with spiritualit
them with in
food. position by
perfume,
a higher linked with mats
moksha aregiven which are world
l d
with artha and
kama
in happiness and
and gond lifelifs
good there
comparison results
these goals it would
that it wOuld provide
The
attainment of in a
manner

need to be organized ese

theseaims of
of life.
aims life The
fore society to attain
moksa which ar"
individual
to each and moksa
and are th
required help dharma,
artha, kama,
refers to rusa means person' or
termpurusa
purushartha
aimed at. The
a man
to be or
o r purpose
purpose hence
hence. pur
four ideals for means aim or goal'
term arth
man, and the
means
'aim of a person. salvation is considered as the high.
sartha
moksha or
Out of these
four, dharma which regulates
important is
one's life. But equally universe. Without dharma
est aim of moral laws of
to the
human life according dharma which
three goals of lite as it is
other
not attain It is also men-
one wouid
to the right principles.
makes possible a
life according Mahabharata that dharma
epics-Ramayana
and
tioned in both the accumulation of wealth and
and kama. Hence,
is the s o u r c e
of artha Here dharma
should be according to the dharma.
enjovment of life ashrama-dharma, as appear
from brah
varna-dharma and
stands for brahmanical
literature. However, it is maintained in
manical normative
artha, i.e., wealth to perform dharma
iterature that a dvija requires
requires kama to procreate. A dviya
ie, rituals and charity; and dvija
as they dont
con-
is recommended to enjoy artha and long
kama as
linked
fict with dharma. The concept of purushartha was intimately
was requireu
with the varna-dharmna and ashrama-dharma, as a dvija
to live his life accordingly. It was maintained that one should
follow his
lie
varna norms and should not transgress them; and at the same live a
according to ashrama-dharma i.e., following the four prescribed stage
of life. The shudras were kept out of this scheme of purushartha. Ihey
constituted the labour force in ancient Indian society, subjected to ne
wls
of upper three varnas. Hence, any possibility for them to adop
asceticism or to
transgress the varna-dharma was seen as a coun
productive; and they were kept out of ashrama as well as purusnuartha
system.
 Y, AN S

3 .
raS:
S a m s k a r
The samskaras were domesttc rituale and were frst
mentioned Sutra literature (Srautasutra.
in Sutra
(rihvasutra.
and
harmasutra). They covered the whole life of an upper varna jati indi
vidual starting from the conception of child (Garbhadhana) and.con
70 to his death (anteyshti/funeral) Shudrae were not
allowed
tin these rituals.
The term «amekara literally
means
toperform
pnlishing
r pertecting' and refers to a transition of a dvija individual from one
C of ife to another stage ot life. Such transition becomes signifcant
companied by specihc rituals performed by brahmana priestls)
Though there is difference in opinion regarding the number of sam
Lara. but generally their number is maintain sixteen. According to
RC. Maiumdar some of the important samskara rituals are

al Garbhadhana (Conception ceremony).

to secure the birth of a male child)
b) Pamsavvana (Ceremony
for new born child).
(c) latakarman (Ceremony
d) Namakarana (Naming the child).
e) Annaprasana (First feeding child).
to

()Chudakarmana (Tonsuring ofthe child's head).

g)Upanayana (Investiture of sacred thread).
(h) Samavartana (Completion of education).
) Sahadharmacharini-samyoga (Vivaha/Marriage).
These rituals were performed by the dvijas (yajamana) under
the
who in return received gifts
supervision of the brahmana priest(s)
(dakshina) for his/their services. The Upanayana samskara or initia
tion ceremony was the most important ceremony
of an individual's life.
as after this he becomes a dvija i.e.,
twice born. Investiture of a sacred
while the irst birth was
thread marks his second birth through rituals,
a caste status and a formal
biological. It also marks the child's entry into
initiation into the clan. It indicates to his
transition trom an impure

state i.e., shudra to pure state i.e., dvija. As

shudra was not entitled to
samskara thus remains single born, hence impure, in a same
Upanayana as being like
before this the child was considered impure
way ceremony
linked with the
shudra single born. The ashrama system is intimately
to this
allowed to live a life according
avija status as only divja
a was
ancestors
or godes and
sy'stem. These rituals were performed for devas From
and to receivetheir blessings.
10relathers keep them happy
to
an important
role in the
d
SOClological point of view such rituals play one
on of the clan's knowledge, traditions
and customs trom
Passng to proviae
c
Scneration to another. Hence, they become important
S1on and
stability to the clan over the period.