MINERALS

-is a naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solid with a specific chemical composition.
- some minerals also interact with hydrosphere. For example, calcite, the mineral present in
limestone, forms when calcium andCO2 are precipitated from seawater.

CLAY MINERALS
- form when water with dissolved atmospheric gases reacts with other minerals.
- Humans use minerals for making bricks from clay, jewelry from gold, and gems like diamonds
and emeralds.

ROCKS
- are naturally formed aggregates of minerals or mineral- like substances. It can be composed of
a single mineral
- made up of multiple crystals of calcite either grown in an interlocking pattern or cemented
together.
3 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS
-rocks that have solidified from molten material called magma.
2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
- those consisting of fragments derived from pre-existing rocks or of materials precipitated from
solutions
3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
- which have been derived from either igneous or sedimentary rocks under conditions that caused
changes in mineralogical composition, texture, and internal structure.

ATOMS
- Are the smallest electrically neutral particles of energy and matter.
- There are 92 different kinds of naturally occurring atoms, arranged in the order of increasing
size and complexity.
- Heavier atoms have more neutrons than protons than do lighter ones.
COMPOSED OF 3 PARTICLES
1. PROTONS- carry a positive electrical charge
2. ELECTRONS- carry a negative electrical charge
3. NEURONS- carry no electrical charge at all.
NUCLEUS
- central part of the atom
- where the protons and neutrons cluster together
- where the electrons 'orbit'
ELEMENT
- Each species of an atom
- defined by the numbers of protons in its nucleus or its atomic number (Z). The atomic mass
number (A) gives the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

ISOTOPES
UNSTABLE ISOTOPES
- are called RADIOISITOPE. It decays over time and eventually it will turn into another isotope
or element.
STABLE ISOTOPES
- retains all of its protons and neutrons through time, most elements that are found in nature are
made up of stable isotopes.
- The most stable configuration for an atom is to have 8 electrons in the outermost energy level.
This stable configuration is known as the OCTET CONFIGURATION.
CHEMICAL BONDING
- A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms, ions or molecules that enables the
formation of chemical compounds.
3 TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS
1. IONIC BONDS
-Bond formed between two ions by the transfer of electrons
-Requires a donor and an acceptor.
-The electrostatic attraction between positive ions (cation) and the negative ion (anion)
constitutes the ionic bond
Formation of Ions:
Donor LOSES POSITIVE (+) IONS, acceptor GAINS NEGATIVE (-) IONS
Donor LOSES NEGATIVE (-) IONS, acceptor GAINS POSITIVE (+) IONS
The NUMBER LOST by the electron donor is EQUAL to the number of electrons GAINED by
the acceptor.
2. COVALENT BONDING
- Formed by sharing electron pairs
-Stable non-ionizing particles, they are not conductors at any state
-A Lewis electron-dot symbol is a notation in which the electrons in the valence shell of an atom
or ion are represented by dots placed around the chemical symbol of the element.
Types of Covalent Bonding
1. Non-polar covalent bonds - electrons are shared eually
Example: H2 or Cl2 2.
2. Polar Covalent Bonds - electrons are shared but shared unequally
 Example: H2O
3. METALLIC BONDING
-Strong forces of attraction are responsible for the high melting point of most metals.
-Atoms are closely packed and the electrons can move freely throughout the crystal.
-Cations packed in “a sea of electrons”
ALLOYS
- mixtures of two or more elements, in which at least one is metal
TYPES OF ALLOYS
1. Substitutional Alloy - some metal atoms replaced by others of similar size
2. Interstitial Alloy -interstices (holes) in closest packed metal structure are occupied by
small atoms.

ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH’S CRUST

SILICON-OXYGEN TETRAHEDRON
- Silicon and oxygen combine to from the basic structural unit of mineral found in the Earth’s
crust.
- Consisting of 4 oxygen atoms packed together around a much smaller silicon atom to form a
foursided tetrahedron.
-For the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron to be stable within a crystalline structure, it must bond with
positive ions like iron or aluminum; or share oxygen atoms with adjacent tetrahedra.
Silicate structures can exist as:
1. ISOLATED SILICATE STRUCTURES
- This is where the individual silicon-oxygen tetrahedra are bonded with carbons. (Ex.
Olivine)
- Olivine is a common mineral that contains either Mg-2 or iron Fe+2 for each
tetrahedron.
2. CHAIN SILICATE STRUCTURES
- Two oxygen atoms of a tetrahedron are shared with adjacent tetrahedra to form a
chain. (Ex. Pyroxene Group)
- Each mineral in the Pyroxene group incorporates SiO3-2 in the formula and is
electrically balanced by positive ions (e.g. Mg+2) that holds the parallel chains
together.

3. SHEET SILICATES
 - When each tetrahedron shares three oxygen atoms to form a sheet structure. (Ex.
Mica and Clay Group)

4. FRAMEWORK SILICATES
- Four oxygen ions are shared by adjacent tetrahedra. (Ex. Quartz and Feldspar)
- Between the two, Feldspar is slightly more complex because aluminum substitutes for
some of the silicon atoms in some of the tetrahedra.

NON-SILICATE STRUCTURES
- not as abundant as silicates in the Earth’s crust. They do not contain silica, but are
still important
It includes:
- Chlorides like halite, NaCl
- Carbonates like calcite, CaCO3 is found in limestone, and dolomite, MgCO3 ;
- Sulfates like gypsum, (CaSO4•2H2O) and sulfides like pyrite, FeS2;
- Oxides like hematite, Fe2O3;
- Native elements which has only one element in the formulas, like gold (Au), copper
(Cu) diamond and graphite (C)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 COLOR
Is the first property people notice about mineral. While color can be helpful in identifying
minerals, it can also be extremely variable because even minute chemical impurities can
influence its color
 STREAK
Is the first property people notice about mineral. While color can be helpful in identifying
minerals, it can also be extremely variable because even minute chemical impurities can
influence its color
 LUSTER
refers to the quality and intensity of light that is reflected by surface of a mineral.
Metallic luster - gives the mineral an appearance of being made of metal Nonmetallic
luster - is more common and can appear glossy resembling the surface of unglazed
pottery.
 HARDNESS
is the property of “scratch or being scratched.” It is based on the precept that harder
surfaces scratch or make a groove on softer surfaces.
 MOH’S SCALE
is a relative hardness scale. Absolute hardness is determines using an instrument that
measures how much pressure is necessary to scratch a mineral. Since geologists does not
carry samples of the 10 standards of hardness, common objects like the fingernail
hardness of 2.5 ) or copper coin ( hardness of 3-4 ), a knife blade, or steel nail ( hardness
slightly higher than 5) are used to determined hardness.
 o EXTERNAL CRYSTAL FORM
form refers to a set of crystal faces with a definite geometric relationship to one another,
For example a well-formed crystal of halite is cubic, i.e. it will have six square faces,
joined at right angles.
IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS
- Minerals important to society are exemplified by precious gems like diamond. A diamond
ring is a tradition in our society. Diamond is a commitment of love and dedication usually
expressed by a groomto-be
- The famous Hope diamond is blue. The appeal of diamond is mainly due to its unique
brilliant luster, a consequence of its ability to reflect light within the crystal and disperse it
into rainbow-like colors.
- Sapphire and ruby are both varieties of aluminum oxide, corundum ( hardness of 9 on
Moh’s scale ). Sapphire is most valuable when colored blue. Minute amounts of titanium
and iron in the crystal’s structure gives it a blue color. Rubies are red due to traces of
chromium in corundum.
- Emerald and aquamarine are varieties of beryl ( hardness of 7.5). Emerald Is the most
expensive of theses gems and gets its green color from chromium impurities. Aquamarine’s
blue color is due to iron impurities on the crystalline structure
Asbestos
- is a heat-resistant fibrous silicate mineral that can be woven into fabrics, and is used in
fire-resistant and insulating materials such as break lining. It is the term used to refer to
six naturally occurring silicate materials.
3 types:
1. CHRYSOTILE
- "white asbestos"
- most flexible and can withstand fiercest heat but soft and can be easily woven as cotton
- most used out of all types of asbestos
2. CROCIDOLITE
- "blue asbestos"
- needle-like fibres; strongest of all asbestos fibres and have high resistance to acids
- most lethal
3. AMOSITE
- "brown asbestos"
- harsh, spiky fibres with good tensile strength and resistance to heat
- fire-protection, anticondensation
USES OF ASBESTOS
o It is woven in cloth to make suits for fire fighters
o It is also used as a fireproof insulation for homes and buildings
o Cement building materials, pipe work lagging, insulating mattresses and rope, floor tiles
and coverings, and many more
Harmful Effects of Asbestos
o There is a public fear of asbestosis due to the high death rate among asbestos workers
exposed without protective attire
o Asbestosis – a chronic lung disease in which there is scar-like tissue formed in the lungs
o Decreases the elasticity of the lungs, making breathing more difficult.
CLAY MINERALS
 - main components of the soil
- are sheet silicates but may differ depending on the ions that hold the sheets together
KAOLINITE
- most abundant clay mineral
- edible and used for kaopectate (a remedy for intestinal distress)
- easily broken and can be molded
MONTMORILLONITE
- When water is added to the mineral, the water molecules are absorbed into the spaces
between silicate layers, resulting in increase of volume
- A swelling clay; used in dams
- Formed when they precipitate from water solution as microscopic crystals, known as
clay.
CLEAVAGE
- The mineral's tendency to break, when struck along preferred planar directions
QUARTZ
- bonds are equally strong in all directions, therefore it has no cleavage, although crystal
faces can be mistaken for cleavage planes.
MICAS
- are sheet silicates that are easily split into sheets because bonding forces between sheets
are weak. It only has one direction of cleavage
DIAMOND
- Has very good cleavage in four directions
FRACTURE
- is the manner a substance breaks when not controlled by cleavage. Conchoidal fractures -
curved fracture surfaces
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
- the weight per given volume.
SPECIAL PROPERTIES
- properties that are characteristic for only a few minerals e.g. plagioclase feldspar
MAGNETISM
- an important characteristic to modern civilization. e.g. magnetite
PIEZOELECTRICITY
- The ability of quartz to generate electricity when squeezed in a certain crystallographic
direction
DOUBLE REFRACTION
- A clear crystal of calcite exhibits an optical property known as double refraction where it
is caused by the splitting of light into two components when it enters some crystalline
material
CHEMICAL TESTS
 - Are chemical reactions characteristic of some minerals e.g. carbonates react with acid to
produce bubbles of carbon dioxide
Crystallization from magma
 Minerals can be formed from the intense heat and pressure found far beneath the Earth's
crust in the mantle, where molten rock flows as liquid magma.
 Silicates that are present in magma can form minerals.
 The slower the decrease in temperature, the larger the crystals can grow.
 Magma cools slowly inside Earth, which gives mineral crystals time to grow large
enough to be seen clearly. Granite is rock that forms from slowly cooled magma,
containing the minerals: quartz (clear), plagioclase feldspar (shiny white), potassium
feldspar (pink), and biotite (black).
 When magma erupts onto Earth’s surface, it is called lava. Lava cools much more rapidly
than magma when it is below the surface. In a cooling lava, mineral crystals do not have
time to form and are very small.
Growth of Crystals from Cave Waters
- Beneath the cave lies a pool of magma. The caverns became flooded over time as a result
of groundwater seeping in. This water was rich in gypsum minerals, which then
transform into crystals that we see today.
- Travertine is a natural chemical precipitate of carbonate minerals; aragonite or calcite. It
forms as groundwater enriched with calcium and carbonate ions drips from the ceilings of
caves and caverns. This slow, repeated dripping allows the calcium and carbonate to
bond together forming tiny crystals of the mineral calcite.
- As more calcite crystals form they develop elongated structures called stalactites that
hang downward from cavern ceilings. Water that drips to the floor of a cave can form
stalagmites that gradually grow upward from the floor.
Precipitation and evaporation of ocean water
This mainly occurs in salty waters such as ocean water. During the process of evaporation, water
molecules change from the liquid phase to the gas phase, but atoms such as calcium, sodium, and
chlorine are left behind.
As a result, the remaining water becomes saturated in these atoms which begin to precipitate
from the water and later blend together to form a mineral called Halite, which is basically salt.
Minerals such as salt and gypsum, called evaporites, usually form at high temperatures from the
evaporation of seawater.
Human body produces one of the main minerals in your bones and teeth--- apatite.
Recrystillization
- Minerals formed by the transformation of other pre-existing minerals.
- Calcite recrystallizes when limestone is heated, forming marble
- Heat and pressure turn clay minerals (in shale) into garnet and mica in a schist.