ROCKS and MINERALS

MINERALS - are any naturally occurring solid substance with a definite chemical
composition.

• nearly all (98.5%) of Earths crust is made up of only eight elements - oxygen,
silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium - and these
are the elements that make up most of the minerals.
• MINERALOGISTS - are scientists who study minerals.
• CRYSTAL - are made from atoms that join together to form minerals. They are
arranged in a regular, repeating pattern. ( CUBIC - the unit cell is in the shape of a
cube. Most common and simplest shapes formed in crystals and minerals;
PRISMATIC - have crystals that show a uniform cross-section prismatic crystals;
AMORPHOUS - no crystalline structure.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERAL:

1. SOLID - all liquid and gases, even those that are naturally formed such as
petroleum - are not considered minerals.
2. NATURALLY OCCURRING - steel and synthetic diamond are created artificially,
therefore is not a mineral.
3. INORGANIC - minerals don’t come from plants, animals, or other living
organisms. Coal, which is composed of remains of plants and other inorganic
compounds, is not a mineral.
4. FIXED CHEMICAL COMPOSITION - specific minerals will always have the same
combination of elements.
5. ORDERED INTERNAL/CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE

PROPERTIES OF MINERALS:
• COLOR - The perceived wavelength of light bounced off from the material. The
most obvious property but it is not reliable because some minerals have the same
color. It is caused by electromagnetic radiation interacting with electrons

• STREAK - The color of the mineral in powder form

• LUSTER - The way light reflects off the minerals surface. (metallic luster / non-
metallic luster) TRANSPARENCY/DIAPHANEITY - the ability of light to pass through
it.
Luster is described in the following terms:
A. Metallic - it is opaque and reflects light as metal would
B. Sub-metallic - mineral is opaque and dull and dark colored
C. Nonmetallic - it does not reflect light like metal
D. Waxy - looks like paraffin or wax
E. Vitreous - looks like broken glass
F. Pearly - it appears iridescent, like a pearl
G. Silky - it looks fibrous like silk
H. Greasy it looks like oil in water
I. Resinous - it looks like hardened tree sap
J. Adamantine - it looks brilliant, like a diamond
• CLEAVAGE - The minerals tendency to break along flat surface. Also called the
predictable breaking point. PARTING - sometimes called “false cleavage” is similar
in appearance to cleavage but is instead produced by structural defects in the
mineral.

• FRACTURE - The pattern in which a mineral breaks in a direction that does not
correspond to a plane of cleavage. also called random breaking.

• TENACITY - is related to both cleavage and fracture, it describes how resistant a

mineral is to such breaking.

• HARDNESS - The resistance of a mineral to scratching according to Moh’s scale of

hardness. Diamond is the hardest while talc is the softest.

• SPECIFIC GRAVITY - How heavy the mineral is relative to the same volume of
water.

MINERAL GROUPS:
SILICATE MINERALS - makes up over 90% of the Earth’s crust and are by far the
largest mineral group. One silicon atom bonds to four oxygen atom to form silica
tetrahedron
EX. garnet, topaz, talc

NON- SILICATE MINERALS

- CARBONATES - the basic carbonate structure is one carbon atom bonded to three
oxygen atoms.
EX. azurite, malachite rhodochrosite

- HALIDES - are salts that form when salt water evaporates

EX. halite, fluorite

- OXIDES - contain one or two metal elements combined with oxygen.

EX. magnetite, hematite

- SULFIDES - are formed when metallic elements combine with sulfur.

EX. galena, stignite, pyrite or iron sulfide aka fool’s gold

- PHOSPHATES - phosphorus, arsenic or vanadium bond with oxygen to form

tetrahedra. EX apatite, turquoise contains copper aluminum and phosphorus

- SULFATES - contains sulfur atoms bonded to oxygen atoms. EX celestite, Selenite,

gypsum

NATIVE ELEMENTS - contain atoms of only one type of element.

EX. gold, copper, silicon
ROCKS - are natural substance composed of solid crystals of different minerals
that have been fused together into a solid lump. It constitutes the basic unit of
which the solid part of the earth is.

MAGMA - a hot fluid or semifluid material below or within the earth’s crust from
which lava and other igneous rock is formed on cooling.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ROCKS:
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS - the word “igneous” comes from the Latin word “ignis”
which means “of fire”. are formed from cooled and hardened magma or lava.

Basic Types of Igneous Rocks:

• INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS - Plutonic rocks; forms from hardened magma. The
slow cooling that occurs deep inside the Earth allows large crystals to form
creating coarse-grained rocks. Ex. granite and diorite

• EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS - Volcanic rocks. Forms as lava quickly cools in the
surface of the earth creating fine-grained rocks. Ex. basalt and obsidian

6. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - are formed from sediments compacting together and

becoming hard.

Basic Types of Sedimentary Rocks:

• CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - Occur when there is buildup of tiny pieces of
broken rocks. Ex. sandstone and siltstone.

• CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - Occur when components of water evaporate

and previously dissolved minerals are left behind. Ex. rock salt and iron ore

• ORGANIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - Occur as a result of the accumulation of any

form of animal or plant remains. Animal and plant debris contain calcium that
piles up on the floor of water bodies over years to create organic sedimentary
rocks. Ex. coal, dolomites and limestones

7. METAMORPHIC ROCKS - are formed by great heat and pressure. They are
often made from other types of rocks. Despite these conditions, metamorphic
rocks do not get hot enough to melt.

Basic Types of Metamorphic Rocks:

• FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS - have a layered or banded appearance that is
produced by exposure to heat and direct pressure. Ex. schist and gneiss

• NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS - do not have a layered or banded

appearance. Ex. quartzite and marble
ROCK CYCLE - the interaction of physical and chemical processes that change
rocks from one type to another.
- it is the slowest of the earth’s cyclic processes.

CRYSTALLIZATION - is the solidification of atoms or molecules into highly structured

form called crystals. This process occurs when magma is exposed to lower
temperature.

UPLIFT - when intrusive igneous rocks are then brought to the surface where they
are exposed to weathering and erosion.

WEATHERING - is a process of breaking down rocks into smaller particles, without

any transporting agent. (Physical - rapid change of temperature or extreme levels of
temperature; Chemical - usually occurs with rainwater trying to react with the rock
minerals and create other minerals or chemical compounds; Biological - cracking
rocks, breaking down rocks, releasing acid in order to extract nutrients from rocks
for survival.)

EROSION - the natural process wherein sediments are removed or transported from
its place of origin by running water, winds, glaciers, or gravity.

TRANSPORT - wind , water, glaciers, rivers, and oceans transport these particles or
sediments until they settle in an area where they will undertake deposition.

DEPOSITION - when sediments reach the area where they settle.

LITHIFICATION - when materials settle on top of each other, temperature and

pressure increases and the sediments transforms into sedimentary rocks.

METAMORPHISM - the process of transforming pre-existing rocks involving changes

in physical and chemical properties of rocks in response to heat and pressure. The
process does not melt the rocks but instead transform them into more compact
rocks.(CONTACT METAMORPHISM - create non-foliated metamorphic rocks wherein
heat is the main factor; REGIONAL METAMORPHISM - creates foliated metamorphic
rocks wherein pressure is the main factor.)

MELTING - if the temperature continues to increase and exceed the melting point of
the rocks, it will eventually undergo melting and turn them into magma.

SIMILARITIES and DIFFERENCES OF ROCKS and MINERALS:

Similarities:
- both are solid, inorganic, and naturally formed

Differences:
- minerals usually have a shape for a structure and are usually the same color,
whereas rocks have no definitive shapes.
- rocks sometimes contain fossils, but no minerals have fossil.
- rocks have no definite chemical compositions, but minerals do

MINERAL RESOURCES
MINERAL RESOURCE - is a concentration of naturally occurring material from
the earth’s crust that we can extract and process into raw materials and useful
products at an affordable cost.

MINERAL RESERVES - identified resources from which we can extract the mineral
profitably at current prices.

NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES - minerals and rocks belongs to this

classification because they take so long to form.

ORE - is a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a particular mineral,

often a metal, to make it profitable for mining and processing.
HIGH-GRADE ORE - contains a large concentration of the desired mineral.
LOW-GRADE ORE - contains a smaller concentration of minerals.

Two Major Types of Minerals

1. METALLIC MINERALS - show a shine in their appearance. Commonly utilized to
make tools or weapons. Found in igneous and metamorphic rocks and new
products can be made from it. They are good conductors of heat and electricity,
are malleable and ductile. Further classified into (Ferrous - minerals containing
iron & Non-Ferrous - those that does not contain Iron)

Examples of Metallic Minerals:

• Aluminum (Al) - used for packaging and beverage cans, and as a structural
material in motor vehicles, aircraft, and buildings.
• Iron (Fe) - used to make steel, an essential material used in buildings and motor
vehicles
• Copper (Cu) - a good conductor of electricity, is used for electrical and
communications wiring.
• Gold (Au) - used in electrical equipment, tooth fillings, jewelry, coins, and some
medical implants.
• Manganese (Mn), Cobalt (Co), and Chromium (Cr) - widely used in important steel
alloys

2. NONMETALLIC MINERALS - do not contain extractable materials in their chemical

composition. They are used in their natural occurring state but can be cut into
desired shapes. Found in sedimentary rocks. They are good insulators of heat
and electricity though they lack malleability and ductility.

Examples of Non-Metallic Minerals

• Sand - is used to make glass, bricks, and concrete
• Gravel - used for roadbeds and concrete
• Limestone - crushed to create concrete and cement
• Phosphate Salt - mined and used in inorganic fertilizers and some detergents.
• Diamond, Ruby, Sapphire
MINERAL DEPOSITS
1. MAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS - valuable minerals are concentrated within an
igneous body through magmatic processes, which concentrate that ore minerals
and accumulating elements that were once widely dispersed.

8. HYDROTHERMAL ORE DEPOSITS - concentrations of valuable substances by hot

aqueous fluids flowing through fractures and pore spaces in rock. These hot
residual fluids derived during the later stages of crystallization may contain large
amount of dissolved metals, as the metals move into cooler areas, the dissolved
substances may start to precipitate.

9. SEDIMENTARY ORE DEPOSITS - some valuable substances are concentrated by

chemical precipitation coming from lakes or seawater.

10.PLACER ORE DEPOSITS - deposits formed by the concentration of valuable

substances through gravity separation during sedimentary processes. Usually
aided by flowing surface waters either in streams or along coastlines.

11.RESIDUAL ORE DEPOSITS - a type of deposit that results from the accumulation
of valuable materials through chemical weathering process.

MINERAL EXPLORATION:
A. PROJECT DESIGN - the initial stage in formulating the project. Includes review of
available data; government requirements; review of social, environmental,
political, and economic acceptability of the project; and budget and organization
proposals.

B. FIELD EXPLORATION - includes physical activities in the selected project area.

• Regional Reconnaissance - to identify targets or interesting mineral zones
covering a relatively large area.
• Detailed Exploration - involves more detailed surface and subsurface activities
• Prospect Evaluation - to assess market profitability by extensive resource,
geotechnical and engineering drilling; metal testing; and environmental and
societal cost assessment.

C. PRE-PRODUCTION FEASIBILITY STUDY - determines and validates the accuracy of

data and information collected from the different stages.

WAYS ON EXTRACTING MINERAL DEPOSITS:

1. SURFACE MINING/OPENCAST - this is how shallow mineral deposits are
removed, in which materials lying over a deposit are removed to expose the
resource for processing. They generally begin with removal of all vegetations,
including forests, from a site.

OVERBURDEN - soil and rock overlying a useful mineral deposit is removed. It is

usually deposited in piles of waste materials called SPOILS.
A. OPEN-PIT MINING/OPEN-CAST MINING - machines dig very large holes and
remove metal ores (such as iron, copper, and gold ores), as well as sand, gravel,
and stone (such as limestone and marble). This type is used when deposits of
commercially useful ore or rocks are found near the surface.

B. STRIP MINING - is useful and economical for extracting mineral deposits that lie
in large horizontal beds close to the earth’s surface but has one or more layer of
rock and dirt on top of it. The mineral layer is covered by an even thickness of
overburden composed of soft topsoil and weathered rocks in succession.

AREA STRIP MINING - used where the terrain is fairly flat, a gigantic earthmover
strips away the overburden, and a power shovel, which can be as tall as a 20-story
building, removes the mineral deposit.

CONTOUR STRIP MINING - is used mostly to mine coal on hilly or mountainous

terrain.

C. MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL - explosives, earth movers, large power shovels, and

other machines with huge buckets, called DRAGLINES, are used to remove the
top of a mountain and expose seams of coal, which are then removed.

2. SUBSURFACE MINING/DEEP SHAFT MINING - removal of deep deposits

of minerals in which underground mineral resources are removed through
tunnels and shafts. Miners dig a deep, vertical shaft, blast open subsurface
tunnels and chambers to reach the deposit, and use machinery to remove the
resource and transport it to the surface.

2. SMELTING - heating ores to release metals. Without effective pollution control

equipment, this emits enormous quantities of air pollutants, including sulfur
dioxide and suspended toxic particles which damage vegetation and acidify soils
in the surrounding area

MILLING PROCESS:
• CRUSHING and SCREENING - are the first stages of controlled size reduction

• GRINDING - where the rocks are pulverized

• HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION - crushed rocks are submerged in liquid where the
heavier/denser minerals sink thus are separated from the lighter minerals.

• MAGNETIC SEPARATION - if the metal or mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is

separated from the waste material using a powerful magnet.

• FLOATATION - the powdered ore is placed into an agitated and frothy slurry where
some minerals and metals, based on their physical or chemical properties may
sink to the bottom or stick to the bubbles and rise to the top.

• CYANIDE HEAP LEACHING - method used for low-grade gold ore where crushed
rock is placed on a “leach pile” where cyanide solution is sprayed or dripped on
 top of the pile, as it filters down the rocks, the gold is dissolved into the solution
and is processed further to extract the gold.

Rich Mineral Sources in The Philippines:

GOLD and SILVER - Benguet, Camarines Norte, Masbate, Bulacan, Surigao
IRON - Ilocos Norte, Camarines Norte, Cotabato, Nueva Viscaya, Surigao, Cagayan
Valley, Marinduque, Samar, Bulacan, Dava
NICKEL - Nonoc Island, Surigao Del Norte, Davao Oriental, Palawan, Romblon,
Samar, Camarines Norte and Occidental Mindoro.

*The Philippines is listed as the 5th mineral country in the world

*3rd in gold reserves
*4th in copper
*5th in nickel

Some Environmental Impacts of Mining:

1. takes enormous amounts of energy and water and can disturb the land
12.erode soil
13.produce solid waste and greenhouse gases
14.pollute air, water, and soil
15.Subsidence - the collapse of land above some underground mines
16.Acid Mine Drainage - occurs when rainwater that seeps through a mine or spoils
pile carries sulfuric acid to nearby streams and groundwater

ECONOMICALLY DEPLETED - is when minerals costs more than it is worth to find,

extract, transport and process the remaining deposits.

TAILINGS - residues or waste products of mining.

DEPLETION TIME - the time it takes to use up usually 80% of a mineral reserve at a
given rate of use.

NANOTECHNOLOGY - uses science and engineering to manipulate and create

materials out of atoms and molecules at the ultra-small scale.

Things we can do to use mineral resources more sustainably:

1. recycle or reuse existing supplies
17.waste less
18.use less
19.find a substitute
20.or do without
 ENERGY RESOURCES
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, it can be transformed from one form to another. Ex. solar energy from
sun is converted into chemical energy by plants.

ENERGY - is the capacity to do work.

RESOURCE - is the general term referring to any item used for a specific purpose.
ENERGY RESOURCE - is something that can produce heat, power life, move objects,
or produce electricity.
RENEWABLE RESOURCE - any resource that can be replenished or regenerated on a
human time scale
• Geothermal
• Hydrothermal
• Wind Energy
• Solar Energy
• Biomass

ELECTRICITY - is the form of energy which can be generated from almost any
energy source

NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES
are those that cannot be replenished or regenerated on a human time scale.

1. FOSSIL FUEL
- are formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead
organisms
- are presently the world’s primary energy source.
- provides most of the energy that supports transportation, electricity production,
heating, and cooling of buildings, and various industrial activities.
- it includes coal, oil, petroleum, and gas which are non renewable sources of
energy derived from the remains of prehistoric plants and animals that died
million of years ago and were buried under the right conditions to form fossils.

COAL - Is a black combustible rock made up of elemental carbon, hydrogen oxygen,

nitrogen, and varying amount of sulfur. It is formed from the remains of plants.
These organisms were buried under oxygen poor or anoxic conditions.
Coalification - aka carbonification, is the formation of coal from plant material by the
process of diagenesis and metamorphism.
Classification of Coal:
A. Peat - consists of partially decomposed vegetation. It has carbon content of
less than 60%.
B. Lignite - is a soft, dark brown, low rank coal composed of 65-70% carbon and
63-53 % volatile matter. It is a low grade fuel with a high moisture content
that is used in industrial boiler.
C. Sub-Bituminous - coal that is 70-76% carbon and 53 to 42% volatile matter
also used in industrial boilers
 D. Bituminous - coal that contains 70-86 % carbon and 46-31%volatile matter. It
is used to make coke, used in metallurgy
E. Anthracite - when temperatures continue to increase the bituminous coal is
transformed into the shiny, black, high rank coal composes of 95% carbon.

PETROLEUM - comes from the Latin word “petra” meaning “rock” and “oleum”
meaning “oil”. Its is a naturally occurring liquid composed of complex hydrocarbons,
and is found in geological formations underneath Earth’s surface
- It is a fossil fuel derived from large quantities of microscopic aquatic organisms
such as algae and planktons whose remains settled to the sea or lake bottoms
million of years ago, and were buried beneath fine sediments anoxic conditions.
With increasing pressure and temperature due to continuous burial, the organic
matter in these organisms transform into waxy material known as KEROGEN and
eventually into hydrocarbons through the process of CATAGENESIS
- Petroleum forms within specific depth, pressure, and temperature range known as
OIL WINDOW
- Temperatures below the range of (50-150 Celsius) kerogen is not transformed
into hydrocarbons. On the other hand, if temperatures increases beyond the oil
window, oil is converted into natural gas in the process called THERMAL
CRACKLING.

NATURAL GAS - is a hydrocarbon mostly made up of methane.

Methane - is a simple chemical compound that is made of carbon and hydrogen
atoms. This gas is lighter than air and is highly flammable.

2. NUCLEAR ENERGY - Nuclear reaction occur when atoms of one species of

chemical element are transformed into atoms of another species by nuclear
change, which can occur in two ways:

NUCLEAR FISSION - the splitting of heavy atoms into lighter atoms

NUCLEAR FUSION - the combination of two light atoms to form a heavier atom

RENEWABLE RESOURCES
energy resource that will not run out because they are applied as quickly as
they are used.
1. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY - Is generated by heat from the Earth’s core heating
water into steam which turns turbines in order to generate electricity
GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT - the rate of change in temperature with depth. The
temperature of Earth gets warmer as you go deeper towards the core.

PROS:
• minimal environmental impact
• efficient
• power plants have low emissions
• low cost after the initial investment

CONS:
• only found in few areas around the world
• expensive start up cost
• wells could eventually be depleted.

2. HYDROTHERMAL ENERGY - due to gravity, energy from flowing water is

converted into electricity. It is typically achieved by building dams at strategic
points and height relying on the movement of water to move propellers and
generate energy.
HYDROPOWER - the power generated by the energy from falling water.

PROS:
• No emission
• reliable
• capable of generating large amounts of power
• output can be regulated to meet demand

CONS:
• environmental impacts by changing the environment in the dam area
• dams are expensive to build
• dams may be affected by drought.

3. WIND ENERGY - creating electricity using wind, or airflows that occur naturally
in the Earth’s atmosphere with the use of modern turbines to capture kinetic
energy from the winds. It is a clean energy source which produces no air or
water pollution because there is no fuel burned to generate electricity.
WIND - is the movement of air caused by differences in atmospheric pressure.

PROS:
• no emmission
• affordable
• little disruption to the ecosystem

CONS:
• relatively high output
• output is proportional to wind speed
• not feasible for all geographic locations
• high initial investment and maintenance cost
• extensive land use

4. SOLAR ENERGY - energy coming from the sun. considered as one of the Earth’s
most plentiful source of energy. The amount of energy received by the Earth
every hour is more than enough to satisfy global energy needs for a year.

PROS:
• non-polluting
• most abundant energy source
• systems last 15-30 years

CONS:
• high initial investment
• dependent on sunny weather
• supplemental energy may be needed in low sunlight areas
• requires large physical space for PV cell panels

5. BIOMASS/BIOFUELS - is the oldest source of energy. It is a biological material

derived from living or recently deceased organism.

PROS:
• abundant supply
• fewer emissions than fossil fuel sources
• can be used in diesel engines

CONS:
• source must be near usage to cut transportation cost
• emits some pollution as gas/liquid waste
• increases emissions of nitrogen oxides which are air pollutants