Lesson 1

Consultation: Zoom Friday 3-5

Course objective:

1. Analyse the structure of argument

2. Evaluate argument

3. Identify common fallacies

4. Construct a good argument

5. Develop good thinking habits

Critical thinking: is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skilfully

conceptualising, applying, analysing, synthesizing and evaluating information gathered from,
or generated by observation, experience, reflection …. As a guide to belief and action.

Questions uncover superficial reasoning, reveal bad logic and expose fake experts. People are
forever using acronyms, trafficking concepts they don’t understand

What to ask?

1. Ask for clarity – What are the claims, the meaning of these words

2. Ask for reasons – Why do you think that this is true or the right thing to do?

3. Interrogate the argument – How good are the reasons? Do the reasons support the
claim? Is the claim consistent with what I know? Are all assumptions true?

Propositions: A statement is a sentence that is either true or false

1. Empirical propositions: Asserts or denies something about the real world. As such, it
cannot be established or refuted by logic and reasoning alone, but only by experience;
broadly defines observations of facts

Example: Oil floats on water | We use only 10% of our brain | Afterlife

Beliefs Truths
Opinions --------- Facts

Beliefs and opinions are subjective; Truths corresponds to facts

Subjective vs Objective
Objective: Either yes or no; based on judgement
Subjective: Preferences – tastes
2. Analytic proposition is a proposition whose truth depends solely on its meaning. As such
it can be determined to be true or false by reasoning alone

e.g. 3 x 5. = 15 | Today is either Monday or not Monday | Abortion is murder | Some

rectangles are three sided (Cannot be true)

Non-propositions: Not true or false

1. Wear a helmet when cycling
2. Is there life after death?
3. Please pass the pepper

Argument:

The word “argument” has several meaning in ordinary speech. It can mean:

(1) An angry exchange of opinions

(2) A discussion or debate
(3) A reason or set of reasons given in support of a claim or an action

 To increase credibility of the statement

 What to belief and what to do

However:
 is not the same as an assertion or an opinion
 is not the same as a speech
 is not the same as a disagreement
 is not the same as an explanation

Argument is a claim supported by reasons by this definitions, an argument must have at least
two proposition

Basic components
 Conclusion = The proposition which the argument is trying to establish
 Premises = Propositions that serve as reasons for the conclusion
 Inferential claim = the claim that the conclusion is supported by the premises
e.g. words such as because; therefore | Can be implicit

Argument common premise indicators: Because; Since; Given that; As; For;
A bad argument is still an argument
E.g. Ghost exists because everyone believes so

Uses of Argument:
1. To justify a belief
2. To influence or persuade
3. To determine what is true or false
4. To determine the right thing to do

Moral issues are partially subjective as there would be nothing to argue

Life after death example: Near death experiences (Private)

Argument format:

“We do not know”

The proposition that there is or isn’t life after death is an empirical proposition. An empirical
proposition can only be established or refuted by experience. Since No living person can have
the requisite experience. No living person can know whether or not there is life after death.

“There is life after death”

1. Something must survive death
2. That something must be conscious and aware of its own identity

“There is no life after death”

1. Consciousness is a brain process
2. There are no brain processes after death
3. > There is no consciousness after death
4. If there is no consciousness after death, then there is no life after death

Explanations vs Arguments
The truth for explanation is taken for granted and they are not trying to convince you.

Importance of context:
Example: What makes Finland the happiest country in the world
 Asked by believer – seeking explanation
 Asked by sceptic – seeking justification

Conditional propositions

 is a sentence of the form ‘If p then q’, where p and q are both propositions. Not an
argument because neither premises are claimed to be true; used to connect
propositions.
 Can be used as part of arguments

To note:

What is proposition

What is argument

Difference between an argument conditional proposition and an explanation

What are the parts of argument

Deductive reasoning: also deductive logic, is the process of reasoning from one or more
statements (premises) to reach a logical conclusion.

Inductive reasoning: is a method of reasoning in which the premises are viewed as supplying
some evidence, but not full assurance, of the truth of the conclusion

Moral reasoning: applies critical analysis to specific events to determine what is right or

wrong, and what people ought to do in a particular situation

Practical reasoning: practical reason is the use of reason to decide how to act and
various common fallacies.

Fallacies are mistaken beliefs based on unsound arguments. They derive from

reasoning that is logically incorrect