Roman Mathematics - Numerals & Arithmetic: Century BCE, The Roman

ROMAN MATHEMATICS – Numerals &
Arithmetic
By the middle of the 1st
Century BCE, the Roman
had tightened their grip on
the
old Greek and Hellenistic
Roman numerals
empires, and the
mathematical revolution of

the Greeks ground to halt.
Despite all their advances in other respects, no mathematical innovations occurred
under the Roman Empire and Republic, and there were no mathematicians of note.
The Romans had no use
for pure mathematics, only
for its practical
applications, and the
Christian regime that
followed it (after
Christianity became the
official religion of the
Roman empire) even less
so.
Roman arithmetic
Roman numerals are well

known today, and were the
dominant number system
for trade and administration in most of Europe for the best part of a millennium. It was
decimal (base 10) system but not directly positional, and did not include a zero, so that,
for arithmetic and mathematical purposes, it was a clumsy and inefficient system. It was
based on letters of the Roman alphabet – I, V, X, L, C, D and M – combines to signify
the sum of their values (e.g. VII = V + I + I = 7).
Later, a subtractive notation was also adopted, where VIIII, for example, was replaced
by IX (10 – 1 = 9), which simplified the writing of numbers a little, but made calculation
even more difficult, requiring conversion of the subtractive notation at the beginning of a
sum and then its re-application at the end (see image at right). Due to the difficulty of
written arithmetic using Roman numeral notation, calculations were usually performed
with an abacus, based on earlier Babylonian and Greek abaci.
Mayans Mathematics
MAYAN
Mayan numerals
MATHEMATICS
The Mayan civilisation had settled in the region of Central America from about 2000
BCE, although the so-called Classic Period stretches from about 250 CE to 900 CE. At
its peak, it was one of the most densely populated and culturally dynamic societies in
the world.
The importance of astronomy and calendar calculations in Mayan society required

mathematics, and the Maya constructed quite early a very sophisticated number
system, possibly more advanced than any other in the world at the time (although the
dating of developments is quite difficult).
Vigesimal – Base 20 Number System

The Mayan and other Mesoamerican cultures used a vigesimal number system based
on base 20, (and, to some extent, base 5), probably originally developed from counting
on fingers and toes. The numerals consisted of only three symbols: zero, represented
as a shell shape; one, a dot; and five, a bar. Thus, addition and subtraction was a
relatively simple matter of adding up dots and bars. After the number 19, larger
numbers were written in a kind of vertical place value format using powers of 20: 1, 20,
400, 8000, 160000, etc (see image above), although in their calendar calculations they
gave the third position a value of 360 instead of 400 (higher positions revert to multiples
of 20).
Mayan zero
The pre-classic Maya and their neighbours had independently developed the concept
of zero (Mayan zero) by at least as early as 36 BCE, and we have evidence of their
working with sums up to the hundreds of millions, and with dates so large it took several
lines just to represent them. Despite not possessing the concept of a fraction, they
produced extremely accurate astronomical observations using no instruments other
than sticks and were able to measure the length of the solar year to a far higher degree
of accuracy than that used in Europe (their calculations produced 365.242 days,
compared to the modern value of 365.242198), as well as the length of the lunar month
(their estimate was 29.5308 days, compared to the modern value of 29.53059).
However, due to the geographical disconnect, Mayan and Mesoamerican

mathematics had absolutely no influence on Old World (European and Asian)
numbering systems and mathematics.
The Mexican Mayans were an advanced bunch when it came to the world of
mathematics, establishing their own sophisticated numerical system and even figuring
in an equivalent to zero. However, it wasn’t just dumb luck that gave them such stellar
math skills, but rather these were talents necessitated by their (famed) use of detailed
calendars and reverence of astronomy.
The Mayan Number System

Centered around a vigesimal system (a.k.a. base 20), the Mayan method of numbering
was likely developed from the tendency to count using fingers and toes, and was one of
the many base 20 methods that cropped up in the history of other Mesoamerican
cultures.
To put their vigesimal system into context, it’s worth noting that nowadays we operate
on a base 10 system. That’s to say that while we use 1, 10, 100, 1000 and so on, the
Mayans used 1, 20, 400, 8000. Also, given this use of the vigesimal system it comes as
no surprise that the numbers 5, 20 and 400 held special significance to the Mayas.
Perhaps more unexpectedly, they also valued the number 13 (the number of Mayan
gods) as well as 52.
The Mayan numbers 0-20 © Immanuel Giel/WikiCommons

The Ancient Mayans also figured out the concept of true zero, independent of the
mathematical developments of other civilizations, and are the first society whose use of
this figure was documented. Even so, the Babylonians are said to have used a
placeholder zero long before the Mayans, while the Ancient Egyptians floundered and
never even figured out the concept of zero.
However, while the Mayans’ numerical system was advanced (and simple) for its time –
allowing even the uneducated to add and subtract for commercial purposes – it can
seem overwhelming and confusing to the untrained eye in the present day. This is
principally because, as you would expect, they didn’t use ‘modern-day’ numbers (the
credit for that invention goes to the Arabs), but rather symbols which represented
numbers: zero was a shell, one was a dot and five was signified by a line. Once you’ve
understood the basic concept, it’s actually far simpler than the too-confusing-even-for-
the-Romans Roman Numerals system.
Interestingly, evidence points to the Mayans also using glyphs to represent these
aforementioned symbols at times: one was an earth goddess, for example. They also
wrote from top to bottom, rather than side to side. However, while assertions have been
made that they were once in possession of the most advanced numerical system in the
world, supporting evidence for that assertion remains thin on the ground.
Maths and Astronomy in Ancient Mayan Mexico

This numerical advancement was sufficient to give them the basic tools they needed to
excel at astronomy, plotting observations with surprising accuracy given that their
number system didn’t allow for fractions and they only had sticks in their repertoire to
help them out with alignments. In fact, they actually edge out European estimates in
their assessment of the length of both the solar year and the lunar month, making their
(still not flawless) Mayan calendar far more accurate than the previous European
equivalent, the Julian calendar.
The Mayans were also talented astronomers © ESA/Hubble/WikiCommons
The Mayan Numeral System

LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Become familiar with the history of positional number

systems
 Identify bases that have been used in number systems
historically
 Convert numbers between bases
 Use two different methods for converting numbers between
bases
Background
As you might imagine, the development of a base system is an

important step in making the counting process more efficient. Our own
base-ten system probably arose from the fact that we have 10 fingers
(including thumbs) on two hands. This is a natural development.
However, other civilizations have had a variety of bases other than
ten. For example, the Natives of Queensland used a base-two system,
counting as follows: “one, two, two and one, two two’s, much.” Some
Modern South American Tribes have a base-five system counting in
this way: “one, two, three, four, hand, hand and one, hand and two,”
and so on. The Babylonians used a base-sixty (sexigesimal) system.
In this chapter, we wrap up with a specific example of a civilization
that actually used a base system other than 10.
The Mayan civilization is
generally dated from 1500 BCE to 1700 CE. The Yucatan Peninsula
(see figure 16[1]) in Mexico was the scene for the development of one
of the most advanced civilizations of the ancient world. The Mayans
had a sophisticated ritual system that was overseen by a priestly
class. This class of priests developed a philosophy with time as divine
and eternal.[2] The calendar, and calculations related to it, were thus
very important to the ritual life of the priestly class, and hence the
Mayan people. In fact, much of what we know about this culture
comes from their calendar records and astronomy data. Another
important source of information on the Mayans is the writings of
Father Diego de Landa, who went to Mexico as a missionary in 1549.
There were two numeral systems developed by the
Mayans—one for the common people and one for the priests. Not only
did these two systems use different symbols, they also used different
base systems. For the priests, the number system was governed by
ritual. The days of the year were thought to be gods, so the formal
symbols for the days were decorated heads,[3] like the sample to the
left[4] Since the basic calendar was based on 360 days, the priestly
numeral system used a mixed base system employing multiples of 20
and 360. This makes for a confusing system, the details of which we
will skip.
Powers Base-Ten Value Place Name
207 12,800,000,000 Hablat
206 64,000,000 Alau
205 3,200,000 Kinchil
204 160,000 Cabal
203 8,000 Pic
202 400 Bak
201 20 Kal
200 1 Hun
The Mayan Number System
Instead, we will focus on the numeration system of the “common”

people, which used a more consistent base system. As we stated
earlier, the Mayans used a base-20 system, called the “vigesimal”
system. Like our system, it is positional, meaning that the position of a
numeric symbol indicates its place value. In the following table you
can see the place value in its vertical format.[5]
In order to write numbers down, there were only three symbols
needed in this system. A horizontal bar represented the quantity 5, a
dot represented the quantity 1, and a special symbol (thought to be a
shell) represented zero. The Mayan system may have been the first to
make use of zero as a placeholder/number. The first 20 numbers are
shown in the table to the right.[6]
Unlike our system, where the ones place starts on the right and then
moves to the left, the Mayan systems places the ones on
the bottom of a vertical orientation and moves up as the place value
increases.
When numbers are written in vertical form, there should never be

more than four dots in a single place. When writing Mayan numbers,
every group of five dots becomes one bar. Also, there should never be
more than three bars in a single place…four bars would be converted
to one dot in the next place up. It’s the same as 10 getting converted
to a 1 in the next place up when we carry during addition.
EXAMPLE
What is the value of this number, which is shown in vertical form?
Show Solution
EXAMPLE
What is the value of the following Mayan number?

Show Solution
TRY IT
Convert the Mayan number below to base 10.
Show Solution
EXAMPLE
Convert the base 10 number 357510 to Mayan numerals.

Show Solution
WRITING NUMBERS WITH BASES BIGGER THAN 10
When the base of a number is larger than 10, separate each “digit” with a
comma to make the separation of digits clear.
For example, in base 20, to write the number corresponding to 17 × 202 + 6 ×
201 + 13 × 200, we’d write 17,6,1320.
TRY IT

Show Solution
Show Solution

In the following video we present more examples of how to write

numbers using Mayan numerals as well as converting numerals
written in Mayan for into base 10 form.
The next video shows more examples of converting base 10 numbers

into Mayan numerals.
Adding Mayan Numbers

When adding Mayan numbers together, we’ll adopt a scheme that the
Mayans probably did not use but which will make life a little easier for
us.
EXAMPLE
Add, in Mayan, the numbers 37 and 29:
[7]
Show Solution
TRY IT
Try adding 174 and 78 in Mayan by first converting to Mayan numbers and
then working entirely within that system. Do not add in base-ten (decimal) until
the very end when you check your work.
Show Solution
In the last video we show more examples of adding Mayan numerals.
In this module, we have briefly sketched the development of numbers

and our counting system, with the emphasis on the “brief” part. There
are numerous sources of information and research that fill many
volumes of books on this topic. Unfortunately, we cannot begin to
come close to covering all of the information that is out there.
We have only scratched the surface of the wealth of research and
information that exists on the development of numbers and counting
throughout human history. What is important to note is that the system
that we use every day is a product of thousands of years of progress
and development. It represents contributions by many civilizations and
cultures. It does not come down to us from the sky, a gift from the
gods. It is not the creation of a textbook publisher. It is indeed as
human as we are, as is the rest of mathematics. Behind every symbol,
formula and rule there is a human face to be found, or at least sought.
Furthermore, we hope that you now have a basic appreciation for just
how interesting and diverse number systems can get. Also, we’re
pretty sure that you have also begun to recognize that we take our
own number system for granted so much that when we try to adapt to
other systems or bases, we find ourselves truly having to concentrate
and think about what is going on.
EXAMPLE
Show Solution
Starting from the bottom, we have the ones place. There are two bars and
three dots in this place. Since each bar is worth 5, we have 13 ones when we
count the three dots in the ones place. Looking to the place value above it (the
twenties places), we see there are three dots so we have three twenties.
Hence we can write this number in base-ten as:

(3 × 201) + (13 × 200) = (3 × 201) + (13 × 1) = 60 + 13 = 73
EXAMPLE
Show Solution
Starting from the bottom, we have the ones place. There are two bars and
three dots in this place. Since each bar is worth 5, we have 13 ones when we
count the three dots in the ones place. Looking to the place value above it (the
twenties places), we see there are three dots so we have three twenties.
Hence we can write this number in base-ten as:

(3 × 201) + (13 × 200) = (3 × 201) + (13 × 1) = 60 + 13 = 73
EXAMPLE
What is the value of the following Mayan number?

Show Solution
This number has 11 in the ones place, zero in the 20s place, and 18 in the
202 = 400s place. Hence, the value of this number in base-ten is:
18 × 400 + 0 × 20 + 11 × 1 = 7211.
TRY IT
Convert the Mayan number below to base 10.
Show Solution
1562
EXAMPLE

10
Show Solution
This problem is done in two stages. First we need to convert to a base 20 number. We
will do so using the method provided in the last section of the text. The second step is to
convert that number to Mayan symbols.
The highest power of 20 that will divide into 3575 is 20 2 = 400, so we start by dividing
that and then proceed from there:
3575 ÷ 400 = 8.9375
0.9375 × 20 = 18.75
0.75 × 20 = 15.0
This means that 357510 = 8,18,1520
The second step is to convert this to Mayan notation. This number indicates that we
have 15 in the ones position. That’s three bars at the bottom of the number. We also
have 18 in the 20s place, so that’s three bars and three dots in the second position.
Finally, we have 8 in the 400s place, so that’s one bar and three dots on the top. We get
the following:
Note that in the previous example a new notation was used when we wrote
8,18,1520. The commas between the three numbers 8, 18, and 15 are now
separating place values for us so that we can keep them separate from each
other. This use of the comma is slightly different than how they’re used in the
decimal system. When we write a number in base 10, such as 7,567,323, the
commas are used primarily as an aide to read the number easily but they do
not separate single place values from each other. We will need this notation
whenever the base we use is larger than 10.
WRITING NUMBERS WITH BASES BIGGER THAN 10
When the base of a number is larger than 10, separate each “digit” with a comma to make the
separation of digits clear.
For example, in base 20, to write the number corresponding to 17 × 20 + 6 × 20 + 13 × 20 ,
2 1 0
we’d write 17,6,13 .

20
TRY IT

10
Show Solution
[latex]10553_{10} = 1,6,7,13_{20}[/latex]

10
Show Solution
[latex]5617_{10} = 14,0,17_{20}[/latex]. Note that there is a zero in the 20’s
place, so you’ll need to use the appropriate zero symbol in between the ones
and 400’s places.
In the following video we present more examples of how to write

numbers using Mayan numerals as well as converting numerals
written in Mayan for into base 10 form.
The next video shows more examples of converting base 10 numbers

into Mayan numerals.
Adding Mayan Numbers

When adding Mayan numbers together, we’ll adopt a scheme that the
Mayans probably did not use but which will make life a little easier for
us.
EXAMPLE
Add, in Mayan, the numbers 37 and 29:
[7]
Show Solution
First draw a box around each of the vertical places. This will help keep the
place values from being mixed up.
Next, put all of the symbols from both numbers into a single set of places
(boxes), and to the right of this new number draw a set of empty boxes where
you will place the final sum:
You are now ready to start carrying. Begin with the place that has the lowest
value, just as you do with Arabic numbers. Start at the bottom place, where
each dot is worth 1. There are six dots, but a maximum of four are allowed in
any one place; once you get to five dots, you must convert to a bar. Since five
dots make one bar, we draw a bar through five of the dots, leaving us with one
dot which is under the four-dot limit. Put this dot into the bottom place of the
empty set of boxes you just drew:
Now look at the bars in the bottom place. There are five, and the maximum
number the place can hold is three. Four bars are equal to one dot in the
next highest place.
Whenever we have four bars in a single place we will automatically convert
that to a dot in the next place up. We draw a circle around four of the bars
and an arrow up to the dots’ section of the higher place. At the end of that
arrow, draw a new dot. That dot represents 20 just the same as the other dots
in that place. Not counting the circled bars in the bottom place, there is one
bar left. One bar is under the three-bar limit; put it under the dot in the set of
empty places to the right.
Now there are only three dots in the next highest place, so draw them in the
corresponding empty box.
We can see here that we have 3 twenties (60), and 6 ones, for a total of 66.
We check and note that 37 + 29 = 66, so we have done this addition correctly.
Is it easier to just do it in base-ten? Probably, but that’s only because it’s more
familiar to you. Your task here is to try to learn a new base system and how
addition can be done in slightly different ways than what you have seen in the
past. Note, however, that the concept of carrying is still used, just as it is in
our own addition algorithm.
TRY IT
Try adding 174 and 78 in Mayan by first converting to Mayan numbers and then working entirely
within that system. Do not add in base-ten (decimal) until the very end when you check your
work.
Show Solution
A sample solution is shown.
The Mayans
The Mayan Mathematics
The Mayan civilization is generally dated from 1500 B.C.E to 1700 C.E.
although the so-called Classic Period stretches from about 250 CE to 900 CE.
At its peak, it was one of the most densely populated and culturally dynamic
societies in the world. The Yucatan Peninsula (see map below) in Mexico was
the scene for the development of one of the most advanced civilizations of the
ancient world. The Mayans had a sophisticated ritual system that was overseen
by a priestly class. This class of priests developed a philosophy with time as
divine and eternal.32 The calendar, and calculations related to it, were thus
very important to the ritual life of the priestly class, and hence the Mayan
people. In fact, much of what we know about this culture comes from their
calendar records and astronomy data. Another important source of information
on the Mayans is the writings of Father Diego de Landa, who went to Mexico
as a missionary in 1549.
The Maya World.
Hernán Cortés, excited by stories of the lands which Columbus had recently
discovered, sailed from Spain in 1505 landing in Hispaniola which is now
Santo Domingo. After farming there for some years he sailed with Velázquez
to conquer Cuba in 1511. He was twice elected major of Santiago then, on 18
February 1519, he sailed for the coast of Yucatán with a force of 11 ships, 508
soldiers, 100 sailors, and 16 horses. He landed at Tabasco on the northern coast
of the Yucatán peninsular. He met with little resistance from the local
population and they presented him with presents including twenty girls. He
married Malinche, one of these girls.
The people of the Yucatán

peninsular were descendants of
the ancient Mayan civilisation
which had been in decline from
about 900 AD. It is the
mathematical achievements of
this civilisation which we are
concerned with in this article.
However, before describing
these, we should note that
Cortés went on to conquer the
Aztec peoples of Mexico. He
captured Tenochtitlán before
the end of 1519 (the city was
rebuilt as Mexico City in 1521)
and the Aztec empire fell to
Cortés before the end of 1521.
Malinche, who acted as
interpreter for Cortés, played
an important role in his
ventures.
In order to understand how

knowledge of the Mayan people has reached us we must consider another
Spanish character in this story, namely Diego de Landa. He joined the
Franciscan Order in 1541 when about 17 years old and requested that he be sent
to the New World as a missionary. Landa helped the Mayan peoples in the
Yucatán peninsular and generally tried his best to protect them from their new
Spanish masters. He visited the ruins of the great cities of the Mayan
civilisation and learnt from the people about their customs and history.
However, despite being sympathetic to the Mayan people, Landa abhorred their
religious practices. To the devote Christian that Landa was, the Mayan religion
with its icons and the Mayan texts written in hieroglyphics appeared like the
work of the devil. He ordered all Mayan idols be destroyed and all Mayan
books be burned. Landa seems to have been surprised at the distress this caused
the Mayans.
Nobody can quite understand Landa's feelings but perhaps he regretted his
actions or perhaps he tried to justify them. Certainly what he then did was to
write a book Relación de las cosas de Yucatán Ⓣ (1566) which describes the
hieroglyphics, customs, temples, religious practices and history of the Mayans
which his own actions had done so much to eradicate. The book was lost for
many years but rediscovered in Madrid three hundred years later in 1869.
A small number of Mayan documents survived destruction by Landa. The most

important are: the Dresden Codex now kept in the Sächsische Landesbibliothek
Dresden; the Madrid Codex now kept in the American Museum in Madrid; and
the Paris Codex now in the Bibliothèque nationale in Paris. The Dresden Codex
is a treatise on astronomy, thought to have been copied in the eleventh century
AD from an original document dating from the seventh or eighth centuries AD.
The Dresden codex:
Knowledge of the Mayan civilisation has been greatly increased in the last
thirty years (P T Culbert and J A Sabloff, Maya civilisation New York, 1995
and .J A Sabloff, The new archaeology and the ancient Maya, London, 1990.)
Modern techniques such as high resolution radar images, aerial photography
and satellite images have changed conceptions of the Maya civilisation. We are
interested in the Classic Period of the Maya which spans the period 250 AD to
900 AD, but this classic period was built on top of a civilisation which had
lived in the region from about 2000 BC.
The Maya of the Classic Period built large cities, around fifteen have been
identified in the Yucatán peninsular, with recent estimates of the population of
the city of Tikal in the Southern Lowlands being around 50000 at its peak.
Tikal is probably the largest of the cities and recent studies have identified
about 3000 separate constructions including temples, palaces, shrines, wood
and thatch houses, terraces, causeways, plazas and huge reservoirs for storing
rainwater. The rulers were astronomer priests who lived in the cities who
controlled the people with their religious instructions. Farming with
sophisticated raised fields and irrigation systems provided the food to support
the population.
A common culture, calendar, and mythology held the civilisation together and
astronomy played an important part in the religion which underlay the whole
life of the people. Of course astronomy and calendar calculations require
mathematics and indeed the Maya constructed a very sophisticated number
system. We do not know the date of these mathematical achievements but it
seems certain that when the system was devised it contained features which
were more advanced than any other in the world at the time.
The Maya Number System

There were two numeral systems developed by the Mayans _ one for the
common people and one for the priests. Not only did these two systems use
different symbols, they also used different base systems. For the priests, the
number system was governed by ritual. The days of the year were thought to be
gods, so the formal symbols for the days were decorated heads, 33 like the
sample to the left 34. Since the basic calendar was based on 360 days, the
priestly numeral system used a mixed base system employing multiples of 20
and 360. This makes for a confusing system, the details of which we will skip.
In order to write numbers down, there were only three symbols needed in this
system. A horizontal bar represented the quantity 5, a dot represented the
quantity 1, and a special symbol (thought to be a shell) represented zero. The
Mayan system may have been the first to make use of zero as a
placeholder/number. The first 20 numbers are shown in the table to the right.
The decimal mathematical system widely used today originated by counting

with the fingers a person has. Counting with the fingers and toes started the
Maya vigesimal system. So it is based on groups of twenty units. Just as the
decimal system goes by 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, etc., the Maya vigesimal
system goes 1, 20, 400, 8000, 160000, etc. While in the decimal system there
are ten possible digits for each placeholder [0 - 9], in the Maya vigesimal
system each placeholder has a possible twenty digits [0 - 19]. For example, in
the decimal system 31 = 10 * 3 + 1 while in the vigesimal system 31 = 20 + 11.
The Maya discovered and used the zero. Their zero is represented by an ovular
shell.
Unlike our system, where the ones place starts on the right and then moves to
the left, the Mayan systems places the ones on the bottom of a vertical
orientation and moves up as the place value increases.
When numbers are written in vertical form, there should never be more than
four dots in a single place. When writing Mayan numbers, every group of five
dots becomes one bar. Also, there should never be more than three bars in a
single place, four bars would be converted to one dot in the next place up. It?s
the same as 10 getting converted to a 1 in the next place up when we carry
during addition.
The Maya number system was a base twenty system.
Here are the Mayan numerals.

Mayan Numerals.
Characteristics of The Maya

Mathematical System:
a) It is vigesimal, this means that it is based on 20 units [0 - 19] instead of the

10 units [0 - 9] of the decimal system.
b) It only uses three symbols, alone or combined, to write any number. These
are: the dot - worth 1 unit, the bar - worth 5 units and the zero simbolized by a
shell.
c) It also uses a vigesimal positioning system, in which numbers in higher

places grow multiplied by 20?s instead of the 10's of the decimal system,
compare number 168,421 in both systems:
Numb Place' Equal Equals

Place's
er s s & is & is
Place Vigesim
168,4 Decima writte writte
al value
21 l value n n
100,00 100,0 3'200,0
6th 1X
0= 00 00
10,000 60,00
5th 6X 160,000
= 0
4th 8 X 1,000 = 8,000 8,000
3rd 4 X 100 = 400 400
2nd 2 X 10 = 20 20
1st 1X1= 1 1
TOTA 168,4 168,42
Arabic Maya
L 21 1
d) Numbers in the Maya system can be written vertically or horizontally. In

vertical writing, the bars are placed horizontally and the dots go on top of them,
in this case the vigesimal positions grow up from the base. When written
horizontally, the bars are placed vertically and the dots go to their left and
higher vigesimal positions grow to the left of the first entry
Mayan Names For Numbers
0 xix im 10 lahun
1 hun 11 buluc 20 hun kal 400 hun bak
2 caa 12 lahca 40 ca kal 800 ca bak
3 ox 13 oxlahun 60 ox kal 1200 ox bak
4 can 14 canlahun 80 can kal 1600 can bak
5 hoo 15 hoolahun 100 hoo kal 2000 hoo bak
6 uac 16 uaclahun 120 uac kal 8,000 pic

7 uuc 17 uuclahun 140 uuc kal 160,000 calab
8 uaxac 18 uaxaclahun 200 ka hoo kal 3'200,000 kinchil
9 bolon 19 bolonlahun 300 ox hoo kal 64,000,000 alau
Thus when writing vertically the vigesimal positioning system, to write 20 a

zero is placed in the first position (base) with a dot on top of it, in the second
position. The dot in this place means one unit of the second order which equals
to 20. To write 21, the zero would change to a dot (1 unit) and for the
subsequent numbers the original 19 number count will follow in the first
position. As they in turn reach 19 again another unit (dot) is added to the
second position. Any number higher than 19 units in the second position is
written using units of the third position. A unit of the third position is worth
400 (20 x 20), so to write 401 a dot goes in the first position, a zero in the
second and a dot in the third. Positions higher than the third also grow
multiplied by twenties from the previous ones. Examples of the numbers
mentioned above follow:
Mathematical Count.
(Note : the Maya made one exception to this order, only in their calendric
calculations they gave the third position a value of 360 instead of 400, the
higher positions though, are also multiplied by 20.)
Calendric Count.
Almost certainly the reason for base 20 arose from ancient people who counted
on both their fingers and their toes. Although it was a base 20 system, called a
vigesimal system, one can see how five plays a major role, again clearly
relating to five fingers and toes. In fact it is worth noting that although the
system is base 20 it only has three number symbols (perhaps the unit symbol
arising from a pebble and the line symbol from a stick used in counting). Often
people say how impossible it would be to have a number system to a large base
since it would involve remembering so many special symbols. This shows how
people are conditioned by the system they use and can only see variants of the
number system in close analogy with the one with which they are familiar.
Surprising and advanced features of the Mayan number system are the zero,
denoted by a shell for reasons we cannot explain, and the positional nature of
the system. However, the system was not a truly positional system as we shall
now explain.
In a true base twenty system the first number would denote the number of units
up to 19, the next would denote the number of 20's up to 19, the next the
number of 400's up to 19, etc. However although the Maya number system
starts this way with the units up to 19 and the 20's up to 19, it changes in the
third place and this denotes the number of 360's up to 19 instead of the number
of 400's. After this the system reverts to multiples of 20 so the fourth place is
the number of 18 × 202, the next the number of 18 × 203 and so on. For example
[ 8;14;3;1;12 ] represents
12 + 1 × 20 + 3 × 18 × 20 + 14 × 18 × 202 + 8 × 18 × 203 = 1253912.

As a second example [ 9;8;9;13;0 ] represents
0 + 13 × 20 + 9 × 18 × 20 + 8 × 18 × 202 + 9 × 18 × 203 =1357100.
Both these examples are found in the ruins of Mayan towns and we shall
explain their significance below.
Now the system we have just described is used in the Dresden Codex and it is
the only system for which we have any written evidence. In (G Ifrah, A
universal history of numbers : From prehistory to the invention of the
computer, London, 1998.) Ifrah argues that the number system we have just
introduced was the system of the Mayan priests and astronomers which they
used for astronomical and calendar calculations. This is undoubtedly the case
and that it was used in this way explains some of the irregularities in the system
as we shall see below. It was the system used for calendars. However Ifrah also
argues for a second truly base 20 system which would have been used by the
merchants and was the number system which would also have been used in
speech. This, he claims had a circle or dot (coming from a cocoa bean currency
according to some, or a pebble used for counting according to others) as its
unity, a horizontal bar for 5 and special symbols for 20, 400, 8000 etc. Ifrah
writes (G Ifrah, A universal history of numbers : From prehistory to the
invention of the computer London, 1998.):-
Even though no trace of it remains, we can reasonably assume that the Maya had a
number system of this kind, and that intermediate numbers were figured by repeating
the signs as many times as was needed.
Let us say a little about the Maya calendar before returning to their number systems,
for the calendar was behind the structure of the number system. Of course, there was
also an influence in the other direction, and the base of the number system 20 played a
major role in the structure of the calendar.
The Maya had two calendars. One of these was a ritual calendar, known as the
Tzolkin, composed of 260 days. It contained 13 "months" of 20 days each, the months
being named after 13 gods while the twenty days were numbered from 0 to 19. The
second calendar was a 365-day civil calendar called the Haab. This calendar consisted
of 18 months, named after agricultural or religious events, each with 20 days (again
numbered 0 to 19) and a short "month" of only 5 days that was called the Wayeb. The
Wayeb was considered an unlucky period and Landa wrote in his classic text that the
Maya did not wash, comb their hair or do any hard work during these five days.
Anyone born during these days would have bad luck and remain poor and unhappy all
their lives.
Why then was the ritual calendar based on 260 days? This is a question to which we
have no satisfactory answer. One suggestion is that since the Maya lived in the tropics
the sun was directly overhead twice every year. Perhaps they measured 260 days and
105 days as the successive periods between the sun being directly overhead (the fact
that this is true for the Yucatán peninsular cannot be taken to prove this theory). A
second theory is that the Maya had 13 gods of the "upper world", and 20 was the
number of a man, so giving each god a 20 day month gave a ritual calendar of 260
days.
At any rate having two calendars, one with 260 days and the other with 365 days,
meant that the two would calendars would return to the same cycle after lcm(260,
365) = 18980 days. Now this is after 52 civil years (or 73 ritual years) and indeed the
Maya had a sacred cycle consisting of 52 years. Another major player in the calendar
was the planet Venus. The Mayan astronomers calculated its synodic period (after
which it has returned to the same position) as 584 days. Now after only two of the 52
years cycles Venus will have made 65 revolutions and also be back to the same
position. This remarkable coincidence would have meant great celebrations by the
Maya every 104 years.
Now there was a third way that the Mayan people had of measuring time which was
not strictly a calendar. It was an absolute timescale which was based on a creation
date and time was measured forward from this. What date was the Mayan creation
date? The date most often taken is 12 August 3113 BC but we should say
straightaway that not all historians agree that this was the zero of this so-called "Long
Count". Now one might expect that this measurement of time would either give the
number of ritual calendar years since creation or the number of civil calendar years
since creation. However it does neither.
The Long Count is based on a year of 360 days, or perhaps it is more accurate to say
that it is just a count of days with then numbers represented in the Mayan number
system. Now we see the probable reason for the departure of the number system from
a true base 20 system. It was so that the system approximately represented years.
Many inscriptions are found in the Mayan towns which give the date of erection in
terms of this long count. Consider the two examples of Mayan numbers given above.
The first
[ 8;14;3;1;12 ]
is the date given on a plate which came from the town of Tikal. It translates to
12 + 1 × 20 + 3 × 18 × 20 + 14 × 18 × 202 + 8 × 18 × 203
which is 1253912 days from the creation date of 12 August 3113 BC so the plate was
carved in 320 AD.
The second example
[ 9;8;9;13;0 ]
is the completion date on a building in Palenque in Tabasco, near the landing site of
Cortés. It translates to
0 + 13 × 20 + 9 × 18 × 20 + 8 × 18 × 202 + 9 × 18 × 203
which is 1357100 days from the creation date of 12 August 3113 BC so the building
was completed in 603 AD.
We should note some properties (or more strictly non-properties) of the Mayan
number system. The Mayans appear to have had no concept of a fraction but, as we
shall see below, they were still able to make remarkably accurate astronomical
measurements. Also since the Mayan numbers were not a true positional base 20
system, it fails to have the nice mathematical properties that we expect of a positional
system. For example
[ 9;8;9;13;0 ] = 0 + 13 × 20 + 9 × 18 × 20 + 8 × 18 × 202 + 9 × 18 × 203 = 1357100

yet
[ 9;8;9;13 ] = 13 + 9 × 20 + 8 × 18 × 20 + 9 × 18 × 202 = 67873.
Moving all the numbers one place left would multiply the number by 20 in a true base
20 positional system yet 20 × 67873 = 1357460 which is not equal to 1357100. For
when we multiple [ 9;8;9;13 ] by 20 we get 9 × 400 where in [ 9;8;9;13;0 ] we have 9
× 360.
We should also note that the Mayans almost certainly did not have methods of
multiplication for their numbers and definitely did not use division of numbers. Yet
the Mayan number system is certainly capable of being used for the operations of
multiplication and division as the authors of (J B Lambert, B Ownbey-McLaughlin,
and C D McLaughlin, Maya arithmetic, Amer. Sci. 68 (3) (1980), 249-255.)
demonstrate.
The Maya Astronomy

Finally we should say a little about the Mayan advances in astronomy. Rodriguez writes in (L F
Rodriguez, Astronomy among the Mayans (Spanish), Rev. Mexicana Astronom. Astrofis. 10
(1985), 443-453. ):-
The Mayan concern for understanding the cycles of celestial bodies, particularly the Sun, the
Moon and Venus, led them to accumulate a large set of highly accurate observations. An
important aspect of their cosmology was the search for major cycles, in which the position of
several objects repeated.
The Mayans carried out astronomical measurements with remarkable accuracy yet they had no
instruments other than sticks. They used two sticks in the form of a cross, viewing astronomical
objects through the right angle formed by the sticks. The Caracol building in Chichén Itza is
thought by many to be a Mayan observatory. Many of the windows of the building are positioned
to line up with significant lines of sight such as that of the setting sun
on the spring equinox of 21 March and also certain lines of sight
relating to the moon.
The Caracol building in Chichén Itza:
With such crude instruments the Maya were able to calculate the length
of the year to be 365.242 days (the modern value is 365.242198 days).
Two further remarkable calculations are of the length of the lunar
month. At Copán (now on the border between Honduras and
Guatemala) the Mayan astronomers found that 149 lunar months lasted 4400 days. This gives
29.5302 days as the length of the lunar month. At Palenque in Tabasco they calculated that 81
lunar months lasted 2392 days. This gives 29.5308 days as the length of the lunar month. The
modern value is 29.53059 days. Was this not a remarkable achievement?
There are, however, very few other mathematical achievements of the Maya. Groemer (H
Groemer, The symmetries of frieze ornaments in Maya architecture, Osterreich. Akad. Wiss.
Math.-Natur. Kl. Sitzungsber. II 203, 1994, 101-116.) describes seven types of frieze ornaments
occurring on Mayan buildings from the period 600 AD to 900 AD in the Puuc region of the
Yucatán. This area includes the ruins at Kabah and Labna. Groemer gives twenty-five
illustrations of friezes which show Mayan inventiveness and geometric intuition in such
architectural decorations.
Maya mathematics constituted the most sophisticated mathematical system ever developed in
the Americas. The Maya counting system required only three symbols: a dot representing a
value of one, a bar representing five, and a shell representing zero.
Why was math important to Mayans?
The ancient Maya used mathematics to support many activities in their daily lives, from
market transactions to predicting eclipses and making sophisticated calendar
calculations. Maya mathematics is vigesimal, which means that instead of counting by
tens, Maya math counts by twenties.
How was Mayan mathematics different from math today?

Answer and Explanation:
Mayan mathematics are most different from math today in that the Mayan

mathematical system was based on 20 (as opposed to 10), and it only had symbols...
When was the Mayan math system created?

Origins. Several Mesoamerican cultures used similar numerals and base-
twenty systems and the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar requiring the use of zero
as a place-holder. The earliest long count date (on Stela 2 at Chiapa de Corzo,
Chiapas) is from 36 BC.
Maya numerals
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Maya numerals
The Mayan numeral system was the system to represent numbers and calendar dates
in the Maya civilization. It was a vigesimal (base-20) positional numeral system. The
numerals are made up of three symbols; zero (shell shape, with
the plastron uppermost), one (a dot) and five (a bar). For example, thirteen is written as
three dots in a horizontal row above two horizontal bars; sometimes it is also written as
three vertical dots to the left of two vertical bars. With these three symbols, each of the
twenty vigesimal digits could be written.
Numbers after 19 were written vertically in powers of
400s twenty. The Mayan used powers of twenty, just as
the Hindu–Arabic numeral system uses powers of tens.
[1]
For example, thirty-three would be written as one dot,
20s above three dots atop two bars. The first dot represents
"one twenty" or "1×20", which is added to three dots and
two bars, or thirteen. Therefore, (1×20) + 13 = 33. Upon
1s reaching 202 or 400, another row is started (203 or 8000,
then 204 or 160,000, and so on). The number 429 would
33 429 5125 be written as one dot above one dot above four dots and
a bar, or (1×202) + (1×201) + 9 = 429.
Other than the bar and dot notation, Maya numerals were
sometimes illustrated by face type glyphs or pictures. The face glyph for a number
represents the deity associated with the number. These face number glyphs were rarely
used, and are mostly seen on some of the most elaborate monumental carvings.
Numeral systems
Hindu–Arabic numeral system
 Western Arabic
 Eastern Arabic
 Bengali
 Devanagari
 Gujarati
 Gurmukhi
 Odia
 Sinhala
 Tamil
 Balinese
 Burmese
 Dzongkha
 Javanese
 Khmer
 Lao
 Mongolian
 Thai
East Asian
 Chinese
o Suzhou
 Hokkien
 Japanese
 Korean
 Vietnamese
 Tangut
 Counting rods
European
 Roman
American
 Iñupiaq
Alphabetic

Abjad
 Armenian
 Āryabhaṭa
 Cyrillic
 Ge'ez
 Georgian
 Greek
 Hebrew
Former
 Aegean
 Attic
 Babylonian
 Brahmi
 Chuvash
 Cistercian
 Egyptian
 Etruscan
 Glagolitic
 Kharosthi
 Mayan
 Muisca
 Pentimal
 Quipu
 Prehistoric
Positional systems by base
 2
 3
 4
 5
 6
 8
 10
 12
 16
 20
 60
Non-standard positional numeral systems
 Bijective numeration (1)
 Signed-digit representation (Balanced ternary)
 mixed (factorial)
 negative
 Complex-base system (2i)
 Non-integer representation (φ)
 Asymmetric numeral systems
List of numeral systems
 v
 t
 e
Contents
 1Addition and subtraction

 2Modified vigesimal system in the Maya calendar
 3Origins
 4Unicode
 5References
 6Further reading
 7External links
Addition and subtraction[edit]

Adding and subtracting numbers below 20 using Maya numerals is very
simple. Addition is performed by combining the numeric symbols at each level:
If five or more dots result from the combination, five dots are removed and replaced by
a bar. If four or more bars result, four bars are removed and a dot is added to the next
higher row.
Similarly with subtraction, remove the elements of the subtrahend symbol from
the minuend symbol:
If there are not enough dots in a minuend position, a bar is replaced by five dots. If there
are not enough bars, a dot is removed from the next higher minuend symbol in the
column and four bars are added to the minuend symbol which is being worked on.
Modified vigesimal system in the Maya calendar [edit]
Detail showing in the right columns glyphs from La Mojarra Stela 1. The left column uses
Maya numerals to show a Long Count date of 8.5.16.9.7 or 156 CE.
The "Long Count" portion of the Maya calendar uses a variation on the strictly vigesimal
numbering. In the second position, only the digits up to 17 are used, and the place
value of the third position is not 20×20 = 400, as would otherwise be expected, but
18×20 = 360 so that one dot over two zeros signifies 360. Presumably, this is because
360 is roughly the number of days in a year. (The Maya had however a quite accurate
estimation of 365.2422 days for the solar year at least since the early Classic era.)
[2]
Subsequent positions use all twenty digits and the place values continue as 18×20×20
= 7,200 and 18×20×20×20 = 144,000, etc.
Every known example of large numbers in the Maya system uses this 'modified
vigesimal' system, with the third position representing multiples of 18×20. It is
reasonable to assume[according to whom?], but not proven by any evidence, that the normal
system in use was a pure base-20 system.
Origins[edit]
Several Mesoamerican cultures used similar numerals and base-twenty systems and
the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar requiring the use of zero as a place-holder.
The earliest long count date (on Stela 2 at Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas) is from 36 BC.[3]
Since the eight earliest Long Count dates appear outside the Maya homeland, [4] it is
assumed that the use of zero and the Long Count calendar predated the Maya, and was
possibly the invention of the Olmec. Indeed, many of the earliest Long Count dates
were found within the Olmec heartland. However, the Olmec civilization had come to an
end by the 4th century BC, several centuries before the earliest known Long Count
dates—which suggests that zero was not an Olmec discovery.
Unicode[edit]
See Mayan_Numerals_(Unicode_block).
References[edit]
1. ^ Saxakali (1997). "Maya Numerals". Archived from the original on 2006-
07-14. Retrieved 2006-07-29.
2. ^ Kallen, Stuart A. (1955). The Mayans. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books,
Inc. pp. 56. ISBN 1-56006-757-8.
3. ^ No long count date actually using the number 0 has been found before
the 3rd century, but since the long count system would make no sense
without some placeholder, and since Mesoamerican glyphs do not
typically leave empty spaces, these earlier dates are taken as indirect
evidence that the concept of 0 already existed at the time.
4. ^ Diehl, Richard (2004). The Olmecs: America's First Civilization. London:
Thames & Hudson. p. 186. ISBN 0-500-02119-8. OCLC 56746987.
Why did the Mayans use a base 20 system?
Here are the Mayan numerals. Almost certainly the reason for base 20 arose from
ancient people who counted on both their fingers and their toes. Although it was a base
20 system, called a vigesimal system, one can see how five plays a major role, again
clearly relating to five fingers and toes.
More images
Chinese mathematics
Description
Description
Mathematics in China emerged independently by the 11th century BC. The Chinese independently
developed a real number system that includes significantly large and negative numbers, more than
one numeral system, algebra, geometry, number theory and trigonometry. Wikipedia
CHINESE
Ancient Chinese number system
MATHEMATICS
Even as mathematical developments in the ancient Greek world were beginning to
falter during the final centuries BCE, the burgeoning trade empire of China was leading
Chinese mathematics to ever greater heights.
The Chinese Number System

The simple but efficient ancient Chinese numbering system, which dates back to at
least the 2nd millennium BCE, used small bamboo rods arranged to represent the
numbers 1 to 9, which were then places in columns representing units, tens, hundreds,
thousands, etc. It was, therefore, a decimal place value system, very similar to the
one we use today – indeed it was the first such number system, adopted by the Chinese
over a thousand years before it was adopted in the West – and it made even quite
complex calculations very quick and easy.
Written numbers, however, employed the slightly less efficient system of using a
different symbol for tens, hundreds, thousands, etc. This was largely because there was
no concept or symbol of zero, and it had the effect of limiting the usefulness of the
written number in Chinese.
The use of the abacus is often thought of as a Chinese idea, although some type of
abacus was in use in Mesopotamia, Egypt and Greece, probably much earlier than in
China (the first Chinese abacus, or “suanpan”, we know of dates to about the 2nd
Century BCE).
Lo Shu magic square

There was a pervasive fascination
with numbers and mathematical
patterns in ancient China, and
different numbers were believed to
have cosmic significance. In
Lo Shu magic square, with its traditional
particular, magic squares –
graphical representation
squares of numbers where each
row, column and diagonal added up to the same total – were regarded as having great
spiritual and religious significance.
The Lo Shu Square, an order three square where each row, column and diagonal adds
up to 15, is perhaps the earliest of these, dating back to around 650 BCE (the legend
of Emperor Yu’s discovery of the square on the back of a turtle is set as taking place in
about 2800 BCE). But soon, bigger magic squares were being constructed, with even
greater magical and mathematical powers, culminating in the elaborate magic
squares, circles and triangles of Yang Hui in the 13th Century (Yang Hui also
produced a triangular representation of binomial coefficients identical to the later
Pascals’ Triangle, and was perhaps the first to use decimal fractions in the modern
form).
Early Chinese Method of Solving Equations

But the main thrust of Chinese mathematics developed in response to the empire’s
growing need for mathematically competent administrators. A textbook called “Jiuzhang
Suanshu” or “Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art” (written over a period of time
from about 200 BCE onwards, probably by a variety of authors) became an important
tool in the education of such a civil service, covering hundreds of problems in practical
areas such as trade, taxation, engineering and the payment of wages.
It was particularly important as a guide to how to solve equations – the deduction of an

unknown number from other known information – using a sophisticated matrix-based
method which did not appear in the West until Carl Friedrich Gauss re-discovered it at
the beginning of the 19th Century (and which is now known as Gaussian elimination).
Among the greatest mathematicians of ancient China was Liu Hui, who produced a
detailed commentary on the “Nine Chapters” in 263 CE, was one of the first
mathematicians known to leave roots unevaluated, giving more exact results instead of
approximations. By an approximation using a regular polygon with 192 sides, he also
formulated an algorithm which calculated the value of π as 3.14159 (correct to five
decimal places), as well as developing a very early form of both integral and differential
calculus.
The Chinese
Remainder
Theorem
The Chinese went on to
solve far more complex
equations using far larger
numbers than those
outlined in the “Nine
Chapters”, though. They
also started to pursue
more abstract
mathematical problems
The Chinese Remainder Theorem
(although usually couched
in rather artificial practical terms), including what has become known as the Chinese
Remainder Theorem. This uses the remainders after dividing an unknown number by a
succession of smaller numbers, such as 3, 5 and 7, in order to calculate the smallest
value of the unknown number. A technique for solving such problems, initially posed by
Sun Tzu in the 3rd Century CE and considered one of the jewels of mathematics, was
being used to measure planetary movements by Chinese astronomers in the 6th
Century AD, and even today it has practical uses, such as in Internet cryptography.
By the 13th Century, the Golden Age of Chinese mathematics, there were over 30
prestigious mathematics schools scattered across China. Perhaps the most brilliant
Chinese mathematician of this time was Qin Jiushao, a rather violent and corrupt
imperial administrator and warrior, who explored solutions to quadratic and even cubic
equations using a method of repeated approximations very similar to that later devised
in the West by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th Century. Qin even extended his technique
to solve (albeit approximately) equations involving numbers up to the power of ten,
extraordinarily complex mathematics for its time.
Ancient Chinese Mathematics (a very short summary)
• Documented civilization in China from c.3000 BCE. Until c.200 CE, ‘China’ refers to roughly to the area
shown in the map: north of the Yangtze and around the Yellow rivers.
• Earliest known method of enumeration dates from the Shang dynasty (c.1600–1046 BCE)
commensurate with the earliest known oracle bone script for Chinese characters. Most information on
the Shang dynsaty comes from commentaries by later scholars, though many original oracle bones have
been excavated, particularly from Anyang, its capital.
• During the Zhou dynasty (c.1046–256 BCE) and especially towards the end in the Warring States
period (c.475–221 BCE) a number of mathematical texts were written. Most have been lost but much
content can be ascertained from later commentaries.
• The warring states period is an excellent example of the idea that wars lead to progress. Rapid change
created pressure for new systems of thought and technology. Feudal lords employed itinerant
philosophers1 ) The use of iron in China expanded enormously, leading to major changes in warfare2
and commerce, both of which created an increased need for mathematics. Indeed the astronomy, the
calendar and trade were the dominant drivers of Chinese mathematics for many centuries.
• The warring states period ended in 221 BCE with the victory of victory of the Qin Emperor Shi Huang
Di: famous for commanding that books be burned, rebuilding the great walls and for being buried with
the Terracotta Army in Xi’an. China was subsequently ruled by a succession of dynasties until the
abolition of the monarchy in 1912. While this simple description might suggest a long calm in which
Chinese culture and technology could develop in comfort, in reality the empire experienced its fair share
of rebellions, schisms and reprisals. The empire of the Qin dynasty was tiny in comparison to the extent
of modern China, and its expansion did not happen smoothly or without reversals.
• East Asia (modern day China, Korea, Japan, etc.) is geographically isolated from the rest of the world
and, in particular, from other areas of developing civilization. To the north is Siberia, to the west the
Gobi desert, southwest are the Himalaya and to the south is jungle. During the Han dynasty (c.200 BCE–
220 CE) a network of trading routes known as the silk road connected China, India and, through Persia,
Europe. Indeed part of the purpose of the Great Wall was the protection of these trade routes.
Knowledge moved more slowly than goods, and there is very little evidence of mathematical and
philosophical ideas making the journey until many centuries later. For instance, there is no evidence of
the Chinese using sexagesimal notation to aid their calculations, which meant that essentially none of
Babylonian and Greek work on astronomy made it to China. Similarly, there are many mathematical
ideas which saw no analogue in the west until many centuries after Chinese mathematicians had
invented them. It seems reasonable to conclude that Chinese and Mediterranean mathematics
developed essentially independently.
Important Mathematical Texts
The oldest suspected3 mathematical text is the Zhou Bi Suan Jing (The Mathematical Classic of
the Zhou Gnomon4 and the Circular Paths of Heaven). It was probably compiled some time in the period
500–200 BCE. The text contains, arguably, the earliest statement of Pythagoras’ Theorem as well as
simple rules for computing fractions and conducting arithmetic. The book was largely concerned with
astronomical calculations and presented in the form of a dialogue between the 11th century BCE Duke
of Zhou5 and Shang Gao (one of his ministers, and a skilled mathematician).
As with other early texts, there is no rigorous notion of proof or axiomatics, merely strong
assertions or ‘obvious’ appeals to pictures. For instance, the ‘proof’ of Pythagoras’ Theorem is purely
pictorial: taking the sides of the triangle to be a, b, c in increasing order of length, the picture essentially
claims that
C2 = 4 · 1 2 ab + (b − a) 2
giving the familiar result when multiplied out.
Of course the Chinese do not attribute this result to Pythagoras! Instead it is known as the gou
gu where these words refer first to the shorter and then the longer of the two non-hypotenuse sides of
the triangle.
There are several other early works; here are two of the most important.
Suanshu Shu (A Book on Arithmetic) Compiled c.300–150 BCE, covering, amongst other topics,
fractions, the areas of rectangular fields, and the computation of fair taxes.
Jiu Zhang Suan Shu (Nine Chapters on Mathematical Arts) Written c.300 BCE–200 CE. Many
topics are covered, including square roots, working with ratios (false position and the rule of three6 ),
simultaneous equations, areas/volumes, right-angled triangles, etc. The Nine Chapters is a hugely
influential text, in no small part due to the creation of a detailed commentary and solution manual to its
246 problems written by the mathematician Liu Hui in 263 CE.
The style of both text consists of laying out methods of solution which have wide application,
rather than on proving that a particular method is guaranteed to work. Indeed there is no notion of
axiomatics on which one could construct a proof in the modern sense of the word.
Liu made other contributions to mathematics, including accurate estimates of π made similarly
to Archimedes. He made particular use of the out-in principle which essentially describes how to
compare areas and volumes:
1. Areas and volumes are invariant under translation.
2. If a figure is subdivided, the sum of the areas/volumes of the parts equals that of the whole.
For instance, Liu gave the argument shown in the picture as an alternative proof of the gao gu: the green
square is subdivided and the in pieces Ai , Bi , Ci translated to new positions Ao, Bo, Co to assemble the
required squares. Ao Ai Bo Bi Co Ci
Liu extended the out-in principle to analyze solids, comparing the volumes of four basic solids:
• Cube (lifang)
• Right triangluar prism (qiandu)
• Rectangular pyramid (yangma)
• Tetrahedron (bienuan)
These could be assembled to calculate the volume of, say, a truncated pyramid:
The Bamboo Problem This problem is taken from the Nine Chapters: indeed the picture shows
the problem as depicted in Yang Hui’s famous Analysis of the Nine Chapters from 1261.
A bamboo is 10 chi high. It breaks and the top touches the ground 3 chi from the base of the
stem. What is the height of the break?
In modern language, if a, b, c is the triangle, we know that b + c = 10 and a = 3. We want b.
The solution is b = 1/ 2 ( b + c − a 2/ b + c ) = 91/ 100 chi: think about why. . .
Chinese Enumeration
The Chinese had two parallel systems of enumeration. Both are essentially decimal.
Oracle Bone Script and Modern Numerals The earliest Chinese writing is known as oracle bone script
dates from around 1600 BCE. The numbers 1–10 were recorded with distinct symbols, with extra
symbols for 20, 100, 1000 and 10000. These were decorated to denotes various multiples. Some
examples are shown below.
The system is quite complex, given all the possibilities for decoration, and therefore more advanced
than other contemporary systems. Standard modern numerals are a direct descendant of this script:
Observe the similarity between the expressions for the first 10 digits. The second image denotes the
number 842, where second and 4th symbols represent 100’s and 10’s respectively: literally eight
hundred four ten two. No zero symbol is required as a separator: one could not confuse 205 with 250.
The system is still partly positional: the symbol for, say, 8 can mean 800 if placed correctly, but only if
followed by the symbol for 100.
Rod Numerals The second dominant form of enumeration dates from around 300 BCE and was in very
wide use by 300 CE. Numbers were denoted by patterns known as Zongs and Hengs. These represented
alternate powers of 10: Zongs denoted units, 100’s, 10000’s, etc., while Hengs were for 10’s, 1000’s,
100000’s, etc.
Rod numerals were immensely practical. In extremis they could easily be scratched in the dirt. More
commonly they were created using short bamboo sticks or counting rods, of which any merchant worth
their salt would carry a bundle. They were often used in conjunction with a counting board: a grid of
squares on which sticks could be placed for ease of calculation. This technology was invaluable for
keeping calculations accurate and facilitating easy trade. They also made for several calculation methods
which will seem familiar. There was no need for a zero in this system, as an empty space did the job.
Addition and subtraction are straightforward by carrying and borrowing in the usual way. The smallest
number was typically placed on the right. Multiplication is a little more fun: for instance to multiply 387
by 147, one would set up the counting board as follows:
The algorithm is essentially long-multiplication, but starting with multiplication by the largest digit
instead of the units as we are used to.
Division essentially works like long-division: to divide 56889 by 147 one might have the following
sequence of boards
In the first two boards. 147 goes 3 times into 568.
In board 3, we subtract 3 × 147 from 568 to leave 127, shift the 147 over and observe that 147 goes 8
times into 1278. In the final step we have subtracted 8 × 147 from 1278 to leave 1029 before shifting the
147 to its final position. Since 147 divides exactly seven times into 1029, we are done. There is nothing
stopping us from dividing numbers where the result is not an integer: simply continue as in long-
division.
Simultaneous equations The counting board could be set up to compute solutions to simultaneous
linear equations. Essentially the coefficients of a linear system were placed in adjacent columns and 5
then column operations were performed. The method is thus identical to what you learn in a linear
algebra class, but with columns rather than rows. For instance, a linear system could be encoded thus:
This matrix method was essentially unique to China until the 1800’s.
Euclidean algorithm The counting board lent itself to the computation of greatest common divisors,
which were used very practically for simplifying fractions. Here is the process applied to 35 /91 :,
At each stage, one subtracts the smaller number from the larger. Once the same number is in each row
you stop. You should recognize the division algorithm at work. . . Since gcd(35, 91) = 7, both could be
divided by 7 to obtain 35 /91 = 5 /13 in lowest terms.
Negative numbers There is a strong case for arguing that the Chinese are also the oldest adopters of
negative numbers. These were not thought of as numbers per se, rather different colored rods could be
used to denote a deficiency in a quantity. Indeed the Nine Chapters describes using red rods for
positives and black for negatives. This would commonly be used when adding up accounts. This practice
was known by around 1 CE, roughly 500 years before negative numbers were used in calculations in
India.
Music, Mysticism and Approximations Like the Pythagoreans, the Chinese were interested in music and
pattern for mystical reasons. While the Pythagoreans delighted in the pentagram, the Chinese created
magic squares7 as symbols of perfection. The notion of equal temprament in musical tuning was first
‘solved’ in China by Zhu Zaiyu (1536–1611), some 30 years before Mersenne & Stevin published the
same result in Europe. This required the computation of the twelfth-root of 2 which Zhu computed using
approximations for square and cube roots:
Zhu’s approximation was correct to 24 decimal places!
Indeed the Chinese emphasis on practical methods meant that they often had the most accurate
approximations for their time:
• Approximations to π including 22 7 , √ 10, 355 113 , 377 120 . Most accurate in the world from 400–
1400 CE.
• Methods for approximating square and cube roots were found earlier than in Europe. Approximations
for solutions to higher-order equations similar to the Horner–Ruffini method were also discovered
earlier. • Pascal’s triangle first appears in China around 1100 CE. It later appeared in Islamic
mathematics before making its way to Europe.
Two famous problems We finish with a discussion of two famous Chinese problems. The first is known
as the Hundred Fowls Problem and dates from the 5th century CE. It was copied later in India and then
by Leonardo da Pisa (Fibonacci) in Europe, thus showing how Chinese mathematics travelled westwards.
If cockerals cost 5 qians8 each, hens cost 3 qians each, and 3 chickens cost 1 qian, and if 100
fowls are bought for 100 qians, how many cockerels, hens and chickens are there? In essence, the
problem asks us to find non-negative integers satisfying
( 5x + 3y + 1 3 z = 100
x + y + z = 100
The answers are simply stated as (4, 18, 78), (8, 11, 81), (12, 4, 84) while the possible solution (0,
25, 75) was not stated.
Finally an example of the Chinese Remainder Theorem for solving simultaneous congruence
equations. The Theorem dates from the 4th century CE: it travelled to India where it was described by
Bhramagupta and thence to Europe. This example comes from Qin Jiushao’s Shu Shu Jiu Zhang (Nine
Sections of Mathematics) in 1247.
Three thieves entered a rice shop and stole three identical vessels filled to the brim with rice,
but whose exact capacity was not known. The thieves were caught and their vessels examined: all that
was left in vessels X, Y and Z were 1 ge, 14 ge and 1 ge respectively. The thieves did not know the exact
quantities they’d stolen. A used a “horse ladle” (capacity 19 ge) to take rice from vessel X. B used a
wooden shoe (capacity 17 ge) to take rice from vessel Y. C used a bowl (capacity 12 ge) to take rice from
Z. What was the total amount of rice stolen?
In modern language the total amount of rice N satisfies
The answer is that N = 3193 ge. This is the smallest possible solution: all such are congruent
modulo 19 · 17 · 12 = 3876.
1Confucius was one such and served for a period as an advisor to Lu, a vassal state of the Zhou. He died
at the beginning of the warring states period, around 479 BCE, but his followers turned his teachings
into a major philosophical school of thought Confucianism. Its primary emphasis was stability and unity
as a counter to turmoil. The other major philosophical system dating from this time is Taoism which is
more comfortable with change and adaptation. 2Sun Tzu’s military classic The Art of War dates from this
time.
3Ancient Chinese texts are extremely difficult to date: we have no original copies and most seem to have
been compiled over several hundred years. Most of what we know of these texts is in the form of
commentaries by later authors. 4Gnomon: “One that knows or examines” — strictly the elevated piece
of a sun/moondial which would have been used for measuring said circular paths of heaven. 5Credited
with writing the I Ching, the ‘classic of changes.’ 6Given equal ratios a : b = c : d, where a, b, c known,
then d = bc a . 2
7Grids where all rows and columns sum to the same total. 6
8A qian is a copper coin. 9As a possible method, one substitutes z = 100 − x − y in first equation to obtain
7x + 4y = 100, or y = 25 − 7 4 x Since y ∈ Z, we must have x = 4m for some integer m. Thus all solutions
have the form x = 4m, y = 25 − 7m, z = 75 + 3m, m ∈ Z For m = 1, 2, 3 and 0 we obtain the above
solutions. For m ≥ 4 we have y < 0, while m < 0 yields x < 0. 7
Chinese mathematics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Mathematics in China emerged independently by the 11th century
BC.[1] The Chinese independently developed a real number system
that includes significantly large and negative numbers, more than
one numeral system (base 2 and base
10), algebra, geometry, number theory and trigonometry.
In the Han Dynasty, the Chinese made substantial progress on finding
the nth root of positive numbers and solving linear
congruence equations.[2] The major texts from the period, The Nine
Chapters on the Mathematical Art and the Book on Numbers and
Computation gave detailed processes to solving various mathematical
problems in daily life.[3] All procedures were computed using a counting
board in both texts, and they included inverse elements as well
as Euclidean divisions. The texts provide procedures similar to that
of Gaussian elimination and Horner's method for linear
algebra and modular method for Diophantine equation, respectively.
[4]
The achievement of Chinese algebra reached its zenith in the 13th
century, when Li Jingzhai invented tiān yuán shù.
As a result of obvious linguistic and geographic barriers, as well as
content, Chinese mathematics and the mathematics of the ancient
Mediterranean world are presumed to have developed more or less
independently up to the time when The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art reached its final form, while the Book on Numbers
and Computation and Huainanzi are roughly contemporary with
classical Greek mathematics. Some exchange of ideas across Asia
through known cultural exchanges from at least Roman times is likely.
Frequently, elements of the mathematics of early societies correspond
to rudimentary results found later in branches of modern mathematics
such as geometry or number theory. The Pythagorean theorem for
example, has been attested to the time of the Duke of Zhou.
Knowledge of Pascal's triangle has also been shown to have existed
in China centuries before Pascal,[5] such as the Song dynasty
Chinese polymath Shen Kuo.
History of science and technology in

China
 Inventions
o Four Great Inventions
 Discoveries
By subject
 Mathematics
 Astronomy
 Calendar
 Units of measurement
 Cartography
 Geography
 Printing
 Ceramics
 Metallurgy
 Coinage
 Alchemy
 Traditional medicine
o herbology
 Agriculture
o sericulture
 Silk industry
 Architecture
o classic gardens
o bridges
 Transport
o navigation
 Military
o naval
By era
 Han
 Tang
 Song
 Yuan
 People's Republic
o agriculture
o
o space
vX
 t
eX
Contents
1Early Chinese mathematicsX
2Qin mathematicsX
3Han mathematicsX
3.1Suan shu shuX
3.2The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical ArtX
3.3Calculation of piX
3.4Division and root extractionX
3.5Linear algebraX
3.6Liu Hui's commentary on The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical ArtX
4Mathematics in the period of disunityX
5Tang mathematicsX
6Song and Yuan mathematicsX
6.1AlgebraX
 6.1.1Ceyuan haijing
 6.1.2Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns
 6.1.3Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections
 6.1.4Magic squares and magic circles

6.2TrigonometryX
7Ming mathematicsX
8Qing dynastyX
9Western influencesX
9.1Western mathematics in modern ChinaX
10Mathematics in the People's Republic of China X
10.1Performance at the IMOX
11Mathematical textsX
12Mathematics in educationX
13See alsoX
14ReferencesX
14.1CitationsX
14.2SourcesX
15External linksX
Early Chinese mathematics[edit]
Visual proof for the (3, 4, 5) triangle as in the Zhoubi Suanjing 500–200 BC.
Oracle bone script numeral system
counting rod place value decimal
Simple mathematics on oracle bone script date back to the Shang

Dynasty (1600–1050 BC). One of the oldest surviving mathematical
works is the I Ching, which greatly influenced written literature during
the Zhou Dynasty (1050–256 BC). For mathematics, the book
included a sophisticated use of hexagrams. Leibniz pointed out, the I
Ching (Yi Jing) contained elements of binary numbers.
Since the Shang period, the Chinese had already fully developed
a decimal system. Since early times, Chinese understood
basic arithmetic (which dominated far eastern
history), algebra, equations, and negative numbers with counting rods.
[citation needed]
Although the Chinese were more focused on arithmetic and
advanced algebra for astronomical uses, they were also the first to
develop negative numbers, algebraic geometry (only Chinese
geometry) and the usage of decimals.
Math was one of the Liù Yì (六艺) or Six Arts, students were required
to master during the Zhou Dynasty (1122–256 BC). Learning them all
perfectly was required to be a perfect gentleman, or in the Chinese
sense, a "Renaissance Man". Six Arts have their roots in
the Confucian philosophy.
The oldest existent work on geometry in China comes from the
philosophical Mohist canon of c. 330 BC, compiled by the followers
of Mozi (470–390 BC). The Mo Jing described various aspects of
many fields associated with physical science, and provided a small
wealth of information on mathematics as well. It provided an 'atomic'
definition of the geometric point, stating that a line is separated into
parts, and the part which has no remaining parts (i.e. cannot be
divided into smaller parts) and thus forms the extreme end of a line is
a point.[6] Much like Euclid's first and third definitions and Plato's
'beginning of a line', the Mo Jing stated that "a point may stand at the
end (of a line) or at its beginning like a head-presentation in childbirth.
(As to its invisibility) there is nothing similar to it."[7] Similar to
the atomists of Democritus, the Mo Jing stated that a point is the
smallest unit, and cannot be cut in half, since 'nothing' cannot be
halved.[7] It stated that two lines of equal length will always finish at the
same place,[7] while providing definitions for the comparison of
lengths and for parallels,[8] along with principles of space and bounded
space.[9] It also described the fact that planes without the quality of
thickness cannot be piled up since they cannot mutually touch. [10] The
book provided word recognition for circumference, diameter, and
radius, along with the definition of volume.[11]
The history of mathematical development lacks some evidence. There
are still debates about certain mathematical classics. For example,
the Zhoubi Suanjing dates around 1200–1000 BC, yet many scholars
believed it was written between 300 and 250 BC. The Zhoubi
Suanjing contains an in-depth proof of the Gougu Theorem (a special
case of the Pythagorean Theorem) but focuses more on astronomical
calculations. However, the recent archaeological discovery of
the Tsinghua Bamboo Slips, dated c. 305 BC, has revealed some
aspects of pre-Qin mathematics, such as the first
known decimal multiplication table.[12]
The abacus was first mentioned in the second century BC, alongside
'calculation with rods' (suan zi) in which small bamboo sticks are
placed in successive squares of a checkerboard.[13]
Qin mathematics[edit]
Not much is known about Qin dynasty mathematics, or before, due to
the burning of books and burying of scholars, circa 213–210 BC.
Knowledge of this period can be determined from civil projects and
historical evidence. The Qin dynasty created a standard system of
weights. Civil projects of the Qin dynasty were significant feats of
human engineering. Emperor Qin Shihuang (秦始皇) ordered many
men to build large, lifesize statues for the palace tomb along with
other temples and shrines, and the shape of the tomb was designed
with geometric skills of architecture. It is certain that one of the
greatest feats of human history, the Great Wall of China, required
many mathematical techniques. All Qin dynasty buildings and grand
projects used advanced computation formulas for volume, area and
proportion.
Qin bamboo cash purchased at the antiquarian market of Hong
Kong by the Yuelu Academy, according to the preliminary reports,
contains the earliest epigraphic sample of a mathematical treatise.
Han mathematics[edit]
Further information: Science and technology of the Han Dynasty
§ Mathematics and astronomy
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art.
In the Han Dynasty, numbers were developed into a place value

decimal system and used on a counting board with a set of counting
rods called chousuan, consisting of only nine symbols with a blank
space on the counting board representing zero. [2] Negative numbers
and fractions were also incorporated into solutions of the great
mathematical texts of the period.[3] The mathematical texts of the time,
the Suàn shù shū and the Jiuzhang suanshu solved basic arithmetic
problems such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
[3]
Furthermore, they gave the processes for square and cubed root
extraction, which eventually was applied to solving quadratic
equations up to the third order.[4] Both texts also made substantial
progress in Linear Algebra, namely solving systems of equations with
multiple unknowns.[14] The value of pi is taken to be equal to three in
both texts.[15] However, the mathematicians Liu Xin (d. 23) and Zhang
Heng (78–139) gave more accurate approximations for pi than
Chinese of previous centuries had used.[3] Mathematics was developed
to solve practical problems in the time such as division of land or
problems related to division of payment.[16] The Chinese did not focus
on theoretical proofs based on geometry or algebra in the modern
sense of proving equations to find area or volume. [17] The Book of
Computations and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art provide
numerous practical examples that would be used in daily life. [17]
Suan shu shu[edit]
The Suàn shù shū (Writings on Reckoning or The Book of
Computations) is an ancient Chinese text on mathematics
approximately seven thousand characters in length, written on 190
bamboo strips.[18] It was discovered together with other writings in 1984
when archaeologists opened a tomb
at Zhangjiashan in Hubei province. From documentary evidence this
tomb is known to have been closed in 186 BC, early in the
Western Han dynasty.[3] While its relationship to the Nine Chapters is
still under discussion by scholars, some of its contents are clearly
paralleled there. The text of the Suan shu shu is however much less
systematic than the Nine Chapters, and appears to consist of a
number of more or less independent short sections of text drawn from
a number of sources.[18]
The Book of Computations contains many perquisites to problems that
would be expanded upon in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical
Art.[18] An example of the elementary mathematics in the Suàn shù shū,
the square root is approximated by using false position method which
says to "combine the excess and deficiency as the divisor; (taking) the
deficiency numerator multiplied by the excess denominator and the
excess numerator times the deficiency denominator, combine them as
the dividend."[18] Furthermore, The Book of Computations solves
systems of two equations and two unknowns using the same false
position method.[14]
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art[edit]
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art is a
Chinese mathematics book, its oldest archeological date being 179
AD (traditionally dated 1000 BC), but perhaps as early as 300–200
BC.[19] Although the author(s) are unknown, they made a major
contribution in the eastern world. Problems are set up with questions
immediately followed by answers and procedure.[16] There are no
formal mathematical proofs within the text, just a step-by-step
procedure.[20] The commentary of Liu Hui provided geometrical and
algebraic proofs to the problems given within the text. [2]
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art was one of the most
influential of all Chinese mathematical books and it is composed of
246 problems.[19] It was later incorporated into The Ten Computational
Canons, which became the core of mathematical education in later
centuries.[16] This book includes 246 problems on surveying,
agriculture, partnerships, engineering, taxation, calculation, the
solution of equations, and the properties of right triangles. [16] The Nine
Chapters made significant additions to solving quadratic equations in
a way similar to Horner's method.[4] It also made advanced
contributions to "fangcheng" or what is now known as linear algebra.
[14]
Chapter seven solves system of linear equations with two unknowns
using the false position method, similar to The Book of Computations.
[14]
Chapter eight deals with solving determinate and indeterminate
simultaneous linear equations using positive and negative numbers,
with one problem dealing with solving four equations in five unknowns.
[14]
The Nine Chapters solves systems of equations using methods
similar to the modern Gaussian elimination and back substitution.[14]
The version of The Nine Chapters that has served as the foundation
for modern renditions was a result of the efforts of the scholar Dai
Zhen. Transcribing the problems directly from Yongle Encyclopedia,
he then proceeded to make revisions to the original text, along with
the inclusion his own notes explaining his reasoning behind the
alterations.[21] His finished work would be first published in 1774, but a
new revision would be published in 1776 to correct various errors as
well as include a version of The Nine Chapters from the Southern
Song that contained the commentaries of Lui Hui and Li Chunfeng.
The final version of Dai Zhen's work would come in 1777, titled Ripple
Pavilion, with this final rendition being widely distributed and coming to
serve as the standard for modern versions of The Nine Chapters.
[22]
However, this version has come under scrutiny from Guo Shuchen,
alleging that the edited version still contains numerous errors and that
not all of the original amendments were done by Dai Zhen himself. [21]
Calculation of pi[edit]
Problems in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art take pi to be
equal to three in calculating problems related to circles and spheres,
such as spherical surface area.[19] There is no explicit formula given
within the text for the calculation of pi to be three, but it is used
throughout the problems of both The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art and the Artificer's Record, which was produced in
the same time period.[15] Historians believe that this figure of pi was
calculated using the 3:1 relationship between the circumference and
diameter of a circle.[19] Some Han mathematicians attempted to
improve this number, such as Liu Xin, who is believed to have
estimated pi to be 3.154.[3] Later, Liu Hui attempted to improve the
calculation by calculating pi to be 314.1024 (a low estimate of the
number). Liu calculated this number by using polygons inside a
hexagon as a lower limit compared to a circle.[23] Zu Chongzhi later
discovered the calculation of pi to be 3.1415926< π < 3.14159 by
using polygons with 24,576 sides. This calculation would be
discovered in Europe during the 16th century. [24]
There is no explicit method or record of how he calculated this
estimate.[3]
Division and root extraction[edit]
Basic arithmetic processes such as addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division were present before the Han Dynasty.[3] The Nine
Chapters on the Mathematical Art take these basic operations for
granted and simply instruct the reader to perform them. [14] Han
mathematicians calculated square and cubed roots in a similar
manner as division, and problems on division and root extraction both
occur in Chapter Four of The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art.
[25]
Calculating the squared and cubed roots of numbers is done
through successive approximation, the same as division, and often
uses similar terms such as dividend (shi) and divisor (fa) throughout
the process.[4] This process of successive approximation was then
extended to solving quadratics of the second and third order, such as ,
using a method similar to Horner's method.[4] The method was not
extended to solve quadratics of the nth order during the Han Dynasty;
however, this method was eventually used to solve these equations. [4]
Fangcheng on a counting board
Linear algebra[edit]
The Book of Computations is the first known text to solve systems of
equations with two unknowns.[14] There are a total of three sets of
problems within The Book of Computations involving solving systems
of equations with the false position method, which again are put into
practical terms.[14] Chapter Seven of The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art also deals with solving a system of two equations
with two unknowns with the false position method. [14] To solve for the
greater of the two unknowns, the false position method instructs the
reader to cross-multiply the minor terms or zi (which are the values
given for the excess and deficit) with the major terms mu.[14] To solve
for the lesser of the two unknowns, simply add the minor terms
together.[14]
Chapter Eight of The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art deals
with solving infinite equations with infinite unknowns. [14] This process is
referred to as the "fangcheng procedure" throughout the chapter.
[14]
Many historians chose to leave the term fangcheng untranslated
due to conflicting evidence of what the term means. Many historians
translate the word to linear algebra today. In this chapter, the process
of Gaussian elimination and back-substitution are used to solve
systems of equations with many unknowns.[14] Problems were done on
a counting board and included the use of negative numbers as well as
fractions.[14] The counting board was effectively a matrix, where the top
line is the first variable of one equation and the bottom was the last. [14]
Liu Hui's commentary on The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art[edit]
Liu Hui's exhaustion method
Liu Hui's commentary on The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical

Art is the earliest edition of the original text available. [19] Hui is believed
by most to be a mathematician shortly after the Han dynasty. Within
his commentary, Hui qualified and proved some of the problems from
either an algebraic or geometrical standpoint. [17] For instance,
throughout The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, the value of pi
is taken to be equal to three in problems regarding circles or spheres.
[15]
In his commentary, Liu Hui finds a more accurate estimation of pi
using the method of exhaustion.[15] The method involves creating
successive polynomials within a circle so that eventually the area of a
higher-order polygon will be identical to that of the circle. [15] From this
method, Liu Hui asserted that the value of pi is about 3.14. [3] Liu Hui
also presented a geometric proof of square and cubed root extraction
similar to the Greek method, which involved cutting a square or cube
in any line or section and determining the square root through
symmetry of the remaining rectangles. [25]
Mathematics in the period of disunity[edit]
Liu Hui's Survey of sea island

Sunzi algorithm for division 400 AD
al Khwarizmi division in the 9th century
Statue of Zu Chongzhi.
In the third century Liu Hui wrote his commentary on the Nine

Chapters and also wrote Haidao Suanjing which dealt with using
Pythagorean theorem (already known by the 9 chapters), and triple,
quadruple triangulation for surveying; his accomplishment in the
mathematical surveying exceeded those accomplished in the west by
a millennium.[26] He was the first Chinese mathematician to
calculate π=3.1416 with his π algorithm. He discovered the usage
of Cavalieri's principle to find an accurate formula for the volume of a
cylinder, and also developed elements of the infinitesimal
calculus during the 3rd century CE.
fraction interpolation for pi
In the fourth century, another influential mathematician named Zu

Chongzhi, introduced the Da Ming Li. This calendar was specifically
calculated to predict many cosmological cycles that will occur in a
period of time. Very little is really known about his life. Today, the only
sources are found in Book of Sui, we now know that Zu Chongzhi was
one of the generations of mathematicians. He used Liu Hui's pi-
algorithm applied to a 12288-gon and obtained a value of pi to 7
accurate decimal places (between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927), which
would remain the most accurate approximation of π available for the
next 900 years. He also applied He Chengtian's interpolation for
approximating irrational number with fraction in his astronomy and
mathematical works, he obtained as a good fraction approximate for
pi; Yoshio Mikami commented that neither the Greeks, nor the Hindus
nor Arabs knew about this fraction approximation to pi, not until the
Dutch mathematician Adrian Anthoniszoom rediscovered it in 1585,
"the Chinese had therefore been possessed of this the most
extraordinary of all fractional values over a whole millennium earlier
than Europe"[27]
Along with his son, Zu Geng, Zu Chongzhi applied the Cavalieri's
principle to find an accurate solution for calculating the volume of the
sphere. Besides containing formulas for the volume of the sphere, his
book also included formulas of cubic equations and the accurate value
of pi. His work, Zhui Shu was discarded out of the syllabus of
mathematics during the Song dynasty and lost. Many believed
that Zhui Shu contains the formulas and methods for linear, matrix
algebra, algorithm for calculating the value of π, formula for the
volume of the sphere. The text should also associate with his
astronomical methods of interpolation, which would contain
knowledge, similar to our modern mathematics.
A mathematical manual called Sunzi mathematical classic dated
between 200 and 400 CE contained the most detailed step by step
description of multiplication and division algorithm with counting rods.
Intriguingly, Sunzi may have influenced the development of place-
value systems and place-value systems and the associated Galley
division in the West. European sources learned place-value
techniques in the 13th century, from a Latin translation an early-9th-
century work by Al-Khwarizmi. Khwarizmi's presentation is almost
identical to the division algorithm in Sunzi, even regarding stylistic
matters (for example, using blank spaces to represent trailing zeros);
the similarity suggests that the results may not have been an
independent discovery. Islamic commentators on Al-Khwarizmi's work
believed that it primarily summarized Hindu knowledge; Al-
Khwarizmi's failure to cite his sources makes it difficult to determine
whether those sources had in turn learned the procedure from China.
[28]
In the fifth century the manual called "Zhang Qiujian suanjing"

discussed linear and quadratic equations. By this point the Chinese
had the concept of negative numbers.
Tang mathematics[edit]
By the Tang Dynasty study of mathematics was fairly standard in the
great schools. The Ten Computational Canons was a collection of ten
Chinese mathematical works, compiled by early Tang dynasty
mathematician Li Chunfeng (李淳风 602–670), as the official
mathematical texts for imperial examinations in mathematics. The Sui
dynasty and Tang dynasty ran the "School of Computations". [29]
Wang Xiaotong was a great mathematician in the beginning of
the Tang Dynasty, and he wrote a book: Jigu Suanjing (Continuation
of Ancient Mathematics), where numerical solutions which general
cubic equations appear for the first time[30]
The Tibetans obtained their first knowledge of mathematics
(arithmetic) from China during the reign of Nam-ri srong btsan, who
died in 630.[31][32]
The table of sines by the Indian mathematician, Aryabhata, were
translated into the Chinese mathematical book of the Kaiyuan
Zhanjing, compiled in 718 AD during the Tang Dynasty.[33] Although the
Chinese excelled in other fields of mathematics such as
solid geometry, binomial theorem, and
complex algebraic formulas,early forms of trigonometry were not as
widely appreciated as in the contemporary Indian and Islamic
mathematics.[34]
Yi Xing, the mathematician and Buddhist monk was credited for
calculating the tangent table. Instead, the early Chinese used
an empirical substitute known as chong cha, while practical use of
plane trigonometry in using the sine, the tangent, and the secant were
known.[33] Yi Xing was famed for his genius, and was known to have
calculated the number of possible positions on a go board game
(though without a symbol for zero he had difficulties expressing the
number).
Song and Yuan mathematics[edit]

Northern Song Dynasty mathematician Jia Xian developed an additive
multiplicative method for extraction of square root and cubic root
which implemented the "Horner" rule.[35]
Yang Hui triangle (Pascal's triangle) using rod numerals, as depicted in a publication of Zhu
Shijie in 1303 AD
Four outstanding mathematicians arose during the Song

Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, particularly in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries: Yang Hui, Qin Jiushao, Li Zhi (Li Ye), and Zhu Shijie. Yang
Hui, Qin Jiushao, Zhu Shijie all used the Horner-Ruffini method six
hundred years earlier to solve certain types of simultaneous
equations, roots, quadratic, cubic, and quartic equations. Yang Hui
was also the first person in history to discover and prove "Pascal's
Triangle", along with its binomial proof (although the earliest mention
of the Pascal's triangle in China exists before the eleventh century
AD). Li Zhi on the other hand, investigated on a form of algebraic
geometry based on tiān yuán shù. His book; Ceyuan
haijing revolutionized the idea of inscribing a circle into triangles, by
turning this geometry problem by algebra instead of the traditional
method of using Pythagorean theorem. Guo Shoujing of this era also
worked on spherical trigonometry for precise astronomical
calculations. At this point of mathematical history, a lot of modern
western mathematics were already discovered by Chinese
mathematicians. Things grew quiet for a time until the thirteenth
century Renaissance of Chinese math. This saw Chinese
mathematicians solving equations with methods Europe would not
know until the eighteenth century. The high point of this era came
with Zhu Shijie's two books Suanxue qimeng and the Siyuan yujian. In
one case he reportedly gave a method equivalent to Gauss's pivotal
condensation.
Qin Jiushao (c. 1202–1261) was the first to introduce the zero
symbol into Chinese mathematics.[36] Before this innovation, blank
spaces were used instead of zeros in the system of counting rods.
[37]
One of the most important contribution of Qin Jiushao was his
method of solving high order numerical equations. Referring to Qin's
solution of a 4th order equation, Yoshio Mikami put it: "Who can deny
the fact of Horner's illustrious process being used in China at least
nearly six long centuries earlier than in Europe?" [38] Qin also solved a
10th order equation.[39]
Pascal's triangle was first illustrated in China by Yang Hui in his
book Xiangjie Jiuzhang Suanfa (详解九章算法), although it was
described earlier around 1100 by Jia Xian.[40] Although the Introduction
to Computational Studies (算学启蒙) written by Zhu Shijie (fl. 13th
century) in 1299 contained nothing new in Chinese algebra, it had a
great impact on the development of Japanese mathematics.[41]
Algebra[edit]
Ceyuan haijing[edit]
Main article: Ceyuan haijing
Li Ye's inscribed circle in triangle:Diagram of a round town
Yang Hui's magic concentric circles – numbers on each circle and diameter (ignoring the
middle 9) sum to 138
Ceyuan haijing (Chinese: 測圓海鏡; pinyin: Cèyuán Hǎijìng), or Sea-
Mirror of the Circle Measurements, is a collection of 692 formula and
170 problems related to inscribed circle in a triangle, written by Li
Zhi (or Li Ye) (1192–1272 AD). He used Tian yuan shu to convert
intricated geometry problems into pure algebra problems. He then
used fan fa, or Horner's method, to solve equations of degree as high
as six, although he did not describe his method of solving equations.
[42]
"Li Chih (or Li Yeh, 1192–1279), a mathematician of Peking who
was offered a government post by Khublai Khan in 1206, but politely
found an excuse to decline it. His Ts'e-yuan hai-ching (Sea-Mirror of
the Circle Measurements) includes 170 problems dealing with[...]some
of the problems leading to polynomial equations of sixth degree.
Although he did not describe his method of solution of equations, it
appears that it was not very different from that used by Chu Shih-
chieh and Horner. Others who used the Horner method were Ch'in
Chiu-shao (ca. 1202 – ca.1261) and Yang Hui (fl. ca. 1261–1275).
Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns[edit]
Facsimile of Zhu Shijie's Jade Mirror of Four Unknowns
Si-yüan yü-jian (四元玉鑒), or Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns, was

written by Zhu Shijie in 1303 AD and marks the peak in the
development of Chinese algebra. The four elements, called heaven,
earth, man and matter, represented the four unknown quantities in his
algebraic equations. It deals with simultaneous equations and with
equations of degrees as high as fourteen. The author uses the method
of fan fa, today called Horner's method, to solve these equations.[43]
There are many summation series equations given without proof in
the Mirror. A few of the summation series are:[44]
Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections[edit]
Shu-shu chiu-chang, or Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections,
was written by the wealthy governor and minister Ch'in Chiu-
shao (ca. 1202 – ca. 1261 AD) and with the invention of a
method of solving simultaneous congruences, it marks the high
point in Chinese indeterminate analysis. [42]
Magic squares and magic circles[edit]
The earliest known magic squares of order greater than three
are attributed to Yang Hui (fl. ca. 1261–1275), who worked with
magic squares of order as high as ten.[45] He also worked
with magic circle.
Trigonometry[edit]
The embryonic state of trigonometry in China slowly began to
change and advance during the Song Dynasty (960–1279),
where Chinese mathematicians began to express greater
emphasis for the need of spherical trigonometry in calendarical
science and astronomical calculations.[33] The polymath Chinese
scientist, mathematician and official Shen Kuo (1031–1095)
used trigonometric functions to solve mathematical problems of
chords and arcs.[33] Victor J. Katz writes that in Shen's formula
"technique of intersecting circles", he created an approximation
of the arc of a circle s by s = c + 2v2/d, where d is
the diameter, v is the versine, c is the length of the
chord c subtending the arc.[46] Sal Restivo writes that Shen's work
in the lengths of arcs of circles provided the basis for spherical
trigonometry developed in the 13th century by the
mathematician and astronomer Guo Shoujing (1231–1316).[47] As
the historians L. Gauchet and Joseph Needham state, Guo
Shoujing used spherical trigonometry in his calculations to
improve the calendar system and Chinese astronomy.[33][48] Along
with a later 17th-century Chinese illustration of Guo's
mathematical proofs, Needham states that:
Guo used a quadrangular spherical pyramid, the basal
quadrilateral of which consisted of one equatorial and one
ecliptic arc, together with two meridian arcs, one of which passed
through the summer solstice point...By such methods he was
able to obtain the du lü (degrees of equator corresponding to
degrees of ecliptic), the ji cha (values of chords for given ecliptic
arcs), and the cha lü (difference between chords of arcs differing
by 1 degree).[49]
Despite the achievements of Shen and Guo's work in
trigonometry, another substantial work in Chinese
trigonometry would not be published again until 1607, with
the dual publication of Euclid's Elements by Chinese official
and astronomer Xu Guangqi (1562–1633) and the Italian
Jesuit Matteo Ricci (1552–1610).[50]
Ming mathematics[edit]
After the overthrow of the Yuan Dynasty, China became
suspicious of Mongol-favored knowledge. The court turned
away from math and physics in favor
of botany and pharmacology. Imperial examinations included
little mathematics, and what little they included ignored recent
developments. Martzloff writes:
At the end of the 16th century, Chinese autochthonous
mathematics known by the Chinese themselves amounted to
almost nothing, little more than calculation on the abacus,
whilst in the 17th and 18th centuries nothing could be
paralleled with the revolutionary progress in the theatre of
European science. Moreover, at this same period, no one
could report what had taken place in the more distant past,
since the Chinese themselves only had a fragmentary
knowledge of that. One should not forget that, in China itself,
autochthonous mathematics was not rediscovered on a large
scale prior to the last quarter of the 18th century. [51]
Correspondingly, scholars paid less attention to mathematics;
pre-eminent mathematicians such as Gu Yingxiang and Tang
Shunzhi appear to have been ignorant of the Tian yuan
shu (Increase multiply) method.[52] Without oral interlocutors to
explicate them, the texts rapidly became incomprehensible;
worse yet, most problems could be solved with more
elementary methods. To the average scholar,
then, tianyuan seemed numerology. When Wu Jing collated
all the mathematical works of previous dynasties into The
Annotations of Calculations in the Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art, he omitted Tian yuan shu and the increase
multiply method.[53][failed verification]
An abacus.
Instead, mathematical progress became focused on

computational tools. In 15 century, abacus came into its suan
pan form. Easy to use and carry, both fast and accurate, it
rapidly overtook rod calculus as the preferred form of
computation. Zhusuan, the arithmetic calculation through
abacus, inspired multiple new works. Suanfa
Tongzong (General Source of Computational Methods), a 17-
volume work published in 1592 by Cheng Dawei, remained in
use for over 300 years.[54] Zhu Zaiyu, Prince of Zheng used 81
position abacus to calculate the square root and cubic root of
2 to 25 figure accuracy, a precision that enabled his
development of the equal-temperament system.
Although this switch from counting rods to the abacus allowed
for reduced computation times, it may have also led to the
stagnation and decline of Chinese mathematics. The pattern
rich layout of counting rod numerals on counting boards
inspired many Chinese inventions in mathematics, such as
the cross multiplication principle of fractions and methods for
solving linear equations. Similarly, Japanese mathematicians
were influenced by the counting rod numeral layout in their
definition of the concept of a matrix. Algorithms for the
abacus did not lead to similar conceptual advances. (This
distinction, of course, is a modern one: until the 20th century,
Chinese mathematics was exclusively a computational
science.[55])
In the late 16th century, Matteo Ricci decided to published
Western scientific works in order to establish a position at the
Imperial Court. With the assistance of Xu Guangqi, he was
able to translate Euclid's Elements using the same
techniques used to teach classical Buddhist texts.[56] Other
missionaries followed in his example, translating Western
works on special functions (trigonometry and logarithms) that
were neglected in the Chinese tradition.[57] However,
contemporary scholars found the emphasis on proofs — as
opposed to solved problems — baffling, and most continued
to work from classical texts alone. [58]
Qing dynasty[edit]
Under the Western-educated Kangxi Emperor, Chinese
mathematics enjoyed a brief period of official support. [59] At
Kangxi's direction, Mei Goucheng and three other
outstanding mathematicians compiled a 53-volume Shuli
Jingyun [The Essence of Mathematical Study] (printed 1723)
which gave a systematic introduction to western
mathematical knowledge.[60] At the same time, Mei Goucheng
also developed to Meishi Congshu Jiyang [The Compiled
works of Mei]. Meishi Congshu Jiyang was an encyclopedic
summary of nearly all schools of Chinese mathematics at that
time, but it also included the cross-cultural works of Mei
Wending (1633-1721), Goucheng's grandfather.[61][62] The
enterprise sought to alleviate the difficulties for Chinese
mathematicians working on Western mathematics in tracking
down citations.[63]
However, no sooner were the encyclopedias published than
the Yongzheng Emperor acceded to the throne. Yongzheng
introduced a sharply anti-Western turn to Chinese policy, and
banished most missionaries from the Court. With access to
neither Western texts nor intelligible Chinese ones, Chinese
mathematics stagnated.
In 1773, the Qianlong Emperor decided to compile Siku
Quanshu (The Complete Library of the Four Treasuries). Dai
Zhen (1724-1777) selected and proofread The Nine Chapters
on the Mathematical Art from Yongle Encyclopedia and
several other mathematical works from Han and Tang
dynasties.[64] The long-missing mathematical works from Song
and Yuan dynasties such as Si-yüan yü-jian and Ceyuan
haijing were also found and printed, which directly led to a
wave of new research.[65] The most annotated work
were Jiuzhang suanshu xicaotushuo (The Illustrations of
Calculation Process for The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art ) contributed by Li Huang and Siyuan yujian
xicao (The Detailed Explanation of Si-yuan yu-jian) by Luo
Shilin.[66]
Western influences[edit]
In 1840, the First Opium War forced China to open its door
and looked at the outside world, which also led to an influx of
western mathematical studies at a rate unrivaled in the
previous centuries. In 1852, the Chinese mathematician Li
Shanlan and the British missionary Alexander Wylie co-
translated the later nine volumes of Elements and 13 volumes
on Algebra.[67][68] With the assistance of Joseph Edkins, more
works on astronomy and calculus soon followed. Chinese
scholars were initially unsure whether to approach the new
works: was study of Western knowledge a form of submission
to foreign invaders? But by the end of the century, it became
clear that China could only begin to recover its sovereignty by
incorporating Western works. Chinese scholars, taught in
Western missionary schools, from (translated) Western texts,
rapidly lost touch with the indigenous tradition. As Martzloff
notes, "from 1911 onwards, solely Western mathematics has
been practised in China."[69]
Western mathematics in modern China[edit]
Chinese mathematics experienced a great surge of revival
following the establishment of a modern Chinese republic in
1912. Ever since then, modern Chinese mathematicians have
made numerous achievements in various mathematical fields.
Some famous modern ethnic Chinese mathematicians
include:
 Shiing-Shen Chern was widely regarded as a leader

in geometry and one of the greatest mathematicians
of the twentieth century and was awarded the Wolf
prize for his immense number of mathematical
contributions.[70][71]
 Ky Fan, made a tremendous number of fundamental
contributions to many different fields of mathematics.
His work in fixed point theory, in addition to
influencing nonlinear functional analysis, has found
wide application in mathematical economics and
game theory, potential theory, calculus of variations,
and differential equations.
 Shing-Tung Yau, his contributions have influenced
both physics and mathematics, and he has been
active at the interface between geometry
and theoretical physics and subsequently awarded
the Fields medal for his contributions.
 Terence Tao, an ethnic Chinese child prodigy who
received his master's degree at age 16, was the
youngest participant in the International Mathematical
Olympiad's entire history, first competing at the age
of ten, winning a bronze, silver, and gold medal. He
remains the youngest winner of each of the three
medals in the Olympiad's history. He went on to
receive the Fields medal.
 Yitang Zhang, a number theorist who established the
first finite bound on gaps between prime numbers.
 Chen Jingrun, a number theorist who proved that
every sufficiently large even number can be written
as the sum of either two primes, or a prime and
a semiprime (the product of two primes) which is now
called Chen's theorem .[72] His work was known as a
milestone in the research of Goldbach's conjecture.
Mathematics in the People's Republic of

China[edit]
In 1949, at the beginning of the founding of the People's
Republic of China, the government paid great attention to the
cause of science although the country was in a predicament
of lack of funds. The Chinese Academy of Sciences was
established in November 1949. The Institute of Mathematics
was formally established in July 1952. Then, the Chinese
Mathematical Society and its founding journals restored and
added other special journals. In the 18 years after 1949, the
number of published papers accounted for more than three
times the total number of articles before 1949. Many of them
not only filled the gaps in China's past, but also reached the
world's advanced level.[73]
During the chaos of the Cultural Revolution, the sciences
declined. In the field of mathematics, in addition to Chen
Jingrun, Hua Luogeng, Zhang Guanghou and other
mathematicians struggling to continue their work. After the
catastrophe, with the publication of Guo Moruo's literary
"Spring of Science", Chinese sciences and mathematics
experienced a revival. In 1977, a new mathematical
development plan was formulated in Beijing, the work of the
mathematics society was resumed, the journal was re-
published, the academic journal was published, the
mathematics education was strengthened, and basic
theoretical research was strengthened.[73]
An important mathematical achievement of the Chinese
mathematician in the direction of the power system is how Xia
Zhihong proved the Painleve conjecture in 1988. When there
are some initial states of N celestial bodies, one of the
celestial bodies ran to infinity or speed in a limited time.
Infinity is reached, that is, there are non-collision singularities.
The Painleve conjecture is an important conjecture in the field
of power systems proposed in 1895. A very important recent
development for the 4-body problem is that Xue Jinxin and
Dolgopyat proved a non-collision singularity in a simplified
version of the 4-body system around 2013.[74]
In addition, in 2007, Shen Weixiao and Kozlovski, Van-Strien
proved the Real Fatou conjecture: Real hyperbolic
polynomials are dense in the space of real polynomials with
fixed degree. This conjecture can be traced back to Fatou in
the 1920s, and later Smale proposed him in the 1960s. Axiom
A, and guess that the hyperbolic system should be dense in
any system, but this is not true when the dimension is greater
than or equal to 2, because there is homoclinic tangencies.
The work of Shen Weixiao and others is equivalent to
confirming that Smale's conjecture is correct in one
dimension. The proof of Real Fatou conjecture is one of the
most important developments in conformal dynamics in the
past decade.[74]
Performance at the IMO[edit]
In comparison to other participating countries at
the International Mathematical Olympiad, China has highest
team scores and has won the all-members-gold IMO with a
full team the most number of times.[75]
1. Reference.
2. ^ Jami, Catherine (2011-12-01). "A mathematical scholar in
Jiangnan: The first half-life of Mei Wending". The Emperor's New
Mathematics: Western Learning and Imperial Authority During the
Kangxi Reign (1662-1722). Oxford University Press. pp. 82–
101. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199601400.003.0005. ISBN 9780
199601400. Retrieved 2018-07-28.
3. ^ Elman, Benjamin A. (2005). On their own terms : science in
China, 1550-1900. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press. ISBN 9780674036475. OCLC 443109938.
4. .
5. ^ Jean-Claude Martzloff, A History of Chinese Mathematics,
Springer 1997 ISBN 3-540-33782-2
6. ^ Catherine, Jami (2012). The emperor's new mathematics :
Western learning and imperial authority during the Kangxi Reign
(1662-1722). Oxford: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 9780191729218. OCLC 774104121.
7. ^ Carlyle, Edward Irving (1900). "Wylie, Alexander". In Lee,
Sidney. Dictionary of National Biography. 63. London: Smith, Elder &
Co.
How do Chinese do math?

The Chinese Method, or stick method, of multiplication involves properly placing and crossing
sticks. You simply lay out sticks consistent with the place values of the digits being multiplied.
Then, you count the places where the sticks cross.
Why is Chinese good at math?
“The digit system is very simple in Chinese,” Leung says, “making at least arithmetic very easy
to learn.” Researchers of early childhood education have found that the way a language
describes numbers can affect how quickly children do sums.Oct 1, 2020
What is the Chinese number system?
The Chinese numeration system is a decimal (base-ten) system, unlike other systems such
as the Babylonian (sexagesimal or base-sixty) or the Mayan (vigesimal or base-twenty).
What is the true meaning of mathematics?
Mathematics (from Greek: μάθημα, máthēma, 'knowledge, study, learning') includes the study
of such topics as quantity (number theory), structure (algebra), space (geometry), and change
(mathematical analysis). It has no generally accepted definition.
Why are Japanese so good at math?
Unlike traditional methods in the U.S. that stress memorization, Japanese math emphasizes
problem solving. Its sansu arithmetic aligns with the Common Core standards, providing a
strong incentive for teachers to adopt the pedagogy.Oct 17, 2016
Are Indians good at maths?
Indian students are great at textbook math, but can hardly solve real-world problems. Not
really learning. It's widely believed that Indians are really good at math. ... The kids included in
the analysis were enrolled from class 6 to class 10 across over 70 Indian cities.May 8, 2019
Who is smarter Chinese or Japanese?
Chinese students are the smartest. Slightly smarter than Japanese or Korean students,
definitely smarter than the smartest Europeans, and even intellectually superior to their
American peers.Jan 3, 2020
How smart are Chinese students?
Chinese students far out-stripped peers in every other country in a survey of reading, math
and science ability, underscoring a reserve of future economic strength and the struggle of
advanced economies to keep up.Dec 3, 2019
Are Japanese good at math?
The Japanese have really high education standards. Their math standards, therefore, are also
very high. This does not, however, mean that all Japanese people are good at math. Some
are, some aren't, some are better at arts, others are lazy, and other still are shut-ins that never
leave their rooms.Mar 19, 2018
How does China number look?
In mainland China, mobile phone numbers have 11 digits in the format 1xx-xxxx-xxxx (except
for 140-144, which are 13-digit IoT numbers), in which the first three digits (13x to 19x)
designate the mobile phone service provider.
Did the Chinese invent math?

Mathematics in China emerged independently by the 11th century BC.
The Chinese independently developed a real number system that includes significantly large
and negative numbers, more than one numeral system (base 2 and base 10), algebra,
geometry, number theory and trigonometry.
How are Chinese numbers written?
The Chinese character numeral system consists of the Chinese characters used by
the Chinese written language to write spoken numerals. Similar to spelling-out numbers in
English (e.g., "one thousand nine hundred forty-five"), it is not an independent system per se.
How do Chinese do math?

The Chinese Method, or stick method, of multiplication involves properly placing and
crossing sticks. You simply lay out sticks consistent with the place values of the digits
being multiplied. Then, you count the places where the sticks cross.
What is the Chinese Multiplication Method? - Video & Lesson ...

study.com › academy › what-is-the-chinese-multiplication...
Search for: How do Chinese do math?

Why is Chinese good at math?
“The digit system is very simple in Chinese,” Leung says, “making at least arithmetic
very easy to learn.” Researchers of early childhood education have found that the way a
language describes numbers can affect how quickly children do sums. Oct 1, 2020
Why are Chinese students so good at maths? | South China
Morning ...
www.scmp.com › lifestyle › arts-culture › article › why-ar...
Search for: Why is Chinese good at math?

What is the Chinese number system?
The Chinese numeration system is a decimal (base-ten) system, unlike
other systems such as the Babylonian (sexagesimal or base-sixty) or the Mayan
(vigesimal or base-twenty).
The Chinese Numeration System and Place Value

www.4j.lane.edu › wp-content › uploads › 2014/10 › chi...
Search for: What is the Chinese number system?

What is the true meaning of mathematics?
Mathematics (from Greek: μάθημα, máthēma, 'knowledge, study, learning') includes
the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), structure (algebra), space
(geometry), and change (mathematical analysis). It has no generally
accepted definition.
Mathematics - Wikipedia
en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Mathematics
Search for: What is the true meaning of mathematics?

Why are Japanese so good at math?
Unlike traditional methods in the U.S. that stress memorization, Japanese
math emphasizes problem solving. Its sansu arithmetic aligns with the Common Core
standards, providing a strong incentive for teachers to adopt the pedagogy. Oct 17, 2016
Why Japanese students excel at mathematics | The Japan Times

www.japantimes.co.jp › commentary › world-commentary
Search for: Why are Japanese so good at math?

Are Indians good at maths?
Indian students are great at textbook math, but can hardly solve real-world problems.
Not really learning. It's widely believed that Indians are really good at math. ... The
kids included in the analysis were enrolled from class 6 to class 10 across over
70 Indian cities.May 8, 2019
Are Indian students celebrating 10th class result good at math ...
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Search for: Are Indians good at maths?

Who is smarter Chinese or Japanese?
Chinese students are the smartest. Slightly smarter than Japanese or Korean
students, definitely smarter than the smartest Europeans, and even intellectually
superior to their American peers.Jan 3, 2020
Are Chinese students really the smartest? - Vox magazine - Voxweb

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How smart are Chinese students?
Chinese students far out-stripped peers in every other country in a survey of reading,
math and science ability, underscoring a reserve of future economic strength and the
struggle of advanced economies to keep up.Dec 3, 2019
China's Schoolkids Are Now Officially the Smartest in the World ...
fortune.com › 2019/12/03 › china-students-prisa-oecd-ed...
Search for: How smart are Chinese students?

Are Japanese good at math?
The Japanese have really high education standards. Their math standards, therefore,
are also very high. This does not, however, mean that all Japanese people are good at
math. Some are, some aren't, some are better at arts, others are lazy, and other still
are shut-ins that never leave their rooms. Mar 19, 2018
Are Japanese good at maths? - Quora

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Search for: Are Japanese good at math?

How does China number look?
In mainland China, mobile phone numbers have 11 digits in the format 1xx-xxxx-xxxx
(except for 140-144, which are 13-digit IoT numbers), in which the first three digits (13x
to 19x) designate the mobile phone service provider.
Telephone numbers in China - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Telephone_numbers_in_China
Search for: How does China number look?

Did the Chinese invent math?
Mathematics in China emerged independently by the 11th century BC.
The Chinese independently developed a real number system that includes significantly
large and negative numbers, more than one numeral system (base 2 and base 10),
algebra, geometry, number theory and trigonometry.
Chinese mathematics - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Chinese_mathematics
Search for: Did the Chinese invent math?

How are Chinese numbers written?
The Chinese character numeral system consists of the Chinese characters used by
the Chinese written language to write spoken numerals. Similar to spelling-
out numbers in English (e.g., "one thousand nine hundred forty-five"), it is not an
independent system per se.
Chinese numerals - Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Chinese_numerals
Search for: How are Chinese numbers written?

What is Mathematics in simple words?
Mathematics is the study of numbers, shapes and patterns. The word comes from the
Greek word "μάθημα" (máthema), meaning "science, knowledge, or learning", and is
sometimes shortened to maths (in England, Australia, Ireland, and New Zealand)
or math (in the United States and Canada). ... Numbers: how things can be counted.
Mathematics - Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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What is Mathematics modern world?
In a modern world, math such as applied mathematics is not only relevant, it's crucial.
Applied mathematics is the branches of mathematics that are involved in the study of
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group of methods that solve problems in science. Aug 16, 2013
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Mathematics is a methodical application of matter. Mathematics makes our life orderly
and prevents chaos. Mathematics is also the power of our reasoning, creativity, critical
thinking and problem-solving ability. Aug 3, 2015
The importance of maths in everyday life | Guwahati News - Times

of ...
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Does China use common core math?
Singapore and China are two good examples of countries with rigorous standards.
Each has a strong early focus on math and science.
The Global Roots of the Common Core State Standards | Asia Society
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How is the education in Japan?
The Japanese school system primarily consists of six-year elementary schools, three-
year junior high schools and three-year high schools, followed by a two-or-three-year
junior colleges or a four-year colleges. Compulsory education lasts for 9 years through
elementary and junior high school.
JAPANESE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM | JAPAN Educational Travel

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Why was common core math created?
As much as supporters emphasize the democratic origin of the standards and count out
the dozens of experts and teachers who were consulted, the Common Core
math standards were ultimately crafted by three guys whose only goal was to improve
the way mathematics is taught.Dec 29, 2014
The Man Behind Common Core Math : NPR Ed : NPR

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Which country is best at math?
South Korea, a country known as an avid innovator among the global science leaders,
topped the 2017 list of best mathematics students at the International Mathematical
Olympiad for the second time in the history of the competition. Mar 13, 2018
These Are the Countries With the Most Gold Medals in Math | Best ...
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Which country has the best mathematicians?
Top nations in mathematics
Country Papers Citations per paper
1 Denmark 1,477 4.49
2 Scotland 2,153 4.39
3 United States 69,395 4.36
4 England 12,265 4.24

16 more rows
•
May 7, 2009
Top nations in mathematics | Times Higher Education (THE)

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Is India is a famous country?
Country. India is the 54th most popular country and the 45th most famous. India is
described by fans as: Cultural, Atmospheric, The people are great, Good cuisine and
Diverse.
India popularity & fame | YouGov

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Who invented algebra first?
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was a 9th-century Muslim mathematician and
astronomer. He is known as the "father of algebra", a word derived from the title of his
book, Kitab al-Jabr.Oct 20, 2015
Al-Khwarizmi: The Father of Algebra | Middle East | Al Jazeera

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What is the definition of calculus?
Calculus, originally called infinitesimal calculus or "the calculus of infinitesimals", is
the mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the
study of shape and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations.
Calculus - Wikipedia
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How do you get a field medal?
The Fields Medal is awarded every four years on the occasion of the International
Congress of Mathematicians to recognize outstanding mathematical achievement for
existing work and for the promise of future achievement.
Fields Medal | International Mathematical Union (IMU)

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What's the smartest race in the world?
Japan goes straight to the top of the class. The top 25 countries by Nobel Prize are,
unsurprisingly, dominated by the Western world – what with it being a Western
institution and all.
...
Ranked: The 25 Smartest Countries In The World.
Ranking Country % of students achieving advanced scores
1 Singapore 71.37
2 South Korea 66.85
3 Hong Kong 66.66
4 Taiwan 63.21
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Jan 11, 2019
Ranked: The 25 Smartest Countries In The World - Forbes

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What country has the highest IQ?
The countries with the top highest tested IQ scores are the industrialized developed
East Asian countries of Taiwan (104), Singapore (108), Japan (105), South Korea
(106) and China (105), followed by North American and European countries such as the
United States (98) and United Kingdom (100).
Nations and intelligence quotient - Wikipedia

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Who is the smartest person in the world?
Born in Boston in 1898, William James Sidis made the headlines in the early 20th
century as a child prodigy with an amazing intellect. His IQ was estimated to be 50 to
100 points higher than Albert Einstein's. He could read the New York Times before he
was 2.Jan 23, 2011
Meet William James Sidis: The Smartest Guy Ever? : NPR

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Are Japanese students smart?
Ten percent of the Japanese have an IQ higher than 130, compared with only 2 percent
of Americans and Europeans, Lynn found. And even by age 6, Japanese youngsters
are measurably ahead of other children, making it unlikely that the differences are due
solely to the rigid, rigorous Japanese school system.Nov 24, 1985
HOW JAPAN BUILDS BRAINS - Chicago Tribune

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How is Japanese taught in Japan?
During their six years in elementary school, Japanese children learn over 1,000 kanji. In
this time, they greatly increase their reading sophistication, moving from picture books
to short novels and simple biographies. ... Often there is a short sentence or two
highlighting different readings or words that use the kanji. Jun 13, 2016
How Japanese Children Learn Kanji | Nippon.com

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How long has Common Core Math been around?
The state-led effort to develop the Common Core State Standards was launched in
2009 by state leaders, including governors and state commissioners of education from
48 states, two territories and the District of Columbia, through their membership in the
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA ...
Development Process | Common Core State Standards Initiative

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Which country code is 44?
the United Kingdom's
For instance, France's country code is 33, and the United Kingdom's country code is
44.
International Calling Codes | Telephone Country Codes List

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What country has 88 area code?
International prefixes table
Country or unrecognized territory Interna- tional Calling Code Mobile Prefix
87
88
Bulgaria +359
89
988
165 more rows
List of mobile telephone prefixes by country - Wikipedia

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How do I call a cell phone in China from the US?
Call a Chinese cell phone from the US
1. Dial 011, the exit code.
2. Dial 86, the country code for China.
3. Dial 187-7861-2574, the mobile number.
Jun 20, 2019
How to call China from the US | 8x8

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Where did mathematics came from?
The earliest evidence of written mathematics dates back to the ancient Sumerians,
who built the earliest civilization in Mesopotamia. They developed a complex system of
metrology from 3000 BC.
History of mathematics - Wikipedia

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What is the curriculum in China?
The primary school curriculum consists of Chinese, mathematics, physical education,
music, basic science, history and geography, combined with practical work experience
around the school campus. All primary schools are required to offer courses on morality
and ethics and English is often introduced in grade four. Mar 20, 2008
Chinese education: How do things work? - OpenLearn - Open ...

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When was the Mayan number system created?
fourth century
The Mayan number system dates back to the fourth century and was approximately
1,000 years more advanced than the Europeans of that time. This system is unique to
our current decimal system, which has a base 10, in that the Mayan's used a vigesimal
system, which had a base 20.
Number Systems
www.math.wichita.edu › history › Topics › num-sys
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Is there an alphabet in Chinese?
There is no original alphabet native to China. China has its Pinyin system though
sometimes the term is used anyway to refer to logographic Chinese characters
(sinograms). It is more appropriately used, though, for phonemic transcriptions such as
pinyin.
Chinese alphabet - Wikipedia
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Is in Chinese language?
The official dialect of China is Mandarin, also call “Putonghua”. More than 70% of
the Chinese population speaks Mandarin, but there are also several other major
dialects in use in China: Yue (Cantonese), Xiang (Hunanese), Min dialect, Gan dialect,
Wu dialect, and Kejia or Hakka dialect.
Chinese Language | EthnoMed

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How do we read Chinese script?
Traditionally, Chinese text was written in vertical columns which were read from top to
bottom, right-to-left; the first column being on the right side of the page, and the last
column on the left. ... The use of punctuation has also become more common, whether
the text is written in columns or rows.
Written Chinese - Wikipedia

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How is mathematics used in today's world?
It gives us a way to understand patterns, to quantify relationships, and to predict the
future. ... Math is a powerful tool for global understanding and communication. Using it,
students can make sense of the world and solve complex and real problems.
Understanding the World Through Math | Asia Society

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What are the uses of mathematics in our daily life?
Math Matters in Everyday Life
 Managing money $$$
 Balancing the checkbook.
 Shopping for the best price.
 Preparing food.
 Figuring out distance, time and cost for travel.
 Understanding loans for cars, trucks, homes, schooling or other purposes.
 Understanding sports (being a player and team statistics)
 Playing music.
More items...
Math Matters in Everyday Life - NIU - Math Matters

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What is mathematics course?
You can expect to study a range of introductory courses in your first year, covering
key mathematics topics such as abstract algebra, calculus, complex numbers,
differential equations, geometry, number theory, probability and statistics.
Mathematics Degrees: Courses Structure, Specializations & Career ...

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Why do we need to study mathematics in the modern world?
A degree in math is a professional pathway for those interested in solutions and solving
real-world problems. It's an important discipline to study because many roles require a
basic or advanced understanding of mathematical concepts. Mathematics is
the study of quantity, structure, space and change. ... We need math.Aug 7, 2020
What Is a Degree in Math and Why Is It Important? | SNHU

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What are the benefits of learning mathematics?
Here are six more reasons to study mathematics.
 Excellent for your brain. Creative and analytical skills are highly desired by
employers. ...
 Real-world applications. ...
 Better problem-solving skills. ...
 Helps almost every career. ...
 Helps understand the world better. ...
 It is the universal language.
Aug 14, 2019
6 Reasons to Study Mathematics - PhD
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Is Mathematics the most important subject?
Men overwhelmingly say math has been the most valuable subject in their lives, with
English and science essentially tied for second. Women are as likely to mention English
as math as the most valuable subject.Sep 4, 2013
Americans Grade Math as the Most Valuable School Subject

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What are 10 facts in math?
40 Facts About Numbers That Will Make You Feel Like a Mathematical Genius
 "Hundred" Doesn't Mean 100. ...
 There Is Only One Even Prime Number. ...
 The Square Root of Two Is Called "Pythagoras' Constant." ...
 Zero Is the Only Number That Can't Be Represented In Roman Numerals. ...
 Different Cultures Discovered Zero at Different Times.
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•
Jan 17, 2019
40 Facts About Numbers That Will Make You Feel Like a ... - Best Life
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Do teachers like Common Core?
What's wrong with Common Core?
Why is math taught differently now?

The reason for teaching conceptual understanding is to help students to see
connections between the math they're learning and the math they already know. This
can be especially empowering for kids with learning and thinking differences. It prepares
them to solve the real-world problems they will face in the future. Jan 15, 2015
Why Math Is Taught Differently Today | Expert Corner -

Understood.org
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What country is #1 in education?
Canada
Number 1: Canada.
This country tops the list as the most educated in the world, with 56.27 percent of adults
having earned some kind of higher education.
Here Are the 10 Most Educated Countries in the World - U.S.

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Which country has the best education system?
 United States. #1 in Education Rankings. #2 out of 80 in 2019. ...
 United Kingdom. #2 in Education Rankings. ...
 Canada. #3 in Education Rankings. ...
 Germany. #4 in Education Rankings. ...
 France. #5 in Education Rankings. ...
 Switzerland. #6 in Education Rankings. ...
 Australia. #7 in Education Rankings. ...
 Sweden. #8 in Education Rankings.
More items...
Best Countries for Education | US News Best Countries

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Why is Japan's education system so good?
The Japanese education system believes that requiring students to clean up after
themselves teaches them to work in a team and help each other. ... 3)
In Japanese schools, school lunch is provided on a standardised menu.
The Japanese education system does its best to ensure that the students eat healthy
and balanced meals.Nov 8, 2020
Why is the Japanese education system the envy of the world ...
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What is the point of new math?
Who invented new math?
Is Common Core math better?
What is the richest country in the world?

United States
United States is the richest country in the world, and it has the biggest wealth gap. The
United States led the world in growth of financial assets last year thanks to tax cuts and
booming stock markets, but its distribution of wealth was more unequal than in any
other country, according to a study published Wednesday. Sep 23, 2020

Roman Mathematics - Numerals & Arithmetic: Century BCE, The Roman

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ROMAN MATHEMATICS – Numerals &

Roman numerals are well

The importance of astronomy and calendar calculations in Mayan society required

Vigesimal – Base 20 Number System

However, due to the geographical disconnect, Mayan and Mesoamerican

The Mayan Number System

The Mayan numbers 0-20 © Immanuel Giel/WikiCommons

Maths and Astronomy in Ancient Mayan Mexico

The Mayans were also talented astronomers © ESA/Hubble/WikiCommons

The Mayan Numeral System

 Become familiar with the history of positional number

As you might imagine, the development of a base system is an

Powers Base-Ten Value Place Name

207 12,800,000,000 Hablat

206 64,000,000 Alau

205 3,200,000 Kinchil

204 160,000 Cabal

203 8,000 Pic

202 400 Bak

The Mayan Number System

Instead, we will focus on the numeration system of the “common”

When numbers are written in vertical form, there should never be

What is the value of this number, which is shown in vertical form?

What is the value of the following Mayan number?

Convert the Mayan number below to base 10.

Convert the base 10 number 357510 to Mayan numerals.

Convert the base 10 number 1055310 to Mayan numerals.

In the following video we present more examples of how to write

The next video shows more examples of converting base 10 numbers

Adding Mayan Numbers

Add, in Mayan, the numbers 37 and 29:

In the last video we show more examples of adding Mayan numerals.

In this module, we have briefly sketched the development of numbers

What is the value of this number, which is shown in vertical form?

Hence we can write this number in base-ten as:

What is the value of this number, which is shown in vertical form?

Hence we can write this number in base-ten as:

What is the value of the following Mayan number?

Convert the Mayan number below to base 10.

Convert the base 10 number 3575 to Mayan numerals.

we’d write 17,6,13 .

Convert the base 10 number 10553 to Mayan numerals.

Convert the base 10 number 5617 to Mayan numerals.

In the following video we present more examples of how to write

The next video shows more examples of converting base 10 numbers

Adding Mayan Numbers

Add, in Mayan, the numbers 37 and 29:

The Mayan Mathematics

The people of the Yucatán

In order to understand how

A small number of Mayan documents survived destruction by Landa. The most

The Maya Number System

The decimal mathematical system widely used today originated by counting

Here are the Mayan numerals.

Characteristics of The Maya

a) It is vigesimal, this means that it is based on 20 units [0 - 19] instead of the

c) It also uses a vigesimal positioning system, in which numbers in higher

Numb Place' Equal Equals

d) Numbers in the Maya system can be written vertically or horizontally. In

Mayan Names For Numbers

1 hun 11 buluc 20 hun kal 400 hun bak

2 caa 12 lahca 40 ca kal 800 ca bak

3 ox 13 oxlahun 60 ox kal 1200 ox bak