SCIENCE CHINA

Technological Sciences
•Review•
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11431-019-1501-3
............................

Development of acoustic liner in aero engine: a review

*
MA XuQiang & SU ZhengTao
Aviation Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Materials and Application Research for Vibration and Noise Reduction,
AECC Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials, Beijing 100095, China
Received July 29, 2019; accepted December 11, 2019; published online August 11, 2020

Noise reduction for aircraft engine has attracted great concern due to the strict noise control regulation nowadays. Conventional
perforated sheet-over-honeycomb acoustic liners have been widely used to attenuate turbofan engine noise. To dampen the
broadband noise and resist the harsh service conditions with high temperature and pressure in modern turbofan engine, new
acoustic liner concepts are proposed and evaluated in the latest decade. In this review, available studies regarding the recent
development of liners are gathered. The paper starts with the introduction of acoustic absorption mechanism of local-reacting and
extended-reacting liners. The progress of novel passive liners (e.g., mesh-cap liner, variable-depth liner, metal foam liner, hybrid
liner, etc.) is summarized. Furthermore, adaptive liners with tunable geometry dimension or bias flow are illustrated in details.
Metamaterial is also mentioned as a hot candidate in the next generation of acoustic liners. Finally, this review identifies benefits
and some technical challenges with the goal of unveiling the potential of novel acoustic liner technologies in aero engine.
aero engine, noise, acoustic liner, Helmholtz resonators, composites

Citation: Ma X Q, Su Z T. Development of acoustic liner in aero engine: a review. Sci China Tech Sci, 2020, 63, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11431-019-1501-3

1 Introduction Chapter 14 requires 7 dB reduction based on Chapter 4 and

With the increase of air traffic, aircraft noise inevitably and
adversely influences the life quality of people near airport.
High noise levels associated with commercial and military
aircraft have attracted growing concern and strong demand
for noise attenuation. The aircraft noise regulations are firstly
proposed by United Nation’s International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) Annex 16 and by the United States
Government’s Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) Part 36 in the
late 1960’s. Figure 1 gives the cumulative effective per-
ceived noise decibel (EPNdB) relative to Chapter 3 limit for
airplanes in the past several decades. It is found that Chapter
4 limit is implemented in 2006 and shows a 10 dB decrease
compared with Chapter 3. ICAO adopts a new noise standard
(Chapter 14) for certain newly certificated subsonic jet air-
planes and subsonic transport category large airplanes.
*Corresponding author (email: mxqqdu@126.com)
applies to any person submitting an application for a new
airplane type design with a maximum certificated takeoff
weight of 55000 kg or more on or after December 31, 2017;
or with maximum certificated takeoff weight of less than
55000 kg on or after December 31, 2020. Also, the strict
noise control standards drive the engineers to design and
manufacture quieter aircraft with advanced aero engine.
Generally, aircraft noise can be categorized into two
components, engine noise and airframe noise. Jet noise and
fan noise are two key contributors of engine noise as pre-
sented in Figure 2 [1]. With the development of high bypass
ratio for turbofan engine, fan noise is an increasingly im-
portant part for overall turbofan engine noise. Placing
acoustic liners on the internal wall of nacelle is a conven-
tional engine noise attenuation method as shown in Figure 2.
Historically, acoustic liners are typically fabricated by a
hard-backed honeycomb and perforated face plate, behaving
like a quarter-wavelength resonator. The perforated face

© Science China Press and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020 tech.scichina.com link.springer.com
2 Ma X Q, et al.
Figure 1 (Color online) Noise control standards for modern airplanes.
Figure 2 (Color online) Noise radiation pattern of aircraft engine [1].
plate not only enhances sound absorption of the liner but also
maintains the aerodynamic flow as smooth as possible on the
internal wall of nacelle. This perforated plate-over-honey-
comb acoustic liner is called single degree of freedom
(SDOF) design as shown in Figure 3(a). The traditional
SDOF liner creates a narrow absorption spectra and the
maximum absorption occurs at the resonant frequency which
is dependent on the depth of honeycomb core. Effective
noise absorption at low frequency range means larger hon-
eycomb depth. However, the compact structure in aero en-
gine allows of no extra space for huge acoustic liner.
Moreover, in order to broaden the noise absorption band-
width, a septum is used to separate honeycomb into two
parts, forming double degree of freedom (DDOF) config-
uration as presented in Figure 3(b) [3]. Noise absorption
bandwidth of DDOF liner is improved with the penalty of
complicated structure and excessive weight.
Metallic materials such as steel and aluminum are applied
to manufacture acoustic liner and reduce the noise emitted
from inlet and aft nacelle ducts in the early decades (e.g., fan
inlet acoustic liner in RB-211 aero engine). Harsh environ-
ment with high temperature and flow pressure prevents
acoustic liner from compressor and combustion regions.
Also, conventional liner is prone to exhibit strong resonance
Sci China Tech Sci
Figure 3 (Color online) Schematics of basic structures of (a) SDOF and
(b) DDOF liners [2].
behavior, resulting in narrow absorption bandwidth. Thus it
is only suitable for noise in specific flight regime. Once the
noise frequencies shift away from the resonant frequency of
acoustic liner with fixed geometry parameters, noise reduc-
tion effect may give a dramatic decrease.
Based on the problems above, installation space saving,
weight reduction, harsh environment tolerance and tunable
absorption frequency are key factors for the future devel-
opment of acoustic liners. It is necessary to gather the new
progress of acoustic liner concepts in recent years and pre-
sent an insightful view on the potential application of aero
engine noise attenuation.
This paper is organized as follows. Sect. 2 illustrates the
acoustic absorption mechanism of local-reacting liner and
extended-reacting liner. In Sect. 3, some new passive
acoustic liners, including mesh-cap liner, variable-depth
liner, metal foam liner and hybrid acoustic liner are pre-
sented. Furthermore, adaptive acoustic liners by tunable
geometry dimensions or bias flow are summarized in Sect. 4.
Novel metamaterial liner is introduced in Sect. 5. Benefits
and challenges of these new acoustic liner concepts are
analyzed in Sect. 6 and Sect. 7, respectively. Finally, some
conclusion remarks can be found in Sect. 8.
2 Acoustic absorption mechanism
Conventional SDOF acoustic liner contains honeycomb core
with impervious cavity walls. Sound wave cannot run par-
allel with the perforated face plate due to the blocking of
impervious cavity walls. Only vertical sound wave is free to
spread. Therefore, SDOF acoustic liner is equivalent to a
uniform array of Helmholtz resonators. Figure 4(a) shows
the schematic of typical Helmholtz resonator which is one of
the representative resonators in SDOF liner. The resonant
frequency f of the Helmholtz resonator can be obtained from
the following formula:
c S
f= , (1)
2 V (l + l)
 Ma X Q, et al.
Figure 4 (Color online) Schematics of (a) local-reacting liner and (b)
extended-reacting liner [4].
where S is the orifice area, l is the orifice depth, V is the
cavity volume, and Δl is the correction factor for compen-
sating the vibrating mass of gases in the orifice, c is the sound
velocity.
Because the individual honeycomb cavities are acousti-
cally isolated between each other, such liner is named local-
reacting liner [3]. For this type of acoustic liner, the perfo-
rated face plate offers the dominant portion of acoustical
resistance; the honeycomb cavities give the most of acous-
tical reactance. Sound energy dissipation is ascribed to the
viscous and vortical flow in and around the face plate or-
ifices. As the excitation frequency shifts around the re-
sonance frequency, maximum absorption coefficient is
obtained when the particle velocity anti-resonance plane
moves through the perforated face plate. Weak absorption
performance occurs without sufficient resistance above or
below the face plate orifice. Therefore, local-reacting liner
exhibits a relatively narrow sound absorption bandwidth.
The acoustic performance of such liner is directly linked to
the cavity volume, orifice diameter, orifice depth and por-
osity of perforated face plate.
The schematic of extended-reacting liner (or bulk absor-
ber, e.g., metal foam liner) is presented in Figure 4(b). There
are two different features compared with the resonant re-
sponse in local-reacting liner. Firstly, the resistance to wave
motion is distributed throughout the bulk absorber instead of
concentrating in the face plate orifice. Secondly, sound wave
transmission is parallel to the perforated face plate without
the impervious honeycomb cavity wall. The distributed en-
ergy dissipation exhibits more viscous control mechanism
with absence of high particle velocity concentration through
the face plate orifice. The particle velocity anti-resonance
plane can be attenuated from the porous media (e.g., metal
foam) surface into the bulk material, where the high particle
velocity region still encounters resistance. Sound absorption
with broadband characteristic is observed for extended-re-
acting liner [4].
Sci China Tech Sci 3
3 Passive acoustic liners
3.1 Mesh-cap liner
A novel concept of multi-layer liner called mesh-cap liner
was developed to gain more broadband noise absorption [5].
Material sheet (e.g., PEEK sheet) was flexible enough to form
the mesh caps. Then mesh caps were inserted into the hon-
eycomb cavities at certain depth as the septum of multi-layer,
perforated plate-over-honeycomb liner. Adhesive was applied
to provide a permanent bond as described in Figure 5(a).
Note that orifices on the mesh caps can be perforated before
or after the caps were placed into honeycomb cavity.
Compared with integral septum in traditional multi-layer
acoustic liner, the mesh caps were anchored to the honey-
comb cavity wall without separating the honeycomb. It was
beneficial to enhance the mechanical performance of whole
liner. Moreover, surface impedance of each individual hon-
eycomb cavity was independently controlled by selection or
combination of parameters as follows [6,7]: (1) number of
mesh cap for each honeycomb cavity; (2) depth of each mesh
cap (e.g., uniform or variable depths in Figure 5 (b) and (c))
in different cavities; (3) the type of mesh cap with different
acoustic resistances between adjacent cavities.
Material, geometry, tension and location of mesh cap were
evaluated as adjustable parameters in ref. [8]. Results in-
dicated that low-frequency sound absorption was sig-
nificantly enhanced for mesh-cap liner without any
appreciable increase in overall mass or volume compared
with conventional DDOF liner as a baseline.
3.2 Variable-depth liner
Variable-depth acoustic liners are designed to obtain broad-
band noise attenuation and reduce installation space. Figure
6 presents two types of variable-depth liners with narrow
chamber and wide chamber, respectively. The narrow
chamber diameter of variable-depth liner is the same order of
magnitude as the orifice diameter of perforated face plate. It
is sufficiently narrow to derive acoustic resistance from
viscous loss along interior wall of narrow chamber. Thus
perforated face plate is not required in this liner.
Additive manufacturing technology can be used to create
parallel-element, variable-depth, open chambers, achieving
variable impedance over liner surface [9–13]. Narrow-
chamber, variable-depth liners were fabricated by ceramic
honeycomb material with surface porosity of 57%. Im-
pedance eduction of ceramic honeycomb liner was con-
ducted by NASA. The results illustrated that liner impedance
can be precisely predicted with numerical model. A nearly
uniform impedance spectrum at a wide frequency range can
be designed with narrow-chamber, variable-depth liners
[10,11].
As for variable-depth liners with wide chamber, perforated
4 Ma X Q, et al.
Figure 5 (Color online) (a) Schematics of manufacturing procedures and
photographs of mesh-cap honeycomb with (b) uniform depth and (c)
variable depth [5].
Figure 6 (Color online) Schematics of two types of variable-depth liners
with (a) narrow chamber and (b) wide chamber [11].
face plate offers acoustic resistance and avoids self-noise due
to interaction between open chambers and flow environment
over liner surface. Wide-chamber liner needs fewer and
larger chambers, indicating lighter and simpler structure in
contrast to narrow-chamber liner.
Numerical and experimental researches of wide-chamber,
variable-depth liner concept have been conducted by many
researchers. Two kinds of wide-chamber, variable-depth
liners were fabricated by ceramic matrix composite material
(CMC) and cured resin, respectively, as shown in Figure 7
[14]. Experimental results showed that variable-depth liners
with different material properties had similar sound absorp-
tion performance. Moreover, mounting orientations of vari-
able-depth CMC liners, including small depth at the leading
edge and the reversed situation, were also studied. It was
found that two mounting configurations exhibited obvious
sound absorption over a broad frequency range, but large
depth at the leading edge gave the maximum attenuation.
In the following research of wide-chamber, variable-depth
liner, a simulation model was established to predict the ef-
fects of geometry dimension and grazing flow velocity
condition on the sound pressure level (SPL) profile and total
noise reduction [15]. In 2016, three acoustic propagation
codes were also developed to further investigate acoustic
properties with different liner configurations [16]. Recently,
Jones et al. [17] discussed the influences of chamber re-
ordering and bending on the sound pressure level profile and
attenuation spectra. The results indicated that chamber re-
ordering played a significant role on axial sound pressure
Sci China Tech Sci
Figure 7 (Color online) Photographs of wide-chamber, variable-depth
liners constructed by (a) ceramic matrix composite material and (b) cured
resin [14].
level profiles, but had negligible influence on overall at-
tenuation. Bent chambers can be applied to minimize the
liner thickness without loss of sound absorption perfor-
mances.
3.3 Metal foam liner
Bulk sound absorption materials (e.g., synthetic foam and
fiberglass) exhibit depth-related resonance and wide sound
absorption bandwidth due to distributed energy dissipation.
However, weak mechanical performances and maintenance
problems restrict their application in aircraft engine nacelle.
Nowadays, metal foam is a promising material candidate for
liner development owing to lightness, rigidity and good
maintenance.
Sutliff et al. [18] firstly proposed and tested metal foam
liner. Research results suggested a 4 dB noise reduction in
both inlet and aft fields when metal foam liner was placed
over the rotor as shown in Figure 8(a). Three kinds of metal
foams were evaluated under different test conditions in-
cluding low-speed fan rig, high-speed fan rig and FJ44-3A
engine. The results presented 3 and 5 dB decrease of inlet
overall sound power level for low-speed fan rig and FJ44-3A
engine, respectively [19]. Moreover, a non-modal finite
element theory was established to predict sound attenuation
in a no-flow duct with metal foam liner. The no-modal
analysis data were consistent with the findings using mode
theory for Haynes 25 metal foam liner [20].
With the development of over-the-rotor acoustic treatment
by metal foam liner, noise reduction has been achieved as
high as 4–5 dB, but serious aerodynamic performance loss
should be considered [21]. It was necessary to optimize the
over-the-rotor installation configuration of metal foam liner.
Based on the incident dynamic pressures reduction in cir-
 Ma X Q, et al.
Figure 8 (Color online) Photographs of (a) over-the-rotor metal foam
liner [18] and (b) metal foam liner with circumferential grooves [22].
cumferential grooves design (see Figure 8(b)), aerodynamic
performance loss decreased from 10% to less than 0.75%
[22]. Recently, four acoustic casing treatment configurations
including foam metal treatment, expansion chamber treat-
ment, empty chamber treatment and thick perforate treatment
were evaluated with untreated hard wall. Metal foam treat-
ment showed a slight increase in sound attenuation compared
with untreated hard wall [23,24]. In 2019, the influence of
grazing flow on grooved over-the-rotor acoustic casing
treatment was investigated. It was found that foam metal
treatment liner broadened absorption curve and decreased
peak absorption frequency as the grazing flow Mach number
increased [25]. An analytical model was also utilized to
predict the sound attenuation of over-the-rotor acoustic
treatment. The analytical results presented good agreement
with practical data in peak attenuation value but lacked
consistency in spectral profile [26].
3.4 Hybrid acoustic liner
Based on the previous sections, combination of local-react-
ing and extended-reacting concepts is a practical solution to
exploit novel acoustic liner with acceptable noise absorption
value and frequency range. Compared with the impervious
cavity walls in local-reacting liner, the perforated cavity
walls enable sound propagation along the horizontal direc-
tion as described in Figure 9(a) [27]. Extra sound damping
effect occurs at the perforated cavity walls, exhibiting ex-
tended-reacting behavior. Acoustic liners with both local-
reacting and extended-reacting features are called hybrid
acoustic liner.
Hillereau et al. [27] investigated sound absorption per-
formance of hybrid liner. The perforated cavity walls were
simulated by porous partitions whose resistance can be ad-
justed between zero (no partitions) and infinity (impervious
partitions). The results illustrated that impedance reduction
of partitions improved sound attenuation in a higher fre-
quency range at the expense of peak absorption value. Fur-
thermore, Parrott et al. [4,28] employed both experimental
Sci China Tech Sci 5
and numerical methods to educe the liner impedances with
perforated cavity walls. There was good agreement between
measured and predicted data.
Another kind of hybrid acoustic liner was proposed based
on the traditional SDOF liner. The rigid cavity walls were
replaced by flexible and intrinsic damping polymer films
[29–32]. Acoustic-structural interaction at flexible walls re-
sulted in additional energy dissipation. Viscoelastic and
physical properties of flexible film were key factors to the
finial sound absorption performances.
4 Adaptive acoustic liners
Sound absorption performances of passive liners are definite
for given geometry dimensions and grazing flow. Noise
frequency range of aero engine is dependent on different
flight phases such as take-off, climb, cruise, drop, approach
and landing. Once the mismatch appears between resonant
frequency of passive liner and noise frequency range, there is
little effective on noise attenuation. Therefore, it is necessary
to explore acoustic liner to adapt the variation of noise fre-
quency.
4.1 Adaptive acoustic liner by tunable geometry di-
mension
The traditional perforated plate-over-honeycomb liner is
treated as an array of Helmholtz resonators. Adjustable
sound absorption frequency and bandwidth can be achieved
by changing geometry parameters of Helmholtz resonator
(e.g., cavity volume, orifice area and orifice depth).
Variable cavity volume has been investigated to change the
resonant frequency by many researchers in the past few
years. McDonald et al. [33] described a Helmholtz resonator
with adjustable cavity volume. In their patent, transducer
was introduced to monitor a dynamic signal within resonator.
And then a resonator controller (e.g., motor) was used to tune
the resonator to a selected frequency. Matsuhisa and his
coworkers [34] presented a Helmholtz resonator whose
cavity volume was automatically controlled. And the system
always stayed in the anti-resonance state. They verified their
system using both theoretical and experimental methods. The
results showed that sound pressure decreased up to 30 dB
around the resonance. de Bedout et al. [35] also developed a
Helmholtz resonator with tunable cavity volume. Cavity
volume can be adjusted by rotating an internal wall with
respect to a fixed wall in the cavity. It was found that a 29 dB
sound pressure reduction was obtained by this system.
Kostek and Franchek [36] established a hybrid noise control
system to attenuate multi-tonal noise in ducts. The adaptive-
passive noise control in this hybrid system contained a tun-
able Helmholtz resonator with adjustable cavity volume. The
6 Ma X Q, et al.
Figure 9 (Color online) Hybrid acoustic liners with (a) perforated cavity walls [4] and (b) flexible and damping walls [29].
dominant tonal noise in the duct was reduced by adaptive-
passive noise control system and a feedback active noise
control was designed to complement adaptive-passive
Helmholtz resonator at other frequencies. Kobayashi et al.
[37] gave an adaptive acoustic liner whose acoustic im-
pedance was controlled by mobile reflective plates and large
acoustic chamber. Large peak frequency shift and peak level
increase in sound absorption spectra were observed through
the movement of reflective plate. There was a 9 dB noise
decrease over the fan speed range from 1000 to 6000 r/min.
The cavity volume can be finely tuned by a piston in re-
ference [38]. The influences of cavity number and volume
vibration of Helmholtz resonator were analyzed. Results
clarified that suitable number of cavity and adjustable cavity
volume improved the sound damping capacity. But the huge
and complicated structure was still a problem for practical
application. Variable cavity volume of Helmholtz resonator
was also conducted by moving rigid back wall by Konishi
and his coworkers [39,40].
Altering orifice area is another approach to attain ad-
justable resonance frequency. C-shape polyimide film mi-
croactuator was employed to gain the on-off function of
orifices [39,40]. It was proven that significant frequency
shift was achieved by closed the orifice on the second layer
in DDOF liner. Nagaya et al. [41] applied motor to rotate
cylinders and change the orifice area. This system gave re-
markable absorption of multiple sound modes. Johnson et al.
[42–44] investigated adaptive Helmholtz resonator to at-
tenuate broadband noise in rocket payload fairing. The ad-
justable resonance frequency of Helmholtz resonator was
implemented by iris diaphragm as shown in Figure 10(a).
The overall noise attenuation reached 4.2 dB at the frequency
range of 75–115 Hz. Zhao et al. [45] designed tunable neck
area of Helmholtz resonator by an iris valve similar to
camera lens. Experiments were carried out on a Rijke tube
with different lengths of upper Y branches. The test data
indicated that unstable noise modes were mitigated in dif-
ferent operating conditions. A tunable Helmholtz resonator
with two superposed perforated plates was studied by
Cherrier and his colleagues [46,47]. In this study, one plate
was fixed with the cavities (Plate 1 in Figure 10(b)) while the
other plate (Plate 2 in Figure 10(b)) was movable. The re-
Sci China Tech Sci
lative movement between the two perforated plates produced
various orifice areas.
There is rare research about changing orifice depth in the
literature. The complicated design and long-term durability
of tunable orifice depth are potential challenges for practical
application.
Although the aforementioned adaptive liner technologies
provide adjustable sound absorption performance, the asso-
ciated drawbacks in terms of complex structure, excessive
weight and high energy consumption should be also noticed.
Several new methods are proposed to overcome these pro-
blems.
Tunable electromechanical acoustic liner was developed
with an alternative of rigid back plate by compliant piezo-
electric composite diaphragm as shown in Figure 11(a) [48–
53]. When the diaphragm cavity wall was thin enough to flex
by external pressure, the mass and compliance of thin cavity
wall should be introduced into a standard Helmholtz re-
sonator system with the configuration from SDOF system to
DDOF system. Experimental investigation was conducted to
validate the analytical model of this liner. It was found that
the limit of tunable scope by resistive and capacitive loads
was dependent to the short and open circuit loads. Approx-
imate a 9% tunable range can be obtained under the non-
optimized configuration in the research. Inductive shunt
loads induced a three degree-of-freedom (DOF) system.
There was over 20% tuning limit increase without the re-
striction of short and open circuit limits. Moreover, piezo-
ceramic can be also applied in acoustic energy harvest field
[54,55]. A self-powered, wireless, active acoustic liner sys-
tem was established and evaluated [56–59]. The system in-
cluded an energy reclamation module to supply power, a
tunable Helmholtz resonator for actuation, a low-power
microphone for sensing and control circuitry for closed loop
control. Energy reclamation module converted the ac voltage
signal to a conditioned dc signal by piezoceramic plate. Then
the harvested energy was applied to power the wireless re-
ceiver and analog switches, finally control the impedance of
acoustic liner. In addition, electromagnetic shaker and vi-
brating backplate were also implemented to obtain oscillat-
ing volume of Helmholtz resonator in ref. [60]. Birdsong and
Radcliffe [61] illustrated an electronically tuned system
 Ma X Q, et al. Sci China Tech Sci 7

Figure 10 Photographs of variable orifice areas by (a) iris diaphragm [44] and (b) two perforated plates [46].

Figure 11 (Color online) Schematics of (a) a self-powered, wireless, tunable acoustic liner [59] and (b) adaptive liner with shape memory polymer [62].

which consisted of a static Helmholtz resonator and a hybrid

feedback control system.
A repeatable, controllable and reversible acoustic liner was
designed using shape memory polymer (SMP) as illustrated
in Figure 11(b) [62]. SMP was placed in the resonator
chamber where it might be activated by heat, electro-
magnetic or some other stimuli. An orifice below the bottom
plate allowed air pressure into the sealed lower chamber,
forcing the SMP upward. Vacuum can be also used to draw
the SMP downward. The required chamber depth was ad-
justed by shape change based on the flight regime. After
actuation, the SMP layer was cooled and would hold the
configuration. Once the flight regime altered, SMP was ac-
tivated again and morphed to another volume size, achieving
tunable resonance frequency.
Figure 12 Schematics of (a) bias flow liner, (b) ZMFL (left) and hybrid
ZMFL (right).
4.2 Bias acoustic liner

Bias flow liner exhibits wide and tunable sound absorption
performance due to the various bias flow velocities through
the orifice of perforated face plate as presented in Figure 12(a).
The first fundamental research about bias flow liner was
detailed investigated in ref. [63]. It was found that the in-
crease of bias flow velocity resulted in a drop of orifice
reactance but an increase of orifice resistance. Dean et al.
[64] applied this concept to acquire tunable liner impedance
in aircraft engine nacelle. After that, plenty of researchers
were attracted to explore the absorption characteristics of
bias flow liner.
Bechert et al. [65] presented the physical mechanism of
bias flow liner by experiments. The author indicated that
vorticity shedding was responsible for the acoustic energy
dissipation. Acoustic energy was transformed into kinetic
energy of fluctuating vortices in the vicinity of the orifices.
Then vorticity shedding effect dissipated acoustic energy
into heat. This theory gave a new insight to the interaction of
flow and sound at the orifice of perforated plate for bias flow
liner. Two test approaches, including laser Doppler anemo-
8 Ma X Q, et al.
metry and acoustic particle image velocimetry measurements
were also applied to interpret the relation between sound
damping performance and flow structure. There were similar
results using these two optical methods [66,67].
Howe [68] established simulation model and further con-
firmed the sound absorption mechanism of bias flow at the
orifice. Numerical model improvement was conducted by
many researchers based on Howe’s model in the following
research. Follet et al. [69] applied a numerical method to
compare the maximum sound absorption performance of
passive liner and bias flow liner. Bias flow liner not only
gave higher average absorption than passive liner but also
exhibited tunable capacity to sound pressure level. Jing et al.
[70,71] demonstrated that optimal sound energy absorption
can be gained by appropriate selection of bias flow velocity.
Moreover, generation and motion of acoustic-excited vorti-
city at an acoustically compact slit with bias flow were
analyzed using a discrete vortex model (DVM). The nu-
merical results presented the diversity of the vortex shedding
and convection patterns for different sound amplitudes.
During the evolution through the linear, transition and non-
linear regimes, the resistance presented a constant value, a
slight decrease, and a significant increase with the increase
of sound amplitude [72]. Acoustic absorption of a duct with
surrounding liner has been conducted under various flow
conditions, e.g., pure bias flow, no bias flow or grazing flow,
simultaneous grazing flow and bias flow [73]. The analytical
data were also compared with the experimental results in ref.
[74].
Parameters study of bias flow liner was also experimen-
tally analyzed in plenty of literatures. Andreini et al. [75]
gave a parameters study including orifice diameter, orifice
pattern, orifice inclination as well as Mach numbers of main
and bias flow. Results suggested that bias flow velocity
played an important role on thermal and acoustic properties
of multi-perforated liner. Sound absorption in a rectangular
model combustor was also measured and evaluated with
various bias flow velocities and orifice geometries [76,77].
The influence of grazing-bias flow combination on im-
pedance of different orifice shapes of perforated plate was
experimentally studied in the condition of low Strouhal
number (quasi-steady) [78–80]. It was found that acoustic
resistance of the perforation was proportional to the steady-
state resistance with high ratio of bias flow and grazing flow.
However, the relationship between acoustic resistance and
steady state resistance was difficult to define as the ratio
decreased. Noise damping performances of different cy-
lindrical perforated liners with various porous ratios, ad-
justable bias and grazing flows were also investigated for the
configurations of SDOF or DDOF, respectively [81–83].
Comprehensive experiment parameter research of bias flow
liner (e.g., bias flow, grazing flow, the porosity, wall thick-
ness, and cavity volume) was illustrated in ref. [84].
Sci China Tech Sci
A new liner concept, called zero mass flow liner (ZMFL)
was presented in Figure 12(b) [85]. In this liner, high am-
plitude sound impinged on a perforated face plate, generating
an unsteady, oscillating bias flow with zero net mass flow.
There was a similar sound absorption mechanism between
ZMFL and conventional bias flow liner. As an alternative of
loudspeaker, aeroacoustic actuator was suitable for harsh
environment without any electronical or mechanical parts.
Parameter research of ZMFL with aeroacoustic actuator was
conducted [86,87]. A strong dependency on sound pressure
level and frequency was revealed from the experiments.
Meanwhile, driving mass flow rate of ZMFL exhibited a
60% decrease in contrast to a conventional steady bias flow
liner [88]. Recently, hybrid zero mass flow liner (see Figure
12(b)) which combined the SDOF liner and ZMFL was in-
troduced to broaden sound absorption bandwidth. The sound
dissipation performance of SDOF liner, ZMFL and hybrid
ZMFL were also evaluated under various grazing flow and
structure conditions [32].
5 Acoustic liner with metamaterials
The concept of metamaterial is proposed by researchers in
the electromagnetic field. The definition can be described as
follows: a metamaterial is a macroscopic composite of per-
iodic or non-periodic structure, whose function is due to both
the cellular architecture and the chemical composition [89].
Encouraging research results of metamaterials spark the in-
terest of scientific community in acoustic field. Noise dis-
sipation is one of interesting metamaterial applications
through the special structure design. Metamaterial is a pro-
mising candidate for acoustic liner design.
In order to improve the low frequency absorption perfor-
mance, Beck et al. [90,91] showed an acoustic metamaterial
architecture with an array of Helmholtz resonators separated
by quarter-wave volumes as shown in Figure 13(a). The
results indicated that normal incidence absorption coefficient
of this liner was more than 10 times larger compared with
conventional honeycomb liner at the designed Helmholtz
resonance frequency. An elastic membrane decorated with
asymmetric rigid platelets was applied to manufacture a thin-
film acoustic metamaterial for the absorption of low fre-
quency from 100–1000 Hz [92]. It was found that the sam-
ples can reach almost unity absorption at frequencies where
the relevant sound wavelength in air was three orders of
magnitude larger than the membrane thickness. Metamater-
ials with coiling structure have been developed and com-
bined with perforated plate as presented in Figure 13(c) and
(d). Good sound mitigation can be observed in low frequency
[93–95]. A hybrid acoustic metamaterial was established by
introducing perforation on both top face plate and corruga-
tion as given in Figure 13(b) [96]. The formed perforated
 Ma X Q, et al. Sci China Tech Sci 9

Figure 13 (Color online) Various metamaterial designs for low frequency sound absorption. (a) Dual resonant metamaterial [91]; (b) perforated honey-
comb-corrugation hybrid metamaterial [96]; (c) and (d) two different space coiling designs from refs. [94,95].

honeycomb-corrugation hybrid showed a super broadband

low-frequency sound absorption with excellent stiffness/
strength and impact energy absorption. Yang et al. [97] de-
duced the causality constraint based on the balance between
metamaterial sample thickness and sound absorption per-
formance in the low frequency. An optimal design with de-
sired sound suppression effect can be obtained with the
smallest thickness. According to the investigation above, it is
demonstrated that metamaterial liners give superior sound
absorption at low frequency range.
Noise trapping is another feature for metamaterials. A
layer of Helmholtz resonators with different depths were
covered by a near-zero index space-coiling metamaterial,
forming a one-way metasurface [98]. Once the normal in-
cident wave with uniform phase profile passed through the
zero-index metamaterial, it was reflected and forbidden to
exit due to the high incident angle selectivity of zero-index
layer. Sound wave was trapped inside the cavity as described
in Figure 14 [99]. This structure can be used in synergy with
the acoustic liner by locating one-way metasurface between
liners and internal surface of the nacelle. It was believed that
sound absorption performance of conventional acoustic liner
can be enhanced at low frequency range with noise trapping
characteristic of metamaterial.
6 Benefits of new acoustic liner concepts
The development of new acoustic liner concepts provides
significant benefits for noise reduction in aero engine. Ben-
efits can be concluded as follows.
Figure 14 (Color online) Schematic of noise trapping concept and the
unit cell [99].
Firstly, the typical SDOF liners with perforated plate-over-
honeycomb design are traditionally placed near the inlet lip
or/and exhaust bypass plane with a relatively benign service
conditions. Introduction of new materials (metal foam,
oxide/oxide ceramic matrix composite (CMC) materials,
etc.) in novel acoustic liner concepts offers the potential for
liner placement under harsh temperature and pressure en-
vironment.
Metal foam exhibits lightness, excellent acoustic absorp-
tion, high temperature tolerance and impact resistance. Metal
foam liner located over the rotor can survive under possible
tip rub erosion by high rotor speed. Moreover, over-the-rotor
metal foam liners give the pressure release surface in the
near-field of noise generation process and energy dissipation
in porous inner structure. Thus, both sound source mod-
ification and wave propagation absorption produce better
10 Ma X Q, et al.
sound attenuation performance compared with conventional
SDOF inlet acoustic liner. CMC composite has excellent
thermal strength and oxidation resistance at high temperature
up to 1000°C near the aircraft engine core. CMC acoustic
liners can attenuate noise and provide a thermal barrier for
core section. In addition, acoustic liner without bias flow is
prone to damage due to high temperature and vibration in
combustion chamber. Bias flow liner not only adjusts the
noise absorption bandwidth but also decreases the surface
temperature and extends the life cycle of liner.
Secondly, less installation space requirement, weight re-
duction and cost saving are critical factors for the next
generation acoustic liner of aircraft engine. The novel
acoustic liner concepts can solve these problems. Variable-
depth liners with alternate channel shapes/designs (curved,
bent, etc.) give an opportunity to minimize the overall liner
thickness in limited space. Furthermore, mesh-cap liner and
hybrid acoustic liner fabricated by advanced polymer com-
posites (PMCs) (e.g., carbon fiber composites, and aramid
fiber composites) are beneficial to the weight reduction
compared with traditional metallic acoustic liner in early
decades. High specific strength and specific stiffness, des-
ignability, excellent damping performance of advanced
polymer composites also promote the utilization of integral
zero-splice intake liner in A380 and B787. Loss of noise
absorption performance is negligible for this splice-less
acoustic liner due to the absence of axial splice between two
or three curved segments in conventional intake acoustic
liners. Figure 15 presents the evolution of intake acoustic
liner from three 3×15 cm splices in A320, two 2×7.5 cm
splices in A340-600 and finally to zero splice in A380.
Additional potential benefits of splice-less acoustic liner
include less maintenance and repair [100–105].
Thirdly, taking advantage of the novel acoustic liner con-
cepts, wider noise absorption bandwidth and efficient noise
reduction can be easily obtained to overcome the drawbacks
(e.g., narrow bandwidth and fixed absorption frequency) of
conventional liners. The mesh-cap liner and variable-depth
liner enlarge the absorption properties by altering the inner
structure, including position of mesh cap and bent channels
with various depths, respectively. New absorption mechan-
ism is introduced to metal foam liner and hybrid acoustic
liner. Thus sound mitigation frequency range is superior to
sole Helmholtz resonance effect of conventional passive
Figure 15 (Color online) Intake acoustic liner of civil aircraft engine
from multiple splices to zero splice [2].
Sci China Tech Sci
liner. Furthermore, adaptive acoustic liners can adjust the
noise absorption frequency based on the varied conditions.
Better noise reduction performance was observed in contrast
to SDOF and DDOF acoustic liners. In addition, acoustic
liner with metamaterials shows good sound suppression at
low frequency range without huge size and complex struc-
ture in SDOF and DDOF liners, respectively. In summary,
different features of novel acoustic liners gathered in this
review give new view on liner design and fabrication for
excellent noise reduction performance.
7 Challenges of new acoustic liner concepts
Advantages of novel liner concepts have been listed in Sect.
6, but limitation of these acoustic liners and challenges for
further application in practice should also be considered.
It is known that acoustic liners may suffer severe en-
vironment such as extreme temperature, high flow pressure,
and ice or bird impact during service. Generally, the perfo-
rated face plates of mesh-cap liner and hybrid liner are
fabricated by PMCs for intake duct of aero engine. But weak
high-temperature resistance restricts the wide applications in
hot regions of aero engine. Relatively low interlaminar
properties of PMCs panels may result in structure failure
under impact load. So it is necessary to investigate resin
system (e.g., polyimide resin) with excellent toughness and
high-temperature resistance. Furthermore, the mesh cap in
honeycomb cavity and flexible, intrinsic damping wall in
hybrid liner are manufactured by polymer materials. Pro-
blems about aging and durability of these polymers are
currently unclear in long-term service conditions.
For the porous metal foam liner, oil leakage from me-
chanical system in aero engine and dust pollution at take-off
or landing stage may block the microstructure of metal foam;
ultimately decrease the noise reduction performance. Also,
the influence of chemical erosion on metal foam is also
worthy of more attention. Though the CMC variable-depth
liner can bear high temperature in severe environment (e.g.,
compressor, combustion and nozzle exit), vibration induced
by pressure fluctuation in unstable combustion status is
prone to cause serious structure failure. It should be noted
that ceramic honeycomb is too fragile to be of practical use in
current development. Moreover, density of CMC material
3
(about 2.8 g/cm ) is higher in contrast to advanced polymer
matrix composite. Thus CMC system with low density and
good toughness deserves greater concern in future. In addi-
tion, most metamaterial research of acoustic liners empha-
sizes on the static condition without flow, but a moving flow
fundamentally affects wave propagation. The influence of
flow on sound absorption performance of metamaterial liners
is a key aspect for detailed investigation.
As to adaptive acoustic liner, tunable absorption frequency
 Ma X Q, et al.
is achieved through the control system. Some issues about
control system should be noticed. Suitable sensor selection,
number and location are critical for effective signal reception
and transmission. Multiple sensors are usually reliable to
detect variable environment conditions, avoiding the possi-
ble measure error by single sensor. Note that temperature and
flow pressure are unfavorable to the reliability of sensors.
Furthermore, signal analysis module is the bridge between
sensors and actuators. It is necessary to build an efficient and
robust analytic algorithm. Mechanical, electric and other
driving approaches can be adopted to adjust the liner struc-
ture parameters. However, structure complexity, durability,
maintenance and reliability in practical applications of con-
trol system still need to improve and further validate for
adaptive liners.
There is strong demand on optimization of liner structure
design and liner placement by analytical and numerical
methods. Available space for liner installation is limited for
the compressor and combustion regions of aero engine.
Complex design of acoustic liner results in weight increase
and low aerodynamic performance, ultimately decreasing the
economic efficiency. Moreover, noise distribution and pro-
pagation pattern are dependent on the various inner struc-
tures and working situations of aero engine. Number and
location of acoustic liner determine the final noise attenua-
tion effect. However, the associated drawbacks in terms of
complexity as well as cost and time consumption are non-
trivial for structure design and liner placement using ex-
perimental methods. Numerical simulation is an alternative
approach to solve these problems. Therefore, the balance
between accuracy and complexity of established models and
theories is a hot topic for successive research in future.
8 Conclusions
Nowadays, sustainable development of air transport system
implies the strict requirements on noise control. Researchers
have devoted their efforts on aero engine noise reduction
using acoustic liners. This paper summarizes recent advance
of acoustic liners in noise reduction of modern turbofan
engines.
Based on the acoustic absorption mechanism of local-re-
acting liner and extended-reacting liner, some new passive
acoustic liner concepts, including mesh-cap liner, variable-
depth liner, metal foam liner, hybrid liner, etc., are estab-
lished. Furthermore, adaptive liners by geometry parameter
adjustment or bias flow are proposed to improve noise mi-
tigation according to various working conditions. Metama-
terials with sound absorption or trapping performances give
an opportunity to explore novel liner design and application
in aero engine.
The development of new acoustic liner concepts above
Sci China Tech Sci 11
brings lots of benefits compared with conventional acoustic
liner as follows:
(1) Broadening liner applications in harsh environment
such as high flow pressure and extreme temperature regions
in aero engine;
(2) Enhancing the noise absorption performance with ef-
fective installation space saving and weight reduction;
(3) On-line adjustment of sound absorption performance
according to the targeted noise frequency using adaptive
acoustic liner.
On the road to novel liner application in aero engine, there
are still some challenges in practice. The first issue emerging
to be tackled is to detect and evaluate the performance loss or
even potential structure failure due to material aging, un-
expected impact and vibration fatigue in life cycle of
acoustic liner. The second problem is to select suitable sen-
sing and control system with good reliability, feasibility and
durativity for adaptive liners. In addition, it is clear that new,
fast and reliable analytical and numerical models are es-
sential to achieve optimal liner structure design and place-
ment. The accuracy and feasibility of existing model should
be further developed based on the actual situation.
In a word, it is believed that new acoustic liner concepts
will gain wide applications with the comprehensive study on
design, materials and manufacture in future.
1 Voutsinas S G. Aeroacoustics research in Europe: The CEAS-ASC
report on 2005 highlights. J Sound Vib, 2007, 299: 419–459
2 Kempton A. Acoustic liners for modern aero-engines. In: Proceed-
ings of the 15th CEAS-ASC Workshop and 1st Scientific Workshop
of X-Noise EV. Lausanne, 2011
3 Nayfeh A H, Kaiser J E, Telionis D P. Acoustics of aircraft engine-
duct systems. AIAA J, 1975, 13: 130–153
4 Parrott T L, Jones M G. Cascaded perforates as one-dimensional,
bulk absorbers. In: Proceedings of the 12th AIAA/CEAS Aero-
acoustics Conference (27th AIAA Aeroacoustics Conference).
Cambridge, 2006
5 Ayle E. Acoustic honeycomb with perforated septum caps. US Pa-
tent. US 2012/0037449 A1, 2013
6 Syed A A, Ichihashi F. The modeling and experimental validation of
the acoustic impedance of multi-degrees-of-freedom liners. In: Pro-
ceedings of the 14th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference (29th
AIAA Aeroacoustics Conference). Vancouver, 2008
7 Jones M G, Howerton B M, Ayle E. Evaluation of parallel-element,
variable-impedance, broadband acoustic liner concepts. In: Pro-
ceedings of the 18th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference (33rd
AIAA Aeroacoustics Conference). Colorado Springs, 2012
8 Svetgoff A, Manimala J. Absorption characteristics of membrane-
embedded acoustic liners. In: Proceedings of the INTER-NOISE and
NOISE-CON Congress and Conference. Chicago, 2018
9 Wirt L S. Analysis, testing, and design of lined ducts. J Acoust Soc
Am, 1972, 51: 1448–1463
10 Parrott T L, Jones M G. Parallel-element liner impedances for im-
proved absorption of broadband sound in ducts. Noise Control Eng J,
1995, 43: 183–195
11 Howerton B M, Jones M G, Buckley J L. Development and valida-
tion of an interactive liner design and impedance modeling tool. In:
Proceedings of the 18th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference
(33rd AIAA Aeroacoustics Conference). Colorado Springs, 2012
12 Ma X Q, et al.
12 Jones M G, Watson W R, Parrott T L. Benchmark data for evaluation
of aeroacoustic propagation codes with grazing flow. In: Proceedings
of the 11th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference (26th AIAA
Aeroacoustics Conference). Monterey, 2005
13 Jones M G, Grady J E, Kiser J D, et al. Acoustic liners for turbine
engines. US Patent. US 10107139B1, 2018
14 Jones M G, Watson W R, Nark D M, et al. Evaluation of a variable-
impedance ceramic matrix composite acoustic liner. In: Proceedings
of the 20th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference. Atlanta, 2014
15 Jones M G, Watson W R, Nark D M, et al. Evaluation of variable-
depth liner configurations for increased broadband noise reduction.
In: Proceedings of the 21st AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference.
Dallas, 2015
16 Jones M G, Watson W R, Nark D M, et al. Optimization of variable-
depth liner configurations for increased broadband noise reduction.
In: Proceedings of the 22nd AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference.
Lyon, 2016
17 Jones M G, Nark D M, Watson W R, et al. Variable-depth liner
evaluation using two NASA flow ducts. In: Proceedings of the 23rd
AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference. Denver, 2017
18 Sutliff D L, Jones M G. Low-speed fan noise attenuation from a
foam-metal liner. J Aircraft, 2009, 46: 1381–1394
19 Jones M G, Parrott T L, Sutliff D L, et al. Assessment of soft vane
and metal foam engine noise reduction concepts. In: Proceedings of
the 15th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference (30th AIAA
Aeroacoustics Conference). Miami, 2009
20 Watson W R, Jones M G. A finite element theory for predicting the
attenuation of extended-reacting liners. In: Proceedings of the 15th
AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference (30th AIAA Aeroacoustics
Conference). Miami, 2009
21 Sutliff D L, Jones M G, Hartley T C. High-speed turbofan noise
reduction using foam-metal liner over-the-rotor. J Aircraft, 2013, 50:
1491–1503
22 Bozak R F, Hughes C E, Buckley J. The aerodynamic performance of
an over-the-rotor liner with circumferential grooves on a high bypass
ratio turbofan rotor. NASA Technical Report. GT2013-95114, 2013
23 Gazella M R, Takakura T, Sutliff D L, et al. Evaluating the acoustic
benefits of over-the-rotor acoustic treatments installed on the ad-
vanced noise control fan. In: Proceedings of the 23rd AIAA/CEAS
Aeroacoustics Conference. Denver, 2017
24 Bozak R F, Dougherty R P. Measurement of noise reduction from
acoustic casing treatments installed over a subscale high bypass ratio
turbofan rotor. In: Proceedings of the 24th AIAA/CEAS Aero-
acoustics Conference. Atlanta, 2018
25 Bozak R F, Jones M G, Howerton B M, et al. Effect of grazing flow
on grooved over-the-rotor acoustic casing treatments. In: Proceed-
ings of the 25th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference. Delft, 2019
26 Palleja-Cabre S, Tester B J, Astley R J, et al. Modelling of over-the-
rotor acoustic treatments for improved noise suppression in turbofan
engines. In: Proceedings of the 25th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics
Conference. Delft, 2019
27 Hillereau N, Syed A A, Gutmark E J. Measurements of the acoustic
attenuation by single layer acoustic liners constructed with simulated
porous honeycomb cores. J Sound Vib, 2005, 286: 21–36
28 Jones M G, Parrott T L. Assessment of bulk absorber properties for
multi-layer perforates in porous honeycomb liners. In: Proceedings
of the 12th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference (27th AIAA
Aeroacoustics Conference). Cambridge, 2006
29 Dannemann M, Kucher M, Kunze E, et al. Experimental study of
advanced helmholtz resonator liners with increased acoustic perfor-
mance by utilising material damping effects. Appl Sci, 2018, 8:
1923–1940
30 Knobloch K, Enghardt L, Bake F. Helmholtz resonator liner with
flexible walls. In: Proceedings of the 2018 AIAA/CEAS Aero-
acoustics Conference. Atlanta, 2018
31 Knobloch K, Enghardt L, Bake F. Investigation of flexible walls for
acoustic liners. In: Proceedings of the 25th AIAA/CEAS Aero-
Sci China Tech Sci
acoustics Conference. Delft, 2019
32 Bake F, Knobloch K. Novel liner concepts. CEAS Aeronaut J, 2019,
10: 123–136
33 McDonald A M, Hutchins S M, Stothers I, et al. Method and ap-
paratus for attenuating acoustic vibrations in a medium. European
Patent, EP0572492B1, 1997
34 Matsuhisa H, Ren B, Sato S. Semiactive control of duct noise by a
volume-variable resonator. JSME Int J III-Vib C, 1992, 35: 223–228
35 de Bedout J M, Franchek M A, Bernhard R J, et al. Adaptive-passive
noise control with self-tuning Helmholtz resonators. J Sound Vib,
1997, 202: 109–123
36 Kostek T M, Franchek M A. Hybrid noise control in ducts. J Sound
Vib, 2000, 237: 81–100
37 Kobayashi H, Koh M, Ozaki S, et al. Newly-developed adaptive
noise absorption control technology for high speed fan noise re-
duction. JSME Int J Ser C, 2006, 49: 703–712
38 Kim H J, Cha J P, Song J K, et al. Geometric and number effect on
damping capacity of Helmholtz resonators in a model chamber. J
Sound Vib, 2010, 329: 3266–3279
39 Konishi S, Yoda M, Hosaka N, et al. Tunable acoustic absorbing
system using a deep hole array. In: Proceedings of IEEE International
Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems. Heidelberg, 1998
40 Lin G, Kim C J, Konishi S, et al. Design, fabrication, and testing of a
C-shape actuator. In: Proceedings of the International Solid-State
Sensors and Actuators Conference-TRANSDUCERS’95. Stock-
holm: IEEE, 1995
41 Nagaya K, Hano Y, Suda A. Silencer consisting of two-stage
Helmholtz resonator with auto-tuning control. J Acoust Soc Am,
2001, 110: 289–295
42 Johnson M E, Estève S J. Comparison of local and global adaptive
strategies for the control of broadband noise in an enclosure using
adaptive Helmholtz resonators. In: Proceedings of the INTER-
NOISE and NOISE-CON Congress and Conference. Southampton,
2002
43 Estève S J, Johnson M E. Development of an adaptive Helmholtz
resonator for broadband noise control. In: Proceedings of the ASME
2004 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposi-
tion. Anaheim, 2004
44 Estève S J, Johnson M E. Adaptive Helmholtz resonators and passive
vibration absorbers for cylinder interior noise control. J Sound Vib,
2005, 288: 1105–1130
45 Zhao D, Morgans A S. Tuned passive control of combustion in-
stabilities using multiple Helmholtz resonators. J Sound Vib, 2009,
320: 744–757
46 Cherrier O, Pommier-Budinger V, Simon F. Panel of resonators with
variable resonance frequency for noise control. Appl Acoustics,
2012, 73: 781–790
47 Pommier-Budinger V, Cherrier O. Baffle silencer with tunable re-
sonators for adaptive control of variable tonal noise. J Vib Control,
2015, 21: 1801–1809
48 Horowitz S B. Design and characterization of compliant backplate
Helmholtz resonators. Dissertation for Master Degree. Gainesville:
University of Florida, 2001
49 Horowitz S B, Nishida T, Cattafesta Iii L N, et al. Characterization of
a compliant-backplate helmholtz resonator for an electromechanical
acoustic liner. Int J Aeroacoustics, 2002, 1: 183–205
50 Taylor R, Liu F, Horowitz S, et al. Technology development for
electromechanical acoustic liners. In: Proceedings of the INTER-
NOISE and NOISE-CON Congress and Conference. Williamsburg,
2004
51 Liu F, Horowitz S, Cattafesta L, et al. Optimization of an electro-
mechanical Helmholtz resonator. In: Proceedings of the 12th AIAA/
CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference (27th AIAA Aeroacoustics Con-
ference). Cambridge, 2006
52 Liu F. A tunable electromechanical Helmholtz resonator. Dissertation
for Dcotoral Degree. Gainesville: University of Florida, 2007
53 Liu F, Horowitz S, Nishida T, et al. A multiple degree of freedom
 Ma X Q, et al.
electromechanical Helmholtz resonator. J Acoust Soc Am, 2007,
122: 291–301
54 Pan P, Zhang D B, Nie X, et al. Development of piezoelectric en-
ergy-harvesting tuned mass damper. Sci China Tech Sci, 2017, 60:
467–478
55 Zhang Z X, He J, Han J Q, et al. Magnetically levitated/piezoelectric/
triboelectric hybrid generator as a power supply for the temperature
sensor. Sci China Tech Sci, 2017, 60: 1068–1074
56 Horowitz S B, Sheplak M, Cattafesta Iii L N, et al. A MEMS acoustic
energy harvester. J Micromech Microeng, 2006, 16: S174–S181
57 Kadirvel S, Liu F, Horowitz S, et al. A self-powered wireless active
acoustic liner. In: Proceedings of the 12th AIAA/CEAS Aero-
acoustics Conference (27th AIAA Aeroacoustics Conference).
Cambridge, 2006
58 Liu F, Phipps A, Horowitz S, et al. Acoustic energy harvesting using
an electromechanical Helmholtz resonator. J Acoust Soc Am, 2008,
123: 1983–1990
59 Phipps A, Liu F, Cattafesta L, et al. Demonstration of a wireless,
self-powered, electroacoustic liner system. J Acoust Soc Am, 2009,
125: 873–881
60 Zhao D, A'barrow C, Morgans A S, et al. Acoustic damping of a
Helmholtz resonator with an oscillating volume. AIAA J, 2009, 47:
1672–1679
61 Birdsong C, Radcliffe C J. An electronically tunable resonator for
noise control. SAE Trans, 2001, 110: 2097–2103
62 Hermiller J M, Maddux M R. Morphing resonators for adaptive noise
reduction. US Patent. US 8408358, 2013
63 McAuliffe C E. The influence of high speed flow on the behavior of
acoustical elements. Dissertation for Master Degree. Cambridge:
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1950
64 Dean P D, Tester B J. Duct wall impedance control as an advanced
concept for acoustic suppression. Contractor Report. NASA-CR-
134998. NASA, 1975
65 Bechert D W, Michel U, Pfizenmaier E. Experiments on the trans-
mission of sound through jets. In: Proceedings of the 4th AIAA
Aeroacoustics Conference. Atlanta, 1977
66 Heuwinkel C, Piot E, Micheli F, et al. Characterization of a perfo-
rated liner by acoustic and optical measurements. In: Proceedings of
the 16th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference. Stockholm, 2010
67 Haufe D, Schulz A, Bake F, et al. Spectral analysis of the flow sound
interaction at a bias flow liner. Appl Acoustics, 2014, 81: 47–49
68 Howe M S. Acoustics of Fluid-Structure Interactions. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1998
69 Follet J I, Betts J F, Kelly J J. Improvements to acoustic liner
broadband absorption using bias flow. In: Proceedings of the 39th
Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit. Reno, 2001
70 Jing X, Sun X. Experimental investigations of perforated liners with
bias flow. J Acoust Soc Am, 1999, 106: 2436–2441
71 Jing X, Sun X. Effect of plate thickness on impedance of perforated
plates with bias flow. AIAA J, 2000, 38: 1573–1578
72 Dai X, Jing X, Sun X. Acoustic-excited vortex shedding and acoustic
nonlinearity at a rectangular slit with bias flow. J Sound Vib, 2014,
333: 2713–2727
73 Lawn C. Calculation of acoustic absorption in ducts with perforated
liners. Appl Acoustics, 2015, 89: 211–221
74 Lahiri C, Enghardt L, Bake F, et al. Establishment of a high quality
database for the acoustic modeling of perforated liners. J Eng Gas
Turbines Power, 2011, 133: 091503
75 Andreini A, Facchini B, Ferrari L, et al. Experimental investigation
on effusion liner geometries for aero-engine combustors: Evaluation
of global acoustic parameters. In: Proceedings of ASME Turbo-
machinery Technical Conference & Exposition 2012: Turbine
Technical Conference and Exposition. Copenhagen, 2012
76 Bhayaraju U, Schmidt J, Kashinath K, et al. Effect of cooling liner on
acoustic energy absorption and flame response. In: Proceedings of
ASME Turbomachinery Technical Conference & Exposition 2010:
Power for Land, Sea, and Air. Glasgow, 2010
Sci China Tech Sci 13
77 Schmidt J, Bhayaraju U, Kashinath K, et al. Investigation of the
effect of combustor cooling geometry on acoustic energy absorption.
In: Proceedings of the 16th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference.
Stockholm, 2010
78 Lahiri C, Knobloch K, Bake F, et al. Influence of cavity design on the
performance of hot-stream bias flow liners. In: Proceedings of the
18th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference (33rd AIAA Aero-
acoustics Conference). Colorado Springs, 2012
79 Tonon D, Moers E M T, Hirschberg A. Quasi-steady acoustic re-
sponse of wall perforations subject to a grazing-bias flow combina-
tion. J Sound Vib, 2013, 332: 1654–1673
80 Moers E M T, Tonon D, Hirschberg A. Strouhal number dependency
of the aero-acoustic response of wall perforations under combined
grazing-bias flow. J Sound Vib, 2017, 389: 292–308
81 Zhao D, Ang L, Ji C Z. Numerical and experimental investigation of
the acoustic damping effect of single-layer perforated liners with
joint bias-grazing flow. J Sound Vib, 2015, 342: 152–167
82 Zhao D, Ji C, Li J, et al. Experimental comparison of noise dis-
sipation effects of single- and double-layer acoustic liners. Appl
Acoustics, 2018, 141: 281–292
83 Zhao D, Sun Y, Ni S, et al. Experimental and theoretical studies of
aeroacoustics damping performance of a bias-flow perforated orifice.
Appl Acoustics, 2019, 145: 328–338
84 Lahiri C, Bake F. A review of bias flow liners for acoustic damping
in gas turbine combustors. J Sound Vib, 2017, 400: 564–605
85 Heuwinkel C, Enghardt L, Röhle I. Concept and experimental in-
vestigation of a zero mass flow liner. In: Proceedings of the 14th
AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference (29th AIAA Aeroacoustics
Conference). Vancouver, 2001
86 Heuwinkel C, Pardowitz B, Bake F, et al. On the excitation of a zero
mass flow liner for acoustic damping. In: Proceedings of the 15th
AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference (30th AIAA Aeroacoustics
Conference). Miami, 2009
87 Lahiri C, Pardowitz B, Bake F, et al. Excitation of a zero mass flow
liner for acoustic damping. AIAA J, 2011, 49: 513–519
88 Lahiri C, Pardowitz B, Bake F, et al. The application of an aero-
acoustic actuator in a zero mass flow liner for acoustic damping. In:
Proceedings of the 17th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference
(32nd AIAA Aeroacoustics Conference). Portland, 2011
89 Cui T J, Smith D R, Liu R P. Metamaterials: Theory, Design and
Applications. New York: Springer, 2000
90 Beck B S. Grazing incidence modeling of a metamaterial-inspired
dual-resonance acoustic liner. In: Proceedings of SPIE Health
Monitoring of Structural and Biological Systems 2014. San Diego,
2014
91 Beck B S, Schiller N H, Jones M G. Impedance assessment of a dual-
resonance acoustic liner. Appl Acoustics, 2015, 93: 15–22
92 Mei J, Ma G, Yang M, et al. Dark acoustic metamaterials as super
absorbers for low-frequency sound. Nat Commun, 2012, 3: 756–762
93 Molerón M, Serra-Garcia M, Daraio C. Visco-thermal effects in
acoustic metamaterials: from total transmission to total reflection and
high absorption. New J Phys, 2016, 18: 033003
94 Li Y, Assouar B M. Acoustic metasurface-based perfect absorber
with deep subwavelength thickness. Appl Phys Lett, 2016, 108:
063502
95 Chen C, Du Z, Hu G, et al. A low-frequency sound absorbing ma-
terial with subwavelength thickness. Appl Phys Lett, 2017, 110:
221903
96 Tang Y, Ren S, Meng H, et al. Hybrid acoustic metamaterial as super
absorber for broadband low-frequency sound. Sci Rep, 2017, 7:
43340
97 Yang M, Chen S, Fu C, et al. Optimal sound-absorbing structures.
Mater Horiz, 2017, 4: 673–680
98 Jiang X, Liang B, Zou X Y, et al. Acoustic one-way metasurfaces:
asymmetric phase modulation of sound by subwavelength layer. Sci
Rep, 2016, 6: 28023
99 Palma G, Mao H, Burghignoli L, et al. Acoustic metamaterials in
14 Ma X Q, et al. Sci China Tech Sci

aeronautics. Appl Sci, 2018, 8: 971 Aeroacoustics Conference (27 th AIAA Aeroacoustics Conference).
100 Marsh G. Aero engines lose weight thanks to composites. Reinforced Cambridge, 2006
Plastics, 2012, 56: 32–35 104 Copiello D, Ferrante P. Multi-objective optimization of “true” zero-
101 Kozaczuk K. Engine nacelles design-Problems and challenges. J splice liners for aero-engine intakes. In: Proceedings of the 15th
Aerospace Eng, 2017, 231: 2259–2265 AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference (30th AIAA Aeroacoustics
102 Batard H, France A. The zero splice engine intake liner: An efficient Conference). Miami, 2009
way of reducing aircraft noise without any weight or aerodynamic 105 Ferrante P, Copiello D, Beutke M. Design and experimental ver-
penalty. In: Proceedings of the 2004 24th ICAS Congress. Tokyo, ification of “true zero-splice” acoustic liners in the universal fan
2004 facility adaptation (UFFA) modular rig. In: Proceedings of the 17th
103 Gantie F, Batard H, Baker N J, et al. Zero splice intake technology AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference (32nd AIAA Aeroacoustics
and acoustic benefits. In: Proceedings of the 12 th AIAA/CEAS Conference). Portland, 2011