Key themes and future directions in

teaching English to young learners:

introduction to the Special Issue
Fiona Copland and Sue Garton

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Despite being something of a ‘Cinderella’ area of study, research into and
informed discussion of teaching young learners is on the increase, perhaps
mirroring the increasing numbers of children learning English globally in primary
schools. This introductory article reviews key themes and issues in the teaching
of English to young learners, and explains how the articles in this Special Issue
connect to and develop them. It also points forward to some of the areas we
expect to be of interest to researchers and practitioners in the years to come.

Introduction Research into and informed discussion of teaching English to young

learners (YLs) has developed rapidly in recent years, mirroring the
increase in the numbers of young children learning English globally.
Previously, something of a ‘Cinderella area’ of scholarship, teaching
English to YLs is now the focus of important European and global studies
(Enever 2011; Garton, Copland, and Burns 2011, respectively) as well as a
range of qualitative and quantitative investigations (for example Hawkins
2005; Muñoz 2006). Teaching YLs is also the focus of numerous ELT
professional development networks and forums around the world.
It is therefore timely that ELT Journal has focused on YLs for this
Special Issue. The call for papers for the issue resulted in a tremendous
response, from many countries and contexts around the world. The
nine articles selected for publication in this issue show the range and
quality of research into YLs that is currently being conducted globally,
providing insights into the practical concerns of ELT professionals
who teach children. They highlight key issues in the field, from the
sociocultural contexts of learning through effective research approaches
for investigating YLs to technologies of learning and investigations of
classroom practices, amongst other things. This Special Issue announces
that the teaching of YLs, a cornerstone of the ELT profession, is an area
where research and informed discussion have come of age.
In this introductory article, we will briefly identify and discuss key
themes in the field of teaching English to YLs, as reflected in the articles
in this special edition. To begin our discussion, we first consider the
question: What is a young learner?

ELT Journal Volume 68/3  July 2014; doi:10.1093/elt/ccu030  223

© The Author 2014. Published by Oxford University Press; all rights reserved.
What is a young Ellis (2014: 76) notes that the term ‘young learner’ is vague and can lead
learner? to confusion. Legally, a ‘young learner’ may be anyone under the age of
18; in reality, however, using one term to cover such a diverse age range
is unhelpful. Instead, Ellis proposes that at the very least, a distinction
between pre- and post-11 or 12 year olds should be made. This is because
of the huge differences in ‘physical, psychological, social, emotional,
conceptual and cognitive development’ (ibid.: 75) among children in
these age groups, leading to very different approaches to teaching. The
pre- and post-11 or 12 label is also useful as the ‘the younger the better’
controversy concerns this younger age group (ibid.: 76).
Ellis (op.cit.: 77) suggests her own list of terms for describing YLs and,

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in this Special Issue, we have taken the decision to focus on the first two
levels she proposes: ‘early years/pre-primary’ and ‘primary’. As well as ‘the
younger the better’ debate; there are a number of reasons for this. First, as
Ellis points out, most research to date has focused on the older age group of
secondary-school learners. Moreover, the rapid and comprehensive lowering
of the age at which English is introduced to children in many countries,
together with the spread of preschool English, means it is timely to focus on
these younger age groups. Finally, given the differences in approach needed
to teach pre-/primary- and secondary-school learners, focusing on one of
these groups allows for a more in-depth look at a number of issues, such as
appropriate pedagogies and contexts of learning. Therefore, for the purposes
of this Special Issue, YLs are those at pre-primary and primary level, roughly
from the age of 3 up to 11 or 12 years old.

Children as Children can learn more than one language simultaneously and
language learners often do in their home and social contexts. Indeed, for many children
in the world, being bilingual or multilingual is an everyday reality
(Blackledge and Creese 2010). However, learning a language in a
school environment is a very different experience. For one thing, the
hours of language exposure are much more limited. Instead of the child
receiving hours of individualized comprehensible input from carers,
which focuses on meaning through interaction, he/she will have a
language class once or twice a week often in a large group of children
(nearly a quarter of the teachers in the study by Garton et al. (op.cit.)
reported class sizes of over 30 children). Moreover, it is probable that
the child will take part in activities aimed at engaging the group rather
than the individual. This is not the kind of engagement that is usually
recognized as leading to the high levels of attainment and fluency that
many consider are the outcomes of starting early.
The assumption that younger is better is controversial as previous studies
have given contradictory results (Pinter 2011) and there is no conclusive
evidence for the supposed benefits of the early introduction of English
into the curriculum. Nevertheless, primary English is now a reality in very
many countries and recent discussions have turned to the role of ‘social,
environmental and individual factors’ (ibid.: 64) as well as the quality
of teaching in English language primary education. Social factors can
include such things as social class, which can affect children’s access to
opportunities for learning, as well as the role of English in the learner’s
society. Environmental factors include the learner’s home background and

224 Fiona Copland and Sue Garton

 aspects such as parents’ attitude to the language. Individual factors include
learners’ attitudes towards the language and their motivation to learn.
Moreover, the importance of age-appropriate teaching has come to the fore.
Teachers need a strong understanding of children’s social and cognitive
development as well as a good understanding of theories of second
language acquisition in order to teach effectively: a child of three will be
very different from a child of five or seven and classroom approaches that
are suitable for the latter will not be so for the former. In their global study,
Garton et al. (op.cit.) came across a number of comments that suggested
that in some cases, this kind of understanding was limited. For example
teachers wrote that they were frustrated at teaching the finer points of
grammar (such as the present perfect tense) to children who seemed

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unable to grasp them. As the children were under the age of 12, we may
ask how appropriate such an activity is for this age group. On the other
hand, in her article, Mourão (p. 254 this issue) discusses the advantages
of modelling interactions that pre-primary children can then imitate in
English Corners when playing independently. Mourão shows how age-
appropriate activities can be effective in promoting opportunities for even
very young children to learn in a classroom environment.
While much of the research focuses on formal learning environments,
we should not ignore the opportunities children have, even in what
is traditionally called an EFL environment, to use English outside the
classroom. Sayer and Ban (p. 321 this issue) show how children in Mexico
access English through popular culture, engaging with the language in
order to listen, watch, and/or play. Butler, Someya, and Fukuhara (p. 265
this issue) also show how children engage with online games outside
the classroom and identify the features that are attractive to children of
different ages. What is exciting about these two studies is that they extend
the traditional boundaries of research on YLs to engage with the realities
of children learning English in the twenty-first century.

Policy So far, we have focused on the individual language learner, age, and
factors that affect learning. In this section, we focus on another key
theme in language learning: policy.
In EFL contexts, most language learning happens in schools.
Government policy in many countries around the world has increasingly
introduced English into primary schools at an ever-earlier age with
significant effects on English language learning and teaching practices
(see, for example, the chapters in Enever, Moon, and Raman 2009).
One consequence of early language learning policies is the shortage
of primary school teachers with an English specialism. As a result,
homeroom teachers, who may only speak limited English, are often
required to take English lessons. Alternatively, English teachers from
higher levels such as secondary school, or ‘native’ English teachers,
who often work peripatetically, have been employed. Hu (2007), for
example, describes how the Chinese government has attempted to
address the shortage by recommending the following measures:
1 primary school teachers of other subjects who had some English
background should be trained to teach English;

Key themes and future directions 225

 2 English teachers should teach across a number of schools;
3 retired English teachers from both primary and secondary schools
should be employed; and
4 class advisors or teachers of other subjects should be used to
organize students for activities such as watching English videos or
listening to cassettes.
However, none of these groups of teachers is fully and appropriately
trained (i.e. trained to teach primary level or trained to teach English or
both), a situation that is common in many contexts. Enever (p. 231 this
issue) not only highlights the current weaknesses in teacher education
in Europe in this regard but also points out that such weaknesses are

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likely to be more widespread.
English in the primary curriculum has frequently been accompanied
by other policy imperatives such as government-mandated changes
to the teaching approach, usually with a focus on some form of
Communicative Language Teaching or Task-based Learning and
Teaching (TBLT). Such policy decisions have brought with them a
number of problems, which have been well-documented. For example
meaning-based approaches, developed in Western classrooms for
adults, may not be compatible with local educational traditions and may
go against the expectations of both parents and learners. While some
training has usually been given in the imported approaches, teachers
often feel that training in new methodologies is inadequate, resulting
in a gap between policy and its implementation in the classroom where
teachers may fall back on familiar practices.
However, it is also true that, over time, improvements in policy
implementation have been made in a number of countries. Karavas
(p. 243 this issue), for example, describes the successful extension of
English to first and second grades in primary schools in Greece through
the involvement of stakeholders in programme development.

Young learner There have been a number of ‘how to’ books in recent years
pedagogy recommending good practice in teaching YLs in the light of available
research findings, mainly about L1 and L2 child language acquisition,
informing and guiding both teaching and teacher education (for example
Cameron 2001), but research-based publications into effective practices
for teaching YLs continue to be quite rare. Database searches, including
in the archives of this Journal, still yield very few examples of empirical
studies about the effect of pedagogies on early language learning. For
example a search for articles with ‘young learner’ and ‘primary school’ in
the title or abstract published in ELT Journal since 2000 had just eight
hits that could be considered to have a focus on YL pedagogy, covering
areas as diverse as stories, posters, the interactive whiteboard, and
reading.
There are some exceptions. Nikolov’s (2009) edited collection contains
chapters focusing on how YLs acquire particular systems, such as
vocabulary, or skills, such as reading, while Pinter (op.cit.) summarizes
a number of pedagogic research studies. Furthermore, there has been
some research into the effects of particular approaches such as the

226 Fiona Copland and Sue Garton

 work of Carless (2008), who has investigated the use of TBLT with YLs.
However, it is clear that there remains a lack of classroom-based studies
and ‘young learners’ in general remains an under-researched area. For
these reasons, studies such as those by Coyle and Gómez Gracia (p. 276
this issue) on using songs and by Mourão on child-initiated play
have an important role to play in developing our understanding of
appropriate YL pedagogy.

Doing research As we have noted, more and more children are learning English from
with young an early age, and research in the area has begun to grow. Very often,
learners such research is based on methods used with adults and, as Pinter and
Zandian (2014) note, tends to be experimental. The question therefore

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arises as to whether research focusing on YLs needs to develop a new
set of research tools, or indeed whole new approaches.
Pinter and Zandian’s (ibid.) groundbreaking work suggests the need
to introduce ‘child perspectives’ into research, shifting the focus to
children’s concerns and agendas (op.cit.: 65) and seeing them as
‘co-researchers’, acknowledging that children are ‘capable of providing
useful and reliable insights into their own lives’ as well as being
‘resourceful and knowledgeable, especially concerning their own
experiences’ (op.cit.: 66). Child-centred researchers such as Pinter
and Zandian (op.cit.) and Kuchah (2013) suggest using participatory
activities such as drawings, photographs, music, and storytelling for
data collection. A number of innovative approaches can be found in
this Special Issue. For example Jin, Liang, Jiang, Zhang, Yuan, and Xie
(p. 286) elicited metaphors from children as a way of understanding
their motivations for learning English, while López-Gopar (p. 310) used
multimodalities and narratives to research the introduction of children’s
indigenous languages into the English classroom. Besser and Chik
(p. 299 this issue) asked children in their study to take photographs of
their environments, which were then used by the researchers to find out
about how the children viewed themselves in relation to English.

Learning English The socio-economic context in which children are learning English
and context is increasingly attracting attention. There is little doubt that speaking
English can confer economic advantage on some. However, we do not
know how widespread this advantage is. Indeed, recent studies have
suggested that learning English can contribute to disadvantage because
children from wealthier homes are able to access extra English support
that poorer children cannot (see, for example, Lamb 2011). Besser and
Chik describe how children attending English medium schools in Hong
Kong, generally the prerogative of the wealthy, develop strong English
language skills that are much sought after when they later enter the job
market.
Similarly, in Mexico and other South American countries, a
recognition that English can bring disadvantages as well as benefits
has led to a critical approach to English language teaching, even with
YLs. López-Gopar explores how identity texts were used with YLs to
develop an understanding of the value of their multilingual identities.

Key themes and future directions 227

 At the same time as interest in teaching English to YLs is growing,
there is a parallel interest, particularly in the United Kingdom and
North America, in the teaching of bilingual children. This literature
tends to support using the children’s L1 to teach content subjects as
it leads to more effective learning and identity development. In the
ELT world, in contrast, there is a drive towards using English as the
medium of instruction with the development of CLIL and English
medium instruction (EMI) pedagogies. English medium schools are
also growing in popularity. In this issue, Besser and Chik explain how
children who attend EMI schools in Hong Kong and who are also
supported at home, tend to develop bilingual identities that are not
generally attainable by those attending Chinese medium schools.

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However, the research traditions in bilingualism and ELT rarely cross.
This is unfortunate as both share an interest in YLs’ language learning
and advocate for supporting children in the most effective ways
possible, yet both take very different positions in this regard.

Future directions It is an exciting time in YL research. In this section, we would like to

suggest some areas we think would benefit from further investigation.
First, the benefits and drawbacks of children learning English need
to be more fully considered and explored. Empirical evidence of
sociocultural and educational advantages/disadvantages of early
language learning are scant, yet policy dictates that English should be
taught to millions of children globally as if advantage is assured. In
some contexts, children might gain more benefit from, for example,
extra literacy work rather than language learning.
Second, we know too little about effective pedagogies for teaching
YLs, particularly in classrooms. The belief drawn from bilingual or
immersion contexts that children are like sponges and will soak up
English is not tenable when transferred to contexts where children
have very limited input and this input is in large group settings. While
in some contexts pedagogy seems to comprise games and songs, in
others, children are expected to sit for long periods of time doing
comprehension-type activities and grammar exercises (see Copland,
Garton, and Burns 2013). Yet, as we can see from the articles in this
Special Issue, other approaches do exist and these need to be examined
for context-specific effectiveness.
A third area that merits exploration is technology, specifically how
this is used, or can be used, outside the classroom to access English.
It is clear that there are insufficient hours in most schools’ curricula
to provide a strong foundation in English language. It is also clear
that children access English outside the classroom through a variety
of media. These two realities could lead to research projects to explore
language learning outside the classroom and how this can be made
more effective.
We would also like to see more research into teacher education in
teaching English to YLs. In many countries, native English-speaking
teachers and expert users are employed by governments and schools to

228 Fiona Copland and Sue Garton

 teach English because local teachers feel unable to teach, either because
their English skills are too poor or because they believe their English
skills are too poor. In other places, teachers using a CLIL methodology
are less concerned about their English levels as their focus is on the
content of what they are teaching rather than on their language use.
What English proficiency do teachers need to teach effectively, in
different contexts, and with different levels of learners?
Finally, policy is hugely important in the YL context as it directly
influences the lives of millions of children. However, we know very
little about how policies are developed, or how the macro, in terms of
policy, becomes the micro, in terms of school practice. Many more

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studies, therefore, are needed in this area.

Conclusion We are delighted to have been afforded the opportunity to edit this
Special Issue of ELT Journal and believe the articles in the collection
represent some of the most interesting and innovative work currently
being undertaken in the area of YLs. We are confident that these articles
provide insights into practice that teachers and other ELT professionals
will be able to draw upon in their own professional context. They will
also contribute to the informed discussion of the principles and practice
of teaching English to YLs, and will both inspire others to pursue YL
research and provide clear guidance about how best this research can be
carried out. We look to the future with confidence.
Final version received March 2014

References to Young Learners. ELT Research Papers 11-01.

Blackledge, A. and A. Creese. 2010.
Multilingualism. A Critical Perspective. London:
Continuum.
Cameron, L. 2001. Teaching Languages to Young
Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Carless, D. 2008. ‘Student use of the mother
tongue in the task-based classroom’. ELT Journal
62/4: 331–8.
Copland, F., S. Garton, and A. Burns. 2013.
‘Challenges in teaching English to young
learners: global perspectives and local realities’.
TESOL Quarterly. Article first published online
27 December 2013; doi:10.1002/tesq.148.
Ellis, G. 2014. ‘“Young learners”: clarifying our
terms’. ELT Journal 68/1: 75–8.
Enever, J. (ed.). 2011. ELLiE. Early Language
Learning in Europe. London: The British Council.
Enever, J., J. Moon, and U. Raman. (eds.).
2009. Young Learner English Language Policy
and Implementation: International Perspectives.
Reading: Garnet Education.
Garton, S., F. Copland, and A. Burns. 2011.
Investigating Global Practices in Teaching English
London: The British Council.
Hawkins, M. 2005. ‘Becoming a student: identity
work and academic literacies in early schooling’.
TESOL Quarterly 39/1: 59–82.
Hu, Y. 2007. ‘China’s foreign language policy on
primary English education: what’s behind it?’
Language Policy 6/3: 359–76.
Kuchah, H. 2013. ‘Context-appropriate ELT
pedagogy: an investigation in Cameroonian
primary schools’. Unpublished PhD thesis,
University of Warwick, UK.
Lamb, M. 2011. ‘A “Matthew Effect” in English
language education in a developing country
context’ in H. Coleman (ed.). Dreams and
Realities: Developing Countries and English
Language. London: The British Council.
Muñoz, C. 2006. Age and the Rate of Foreign
Language Learning. Clevedon: Multilingual
Matters.
Nikolov, M. (ed.). 2009. Early Learning of Modern
Foreign Languages: Processes and Outcomes. Bristol:
Multilingual Matters.
Pinter, A. 2011. Children Learning Second
Languages. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Key themes and future directions 229

Pinter, A. and S. Zandian. 2014. ‘“I don’t
ever want to leave this room”: benefits of
researching “with” children’. ELT Journal 68/1:
64–74.
The author
Fiona Copland is Senior Lecturer in TESOL in
the School of Languages and Social Sciences
at Aston University, Birmingham, UK, where
she is Course Director of distance learning MSc
programmes in TESOL. She has worked as an
English language teacher and a teacher trainer
in Nigeria, Hong Kong, and Japan and has been
a course director for both CELTA and DELTA
programmes in the UK. Fiona has a range
of research interests, including talk in post-
observation feedback conferences and linguistic
ethnography. With colleagues at Aston, Sue
Garton and Anne Burns, she carried out a global
research project titled Investigating Global Practices
in Teaching English to Young Learners which led
to the production of a book of language learning
230 Fiona Copland and Sue Garton
activities called Crazy Animals and Other Activities
for Teaching English to Young Learners. She is
currently working on a project investigating
native-speaker teacher projects.
Email: f.m.copland@aston.ac.uk
Sue Garton is a Senior Lecturer in TESOL and
Director of Postgraduate Programmes in English
at Aston University. She worked for many years
as an English language teacher in Italy before
joining Aston as a teacher educator on distance
learning TESOL programmes. Her research
interests include classroom discourse, language
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teacher education and language in education
policy. As well as leading the British Council-
funded project on investigating global practices in
teaching English to young learners, she has also
worked on two other British Council projects,
one looking at the transition from primary to
secondary school and the other, led by Fiona
Copland, on investigating native-speaker teacher
schemes.
Email: s.garton@aston.ac.uk