First to View Cells
He called them "ANIMALCULES".
In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope to
examine a thin slice of cork (dead plant cells)
• Robert Hooke is responsible for naming
cells
• Hooke called them “CELLS” because they
looked like the small rooms that monks
lived in called Cells.
• Hooke's 1665 book Micrographia spurred
microscopic investigations. Thus observing
microscopic fossils, Hooke endorsed
biological evolution.
• He was able to observe lice and fleas.
• He observed "cork" while observing cork
through his microscope, Hooke saw tiny
boxlike cavities, which he illustrated and
described as cells. He had discovered plant
cells!
• He saw cell wall remnants.
• He wasn’t actually able to observe, directly
"living things".
In 1673, Leeuwenhoek (a Dutch microscope
maker), was first to view organism (living things)
• Leeuwenhoek used a simple, handheld
microscope to view pond water & scrapings
from his teeth
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1674) He was a Dutch
lenses crafter, and he was inspired by Hooke's
work. He craft lenses to make a better microscope
and make a better observations.
 (Father of Microbiology) one of the first
microscopist and biologist.
 Dutch microscopist who was the first to
observe bacteria and protozoa.
 He was the first to able see living things. He
observe "sperm". And said "this thing look
like its alive!" 1677 spermatozoa
1
 He observe protists - unicellular, eukaryotic.
Beginning of the Cell Theory
In 1838, a German botanist named Matthias
Schleiden concluded that all plants were made of
cells
• Schleiden is a cofounder of the cell theory.
In 1839, a German zoologist named Theodore
Schwann concluded that all animals were made of
cells
• Schwann also cofounded the cell theory
In 1855, a German medical doctor named Rudolph
Virchow observed, under the microscope, cells
dividing
• He reasoned that all cells come from other
pre-existing cells by cell division
 In 1855, at the age of 34, he published his
now famous aphorism “omnis cellula e
cellula” (“every cell stems from another
cell”). With this approach Virchow launched
the field of cellular pathology. He stated
that all diseases involve changes in normal
cells, that is, all pathology ultimately is
cellular pathology.
CELL THEORY
MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN & THEODOR SCHWANN
1 All living things are made of cells
2 Cells are the basic unit of structure and
function in an organism (basic unit of life)
Rudolph Virchow
3 Cells come from the reproduction of
existing cells (cell division)
CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE Stem Cell Lines Derived from Human
Somatic Cells.” The cells used in
This theory was proposed by Walter Sutton and
experimentation were adult skin cells,
Theodor Boveri (1902).
induced to become pluripotent
• The two workers found a close similarity stem cells after the addition of four genes
between the transmission of hereditary to the cells.
characters and behaviour of chromosomes
Discoveries since the Cell Theory
while passing from the one generation to
the next through agency of gametes. Exploring the Cell
 Scientists use light microscopes and
Wlter Fleming, 1882 electron microscopes to explore the
structure of cells.
• He was a pioneer of cytogenetic. He was
the first to conduct systematic study of  Compound light microscopes have lenses
chromosomes during division and he called that focus light. They magnify objects by up
this process mitosis. His 1882 work to 1000 times. Chemical stains and
"Zellsubstanz, kern and Zelltheilang" is fluorescent dyes make cell structures easier
considered a seminal work of modern cell to see.
biology.
 Electron microscopes use beams of
electrons focused by magnetic fields. They
Thomas Hunt Morgan, 1915 offer much higher resolution than light
microscopes. There are two main types of
• He confirmed Mendelian laws of
electron microscopes—transmission and
inheritance and the hypothesis that genes
scanning. Scientists use computers to add
are located on chromosomes. He did this by
color to electron micrographs, which are
extensively breeding the common fruit fly.
photos of objects seen through a
microscope
• Morgan put forward a theory of the linear
arrangement of the genes in the MICROSCOPE TECHNOLOGY
chromosomes, expanding this theory in his
● the discovery of cells would not have been
book, Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity
possible without the invention of the microscope.
(1915).
● Compound light microscopes use glass lenses just
Francis Crick and James Watson, 1953
like the early microscopes Robert Hooke used.
• Crick and Watson along with Maurice
● Modern compound light microscopes use
Wilkins solved the structure of DNA. Their
electricity, a source of light, and can magnify
findings were published in Nature in April
images up to 1000x w/out blurring.
1953.
In 2007 James Thomson, with first author Junying
Yu,
• Published yet another pioneer paper in
Science: “Induced Pluripotent

2
MODERN MICROSCOPES
● Modern microscopes like the transmission
electron microscope (TEM) and the scanning
electron microscope (SEM) can magnify specimens
up to 500,000x.
● One disadvantage to using these microscopes is
that the specimens must be dead.
Simple or Complex Cells
BASIC TYPES OF CELLS
● Cells come in a variety of shapes and sizes, but all
cells share some basic characteristics.
● One thing that all cells have in common is a
plasma (cell) membrane.
● The cell membrane is a boundary which allows
things into and out of the cell.
DIFFERENCES IN CELL TYPES
● All cells fall into one of two categories.
● Eukaryotes – Cells with a membrane-bound
nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
● Prokaryotes – Cells without a membrane-bound
nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
● A nucleus is the central organelle of a cell that
contains the genetic material (DNA).
● Organelles are like organs for the cell. They are
special structures that perform vital functions
necessary to the cell.
►Cell – the smallest unit that can carry on the
processes of life.
►Unicellular – consists of only one cell
►Multicellular – consists of more than one cell
3
Prokaryotes – The first Cells
• Cells that lack a nucleus or membrane-
bound organelles
• Includes bacteria
• Simplest type of cell
• Single, circular chromosome
• Nucleoid region (center) contains the DNA
• Surrounded by cell membrane & cell wall
(peptidoglycan)
• Contain ribosomes (no membrane) in their
cytoplasm to make proteins
• Precambrian period about 3.5 billion years
ago.
• Ubiquitous = present, appearing, or found
everywhere.
• Nucleus- like, circular
• Capsule = helps prokaryotes cling to each
other and to various surfaces in their
environment, and also helps prevent
the cell from drying out.
• Flagella = Flagella are primarily used
for cell movement and are found
in prokaryotes as well as some eukaryotes.
• Pili = are short, hair-like structures on
the cell surface of prokaryotic cells. They can
have a role in movement, but are more often
involved in adherence to surfaces, which
facilitates infection, and is a key virulence
characteristic.
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
● Prokaryotic cell – Unicellular organisms like
bacteria. Notice the DNA is not found in a nucleus
and organelles are absent (except ribosomes).
Eukaryotes
• Cells that HAVE a nucleus and membrane-
bound organelles
• Includes protists, fungi, plants, and animals
• More complex type of cells
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
● Eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles. Animals, plants, protists
(like paramecium and amoeba), and fungi are all
eukaryotic organisms.
Contain 3 basic cell structures:
• Cell Membrane – outer boundary
• Nucleus – control center
Two Main Types of Eukaryotic Cells
1. PLANT CELLS = have mitochondria and
organelles called chloroplasts.
 CHLOROPLASTS = make glucose by using
light energy in a process known as
photosynthesis.
 CENTRAL VACUOLE = the large vacuole of
plant cells.
 CELL WALL= a layer that offers additional
protection and shape maintenance that
animals do not.
• Golgi Apparatus
2. ANIMAL CELLS= have several smaller vacuoles.

• Cytoplasm with organelles– stuff between membrane Organelles

& nucleus
What are ORGANELLES?
All cells have three things in common no matter  Organelle means "little organ."
what type of cell they are.  Organelles are the specialized parts of a cell
that have unique jobs to perform.
1. All cells have a cell membrane which
 Very small (Microscopic)
separates the inside of the cell from its
 Perform various functions for a cell
environment,
 Found in the cytoplasm
2. Cytoplasm = cytoplasm, which is a jelly-like  May or may not be membrane-bound
fluid.
1. Cell or Plasma Membrane
3. DNA = and DNA which is the cell's genetic  This is a double layered differentially
material. permeable membrane of the cell.
 It keeps things in the cell stable and is
also known as keeping homeostasis.
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
 Composed of double layer of
• Cells that lack nuclei phospholipids and proteins
• size 1-5 um  Surrounds outside of ALL cells
• example bacteria and archaea  Controls what enters or leaves the cell
EUKARYOTIC CELLS  Living layer

• cells contain nuclei

• 10-100 um in size
• Example protists, fungi, plants, and animals
•

4
The cell membrane is an important part of all cells,
and has 2 major jobs:
1) Separates the interior of the cell from its
surrounding environment
2) Regulates what enters and leaves the cell!!!
Phospholipids = naturally form bi-layers. They can
form spherical membranes that have phospholipid
bi-layers
 Heads contain glycerol & phosphate and
are hydrophilic (attract water)
 Tails are made of fatty acids and are
hydrophobic (repel water)
 Make up a bilayer where tails point
inward toward each other
 Can move laterally to allow small
molecules (O2, CO2, & H2O to enter)
The Cell Membrane is Fluid
Molecules in cell membranes are constantly
moving and changing
Cell Membrane Proteins
• Proteins help move large molecules or aid
in cell recognition
• Peripheral proteins are attached on the
surface (inner or outer)
• Integral proteins are embedded completely
through the membrane
Peripheral proteins are not embedded in the lipid
bilayer at all, but are loosely bound to the
surface of the protein and can be connected
to integral proteins. Integral proteins penetrate
the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer and have
hydrophilic regions of amino acids when in contact
with the aqueous environment.
 Peripheral proteins do not enter into the
hydrophilic space within the cell
membrane.
 Peripheral = wala naga agi sa hydrophilic
5
 Intergral = enters the hydrophilic = nka
attach
Cell Membrane in Plants
• Lies immediately against the cell wall in plant
cells
• Pushes out against the cell wall to maintain cell
shape
• Plant cells also have a cell wall outside
of their cell membranes that shape,
support, and protect the plant cell.
Cell Wall
• Found outside of the cell membrane
• Nonliving layer
• Supports and protects cell
• Found in plants, fungi, & bacteria
 In organisms such as plants, algae, and some
bacteria, the cell membrane is surrounded by a
Cell Wall
 The cell wall helps to support and protect the
cell. It is rigid and serves as the "skeleton" of
plants.
Cytoplasm of a Cell
• Jelly-like substance enclosed by cell membrane
• Provides a medium for chemical reactions to
take place
• Jellylike fluid made up of water and
chemicals that fills the interior of the cell
and holds the cell's organelles
• Contains organelles to carry out
specific jobs
 Let's start with the nucleus, the control
center of the cell.
The Control Organelle – Nucleus
• Controls the normal activities of the cell
• Contains the DNA in chromosomes
• Bounded by a nuclear envelope (membrane)
with pores
• Usually the largest organelle
• Each cell has fixed
number of chromosomes that carry genes
• Genes control cell characteristics
The Nucleus
 The Nucleus is the "information control
center" of the eukaryotic cell
 The Nucleus contains DNA, the genetic
material that holds the coded instructions
for making thousands of different molecules
 The nucleus directs the biochemical
activities of the cell
The nucleus is made up of three important
structures
1. Nuclear Envelope
2. Nucleolus
3. Chromosomes
• Human 46 chromosomes
• Thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana)10
chromosomes
6
NUCLEOLUS = is a region found within the cell
nucleus that is concerned with producing and
assembling the cell's ribosomes. 
1. Creates rRNA to make Ribosomes
2. Ribosomes = rRNA + Protein
3. Sends mRNA to Ribosome to make proteins
Nuclear Envelope = nuclear
membrane
• Double membrane surrounding nucleus
• Also called nuclear membrane
• Contains nuclear pores for materials to
enter & leave nucleus
• Surrounds the nucleus and separates its
contents from the rest of the cell
• Contains pores, or small openings, that
allow certain molecules to move in and out
of the nucleus
Inside the Nucleus -
The genetic material (DNA) is found
 DNA is spread out and appears as
CHROMATIN in non-dividing cells
 DNA is condensed & wrapped around
proteins forming as CHROMOSOMES
in dividing cells
Chromatin is a substance within a chromosome
consisting of DNA and protein. The major protein is
histones. = A PROTIEN THAT PROVIDES
STRUCTURAL SUPPORT TO A CHROMOSOME.
1. Long strands of DNA
2. DNa- Instruction Manual
3. Stores genetic info

What Does DNA do?
 DNA is the hereditary material of the cell
 Genes that make up the DNA molecule
code for different proteins
 2m, or 3 billion base pairs
Nucleolus
• Inside nucleus
• Disappears when cell divides
• Makes ribosomes that make proteins
The nucleolus is a dark, dense region
made up of the genetic material RNA
 The nucleolus where ribosomes are made
Cytoskeleton A collection of fibers that will
provide support for the cell and its organelles.
• Helps cell maintain cell shape
• Also help move organelles around
• Made of proteins
• Microfilaments are threadlike & made of
ACTIN
• Microtubules are tube like & made of
TUBULIN
The Cytoskeleton is a tiny network of tubules
that support the cell's structure and drive cellular
Microtubules provide support for cell shape,
help move organelles through the cytoplasm, and
play a special role in cell division by forming
centrioles.
Centrioles
Centrioles are found in animal cells and play a
role in mitotic cell division
7
• Found only in animal cells
• Paired structures near nucleus
• Made of bundle of microtubules
• Appear during cell division forming mitotic
spindle
• Help to pull chromosome pairs apart to
opposite ends of the cell
POWER STATIONS OF THE CELL
 All living things require energy
 Energy comes from the sun or food
substances
 This energy is made available to cells in the:
I. Mitochondria
II. Chloroplast
Mitochondrion
(plural = mitochondria)
• “Powerhouse” of the cell
• Generate cellular energy (ATP)
• More active cells like muscle cells have
MORE mitochondria
• Both plants & animal cells have
mitochondria
• Site of CELLULAR RESPIRATION (burning
glucose)
MITOCHONDRIA = are membrane-bound cell
organelles (mitochondrion, singular) that generate
most of the chemical energy needed to power the
cell's biochemical reactions.
1. Generates Energy (ATP)
2. Cellular Respiration 3. Contains its own DNA
Cellular Respiration is a set of metabolic reactions
and processes that take place in the cells of organisms
to convert chemical energy from oxygen molecules or
nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then
release waste products.
MITOCHONDRIA (plural)/ MITOCHONDRION
(singular) = makes ATP energy in a process called
cellular respiration.
ATP energy = runs on GLUCOSE which is a sugar
and needs the presence of oxygen.
Adenosine triphosphate, also known as ATP, is a
molecule that carries energy within cells.
Chloroplasts
 Organelles found only in plants, algae, and
some bacteria that contain the light
absorbing pigment chlorophyll
 Photosynthesis occurs here as plants
convert solar energy into the food
substance glucose
Aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration is a chemical reaction that
transfers energy to cells. The waste products
of aerobic respiration are carbon dioxide and
water.
NADH - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide
Hydrogen
Is a similar compound used more actively in the
electron transport chain as well.
 Is used for improving mental clarity,
alertness, concentration, and memory; as
well as for treating Alzheimer's disease and
dementia.
FADH2- Flavin adenine dinucleotide hydrogen
8
 High energy electron carrier used
to transport electrons generated in
Glycolysis and Krebs cycle to the Electron
Transport Chain. Glycolysis is the first of the
three steps used to breakdown glucose to
produce ATP.
Sterols play a vital role in cell signaling by helping
regulate the process of development.
Sterols are unique among lipids in that they have a
multiple-ring structure. The well-
known sterol cholesterol is found only in foods of
animal origin—meat, egg yolk, fish, poultry, and
dairy products. Organ meats (e.g., liver, kidney)
and egg yolks have the most cholesterol, while…
MITOCHONDRIA
 Surrounded by a DOUBLE membrane
 Has its own DNA
 Folded inner membrane called CRISTAE
(increases surface area for more chemical
Reactions)
 Interior called MATRIX
CRISTAE = refers to any flattened disks of the
endoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus
Interesting Fact ---
• Mitochondria Come from cytoplasm in the
EGG cell during fertilization
Therefore …
• You inherit your mitochondria from your
mother!
Endoplasmic Reticulum – ER
• Network of hollow membrane tubules
• Connects to nuclear envelope & cell
membrane
• Functions in Synthesis of cell products &
Transport
  A network of membrane sacs that
transports materials through the inside of
the cell Golgi Bodies
• Stacks of flattened sacs
2 types:
• Have a shipping side (cis face) & a receiving
I. Rough ER side (trans face)
II. Smooth ER • Receive proteins made by ER
• Transport vesicles with modified proteins
Rough ER
pinch off the ends
• Has ribosomes on its surface
• Makes membrane proteins and proteins • Look like a stack of pancakes
for export out of cell
• Modify, sort, & package
• Proteins are made by ribosomes on ER
surface • molecules from ER
• They are then threaded into the interior of
• for storage OR
the Rough ER to be modified and
transport out of cell
transported
 ER is covered with ribosomes Modifies, collects, packages, and distributes
 Involved in the synthesis and chemical molecules made at one location of the cell and
modification of proteins used at another

Golgi Animation
Smooth ER
• Makes membrane lipids (steroids)  Materials are transported from Rough ER
• Regulates calcium (muscle cells) to Golgi to the cell membrane by VESICLES
• Destroys toxic substances (Liver)
 Enzymes and special biochemical are stored Lysosomes = Belgian cytologist
in the smooth ER Christian René de Duve ,1950s
• Contain digestive enzymes
Endomembrane System • Break down food, bacteria, and worn out
 Includes nuclear membrane connected to
cell parts for cells
ER connected to cell membrane (transport)
• Programmed for cell death (APOPTOSIS)
Ribosomes • Lyse & release enzymes to break down &
• Made of PROTEINS and rRNA recycle cell parts)
• “Protein factories” for cell
• The Cleanup Crew of the Cell!
• Join amino acids to make proteins through
• Contain digestive enzymes that can "digest"
protein synthesis
substances in the cell such as foreign
• Can be attached to
materials and worn out organelles
Rough ER
OR
• Be free (unattached) in the cytoplasm
9
Lysosome Digestion
 Cells take in food by phagocytosis
 Lysosomes digest the food & get rid of
wastes
Phagocytosis is a cellular process for ingesting and
eliminating particles larger than 0.5 μm in
diameter, including microorganisms, foreign
substances, and apoptotic cells.
Phagocytosis is a process wherein a cell binds to
the item it wants to engulf on the cell surface and
draws the item inward while engulfing around it.
The process of phagocytosis often happens when
the cell is trying to destroy something, like a virus
or an infected cell, and is often used by immune
system cells.
Cilia & Flagella
 Function in moving cells, in moving fluids, or in
small particles across the cell surface
Cilia are shorter and more numerous on cells
Cilia Moving Away Dust Particles from the Lungs
Flagella are longer and fewer (usually 1-3) on cells
There are many other unique structures that only
some cells have.
 In humans, for example, the respiratory
tract is lined with cells that have cilia.
These are microscopic hair-like projections
that can move in waves.
 This feature helps trap inhaled particles in
the air and expels them when you cough.
 Another unique feature in some cells is
flagella. Some bacteria have flagella.
 A flagellum is like a little tail that can
help a cell move or propel itself.
 The only human cell that has a
flagellum is a sperm cell.
10
Vacuoles
• Fluid filled sacks for storage
• Small or absent in animal cells
• Plant cells have a large Central Vacuole
Vacuoles
• Cellular storage tanks that may hold water,
salts, proteins, and carbohydrates
• Plants have a large central vacuole to hold
water. The pressure of the water helps to
keep the plant upright
• In plants, they store Cell Sap
• Includes storage of sugars, proteins,
minerals, lipids, wastes, salts, water, and
enzymes
CELL SAP
The liquid inside the large central vacuole of a
plant cell that serves as storage of materials and
provides mechanical support, especially in non-
woody plants. It has also a vital role in
plant cell osmosis.
Chloroplasts
• Found only in producers (organisms
containing chlorophyll)
• Use energy from sunlight to make own
food (glucose)
• Energy from sun stored in the Chemical
Bonds of Sugars
• Organelles found only in plants, algae, and
some bacteria that contain the light
absorbing pigment chlorophyll
 • Photosynthesis occurs here as plants Organelles That Store, Clean Up, and Support
convert solar energy into the food
 Vacuoles
substance glucose
 membrane-enclosed saclike
 Some organisms such as plants that are structures that store water, salts,
and organic molecules
photoautotrophic meaning they capture
sunlight for energy.  Lysosomes
 Plant cell have cells with an organelle called a  small organelles filled with enzymes
chloroplast. that break down large molecules
and organelles that are no longer
 The chloroplast is where photosynthesis useful
happens. It's green because it has a green
pigment called chlorophyll.  Cytoskeletons

 Surrounded by DOUBLE membrane  a network of protein filaments; it

helps the cell maintain its shape and
 Outer membrane smooth is involved in movement
 Inner membrane modified into sacs called  Centrioles
Thylakoids
 organelles made from tubulins; they
 Thylakoids in stacks called Grana & help organize cell division in animal
interconnected cells
 Stroma – gel like material surrounding Organelles That Build Proteins-Three kinds of
thylakoids organelles work with the nucleus to make and
distribute proteins
CELL STRUCTURE  Ribosomes
Cell Organization
 small particles of RNA and protein
 Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and found throughout the cytoplasm in
many specialized structures. all cells; they produce proteins by
following coded instructions from
Cytoplasm
DNA
 is the fluid portion of a cell.
 endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Organelles
 : an internal membrane system
 are structures that have specialized where lipid components of the cell
functions in eukaryotic cells membrane are assembled, along
with proteins and other materials
Nucleus
 Contains DNA and controls the activity
of a cell.
 are structures that have specialized
functions in eukaryotic cells
11
  Golgi apparatus
 an organelle that appears as a stack
of flattened membranes; it modifies,
sorts, and packages proteins and
other materials from the ER for
storage in the cell or release outside
the cell
Organelles That Capture and Release Two types of
organelles act as power plants of the cells. Both
types are surrounded by two membranes.
 Chloroplasts
 capture the energy from sunlight
and convert it into food that
contains chemical energy in a
process called photosynthesis. Cells
of plants and some other organisms
contain chloroplasts, which contain
chlorophyll.
 Mitochondria
 are found in nearly all eukaryotic
cells; they convert the chemical
energy stored in food to a usable
form.
Cellular Boundaries All cells are surrounded by a
cell membrane. Many cells also have a cell wall.
Both cell membranes and cell walls separate cells
from the environment and provide support.
 Cell walls
 support, shape, and protect the cell.
Most prokaryotes and many
eukaryotes have them. Animals do
not have cell walls. Cell walls lie
outside the cell membrane. Most
cell walls allow materials to pass
through them.
12
 lipid bilayer
 a strong but flexible barrier between
the cell and its surroundings. The
cell membrane regulates what
enters and leaves the cell and also
protects and supports the cell. Most
biological membranes are selectively
permeable, allowing some
substances, but not others, to pass
across them. A cell membrane is
consist of this.
why do we need to study simple and complex
cells?
Answer:
Studying cells helps us understand how organisms
function. Whether it is simple or complex for us to
know its cellular components to work together to
carry out life functions. Because cellular processes
enable organisms to meet their basic needs.
Cell sap
Phloem, or sieve-tube sap
Phloem is comprised of cells called sieve-
tube elements. Phloem sap travels through
perforations called sieve tube plates. Neighboring
companion cells carry out metabolic functions for
the sieve-tube elements and provide them with
energy. Lateral sieve areas connect the sieve-
tube elements to the companion cells.
ATP and NADPH = The ATP and NADPH from the
light-dependent reactions are used to make sugars
in the next stage of photosynthesis, the Calvin
cycle. In another form of the light reactions, called
cyclic photophosphorylation, electrons follow a
different, circular path and only ATP (no NADPH) is
produced.
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate
10 to 100 grana.
intergranal thylakoids or lamellae