Groundwater Contamination in Myanmar

Course – Groundwater Flow & Transport in Porous Media

Lecturer – Chunhui Lu

Submitted by M20200214, Hnin Wai Mar Aung 美雪

College of Water Conservancy and Hydropower Engineering
1st, JULY, 2021
1 INTRODUCTION
Groundwater is water that exists underground in saturated zones beneath the land
surface. Contrary to popular belief, groundwater does not form underground rivers. It fills the
pores and fractures in underground materials such as sand, gravel, and other rock, much the
same way that water fills a sponge. Groundwater is a vital resource for Myanmar. Nationally,
more than half of all households use groundwater for drinking and domestic supplies; in
rural areas, particularly in the Dry Zone, the proportion using groundwater often
exceeds 80% (Myanmar Census, 2014). Industries rely heavily on groundwater from
private wells, due to lack of reliable public supply. Official statistics indicate that
groundwater supplies approximately 7% of Myanmar’s formal irrigation, but these do not
account for widespread private pumping. Groundwater is the fastest growing irrigation sector
with increasing uptake of tubewell (TW) pumping by individual farmers, and investment
by the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MOALI) in pumped and
artesian systems. Access to groundwater can provide new opportunities and reduce
risk for both rural and urban communities. Groundwater can often fill gaps in supply
from surface supplies and rainwater, and conjunctive management and use of groundwater
and surface water can improve the security of supply and reduce the impacts and costs of
providing water. Groundwater contaminates due to dispersion of solutes. There are flow
relevant properties of solutes. Hydrodynamically neutral solutes (tracer) behave like a water
particle, dissolved compounds. They do not undergo chemical transformation and do not
change fluid properties. Hydrodynamically active compounds are leading to a change in
density or viscosity of the fluid so that the flow field is influenced. Non-soluble compounds
form their own phase having mostly different densities and viscosities.

2. GROUNDWATER ZONES
Soil being a porous and non-porous medium allows movement of water through
interstices and pores through various phenomenon. In terms of groundwater hydrology, the
underground soil water is classified in to two basic zones:-
a) Zone of Aeration
b) Zone of Saturation
Zone of Saturation is the one in which all the voids of the soil is completely saturated
and filled with water under hydrostatic pressure. Zone of Aeration, also termed as Vadose
zone or unsaturated zone, is that portion of sub-soil in which interstices or pores are filled
partially with air and partially with water.
To simplify description of groundwater systems, we have defined zones within the
Ayeyarwady Basin with similar characteristics in terms of aquifers and groundwater
resources. These are based on the Ayeyarwady Basin Hydro-Ecological Zones (HEZs),
sub-divided to reflect dominant geology and aquifers. Figure 1. shows the groundwater
zones (GWZs), and Table 1. gives a short description of each. Within the Dry Zone, Drury
(2017) used smaller sub-sections of the GWZs based on local sub-basins[3].

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Table 1 – Groundwater Region of Ayeyarwady Basin

Groundwater
HEZ Geology Main aquifer
Region
Dominantly Precambrian,
Dominantly low-yielding
Palaeozoic and Mesozoic
1. – Upper fracture hard rocks.
HEZ1 metamorphics, and Mesozoic
Ayeyarwady Alluvial aquifers in
granites. Small alluvial
floodplains.
floodplains.
Dominantly Paleocene to Mostly sandstones of
Holocene variable age including
sediments, including Miocene Pegu Group
2.1 - Upper
Irrawaddy Formation (Fm) Formation (Fm) with
Chindwin
and Pegu Group; some salinity risk. Limited
metamorphics of Western Alluvial aquifers and
Ranges. some Irrawaddy Fm.
HEZ2 Cretaceous flysch units in
Western
2.2 - Western Older Alluvium in river
Ranges; Paleocene- Eocene
Ranges valleys
molasse
and flysch in river valleys.
2.3 - Lower Irrawaddy Fm and Younger Irrawaddy Fm and
Chindwin Alluvium Younger Alluvium
Alluvial aquifers
3.1 - Middle
Miocene to Holocene alluvial including Younger
Ayeyarwady
sediments. Alluvium, Irrawaddy Fm
Lowlands
and Pegu Group.
Ordovician to Cretaceous
sediments, including large
Limestone aquifers,
3.2 - Shan areas of
fractured hard rock
Plateau Perma-Triassic Plateau
HEZ3 aquifers.
Limestone
Group.
Irrawaddy Fm and Younger
Alluvium with small areas of
Pegu Irrawaddy Fm and
3.3 - Mu
Group, Cretaceous Volcanics, Younger Alluvium.
and
Mesozoic granites.
Dominantly Miocene to
Holocene Pegu Group, Irrawaddy
4 - Lower
HEZ4 alluvial sediments (includes Fm, and Younger
Ayeyarwady
area of Alluvium.
HEZ 3 around Mandalay)
Younger Alluvium with
HEZ5 5 - Delta Recent alluvial deposits
underlying Irrawaddy

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 Figure .1 .Groundwater Zone of Ayeyarwady River Basin

2.1. Groundwater Potential of Dry Zone in Myanmar

In Myanmar the following items are adopted as the target of groundwater
development project for the rural area: the yield of groundwater by a deep tube well is 2
lit/sec or more in quantity, and the electrical resistivity of water is 1,500μS/cm EC

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(electrical conductivity) ≒1,000 mg/lit TDS or less in quality. In the quantity, it can be
said that the potential of the groundwater development in the Central Dry Zone is high as a
whole. In the quality, however, there are some problems entirely. It is necessary to construct
a proper well (depth, diameter, screen position, pump installation for the hydrogeological
conditions in the area, and it is preferable at least to avoid the high EC area presented
in the Groundwater Zoning Map as a well construction site. Furthermore, it is
necessary to note that in almost all project area, except for Kyaukpadaung Township
and the northeastern part of Yeasagyo Township, even if the low EC area, iron (Fe) contents
of the groundwater are over the national drinking water quality standard, NDWQS standard
(1.5 mg/lit).

(1)Taungtha Township
Almost all the Township is the high EC (electrical conductivity) area. From
the east to south of the high EC area is the distribution area of the Pegu Group. In the
west part, though it is the exposed area of the Irrawaddy Formation, the Pegu Group is
expected to be distributed in a comparatively shallow underground. Because, it is the
plunging area of the anticline axis along which the Pegu Group out crops. Results of the
geophysical survey (electrical sounding) also show that almost of survey points (villages) in
the high EC area are evaluated at rank B or C and all are A in the low EC area. Both of the
two test wells are located in the west part. Depth of these wells is 200 m and the result in
which water quantity and water quality are good (though the iron content is high) as
expected, was obtained. The water level is in 100-150 m in depth.
The Sindewa River flows in the northern part of the west half. According to the
Groundwater Zoning Map, since the depth of existing wells become shallow from the south
to the Sindewa River, the water level is also expected as the same (there is no
available data of the water level in this Township).In this Township, only the small west
part, where quantity and good quality water would be able to be obtained with the
well of 200 m or less in depth, is the high potential area for the groundwater
development.

(2) Kyaukpadaung Township

The high EC areas are limited small area in the northeast end and near the
west end of the Township. On the other hand, the low EC area widely extends to the center
of the Township. The high lands in which Mt. Popa centered are included in the low EC area.
At Gwaydaukkone, the water quantity and the quality were good as expected. At
Sudat, however, TDS was slightly higher than the NDWQ standards. Well depth of
the two test wells is 200 m and the water levels are in 120-160 m in depth.
According to the Groundwater Zoning Map, two sites of the test wells are located in
the deepest area in depth of the well and water level. As there is no other high TDS
well in the vicinities, the high TDS at Sudat is seemed to be exceptional. Therefore,
almost all Township area, where quantity and good quality water would be able to be
obtained with the well of 200 m or less in depth, is the high potential area for the
groundwater development, except for the central southern part, where volcanic rocks
are distributed.

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(3) Natogyi Township
The high EC areas extending north to south are distributed widely in the west
half and the center of the east half of the Township. One test well was drilled at Pegeyet W,
and the others, trial two shallow (70 m in depth) wells, were at Aungthar where is
included in the high EC area. The former, quantity and good quality water (though
iron content is high)was obtained with 300 m in depth and the water level of 24 m.
Although the depth of the well is deeper than that of the existing wells in the
vicinities, the water level is as expected. The latter two wells, there were many
problems in the water quality (TDS(total dissolved solids), Iron, Appearance, Total
Hardness, etc.) and the quantity was short as expected. In this Township, the high
potential area for groundwater development is limited to the narrow zone extending
north to south in the central part and to the east end.

(4)Nyaung U Township
The high EC areas are distributed in the center and near the east end of the Township.
There is an arête which is consisted of the Pegu Group and extends north to south in
the center of the Township. The arête and its vicinities form the center high EC
area. The other east end high EC area is a sequence of the plunging area of the
anticline axis in Taungtha Township. The two test wells were drilled at Kangyinkon N
and Htanaungwin in the vicinities of the arête. At Kangyinkon N, the aquifer could
not be confirmed, though the well was drilled up to 300 m in depth. On the other
hand, at Htanaungwin, quantity and good quality (though iron, Ca and total hardness
content are high) water was obtained with the well depth of 170 m and water level of
100 m in depth. The potential for the groundwater development of this Township is
high, though the well depth would be 200 m or more and water level 100 m or
more, excluding the western vicinities of the arête.
According to the Groundwater Zoning Map, both of well depth and water
level become shallow to the Ayeyarwaddy River that flows north to west forming the rim of
the Township.

(5)Pyawbwe Township
The high EC areas are distributed widely in both ends of east and west, and
the center of the Township. Two test wells were drilled at Yonbingon and Thabyeyo
in the eastern low EC area. The former are artesian and, quantity and good quality
water (though iron content is high) was obtained with the depth of 200 m. The latter,
however, shows the water level of 24 m in depth, deeper than as expected, and the
quantity was short. According to the existing data, the eastern low EC area of this Township
is located in the high confined groundwater zone between the Pegu Yoma Anticrinorium
and the Shan Plateau and in this area, water levels of the wells are less than 10m in
depth or artesian, though the well depth is 100 m or more. Therefore, taking
account of the well conditions of Yonbingon, ones of Thabeyeyo are seemed to be
exceptional. In this Township, although the correlation of the results of the

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geophysical survey with hydrogeological conditions is not so good in general, it can
be said that the potential of groundwater development is high in the eastern low EC area.

(6)Myingyan Township
In the Groundwater Zoning Map, the east half of the Township is high EC
area and the west half along the Ayeyarwaddy River is the low EC area. All geophysical
surveys were carried out in the high EC area.
Two survey points show the resistivity layers of 15-80 ohm-m some extent
and are evaluate at the rank A or B, and the others are B or C because almost all
these resisitivity layers show the value of 20 ohm-m or less.The test wells were drilled
at Koke and Saka in the high EC area with depth of 200 m and 300m, respectively,
though the depth of existing wells in the vicinities are 150 ft (50 m) or less. Water
quality of these wells have problems in TDS, total hardness and iron content, though
the quantity has no problem.In this Township, the area where water quality has no
problem is limited to the west half low EC area along the Ayeyarwaddy River.

(7)Chauk Township
Almost all Township area is the low EC area excluding the high EC area
distributed like islands in the northern part. In geophysical survey, Sharbin and Sudat in
the high EC area and its vicinities show many low resisitivity layers of 20 ohm-m or
less, and contrarily, Pyawa in in the low EC area, shows the high resisitivity layer of
40 ohm-m or more. Accordingly, in this Township, the correlation of the results of the
geophysical survey with hydrogeological conditions is not so good.Test wells were
drilled at Sangan and Thayetpin in the low EC area. Depth of these well are 300-414 m
(depth of 414 m at Thayetpin was trial) with the water level of 166-180 m in depth.Although
depth of both of well and water level are very deep, the result in which water
quantity and quality are good (though the iron content is high) was obtained. Taking account
of the depth of existing wells (about 350 m) in the vicinities and the loss of circulation
drilling mud at Sangan at around the depth of 106 m and 158 m, the depth of water level
(depth of groundwater saturated zone) in the vicinities is estimated to be very deep.Although,
whole Townships have high potential for groundwater development, it is necessaryto note
that the depth of water level (depth of groundwater saturated zone) in the vicinity is
very deep and, in relation to it, the possibility of occurrence of the loss of circulation
drilling mud

1.3 AQUIFER STORAGE

An aquifer is an underground geological formation which contains water and
sufficient amount of water can be extracted economically using water wells. Aquifers
comprise generally layers of sand and gravel and fracture bedrock. When water table serves
as the upper boundary of the aquifer, the aquifer is known as unconfined aquifer. As
discussed in the earlier section, there exists a capillary zone above the water table. However,
in most of the analysis, the capillary zone is neglected and water table is considered as the
upper boundary of the aquifer. The unconfined aquifer is also known as water table aquifer
and phreatic aquifer. An impervious layer is generally served as the bottom boundary of an

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unconfined aquifer. Sometime, the bottom of an unconfined aquifer may be semipervious and
water may gain and lose through the semipervious bottom layer. The aquifer is then known as
leaky unconfined aquifer. Storage describes the quantity of groundwater held within aquifer
systems. An aquifer which is bounded by two impervious layers at top and bottom of the
aquifer is called confined aquifer. In case of confined aquifer, if we insert a piezometer into
the aquifer, the water level will rise above the top impervious layer as the pressure in the
aquifer is more than the atmospheric pressure. As such, the confined aquifer is also known as
pressure aquifer. Top and bottom layer of a confined aquifer is generally impervious.
However, sometimes these layers may be semipervious in nature. In such a situation, the
water may gain or lose through these semipervious layers. The aquifer is then called leaky
confined aquifer. When piezometric surface of a confined aquifer is above the ground level,
the confined aquifer is then called an artesian aquifer. For artesian aquifer, if you put a well,
the water will come out of the well automatically.
Storage should not be used as an indicator of the quantity of groundwater sustainably
available for extraction. Instead, estimate of storage gives an indication of the importance of
the aquifer, and its capacity to buffer variability in recharge. Due to the scarcity of detailed
information on aquifer storage properties, broad conservative estimations were used.
The areal extent of aquifers was calculated from the geological map. The thickness of
aquifers was estimated based on structural geology and drilling depths, and the percentage of
productive aquifer within the formation was estimated from tubewell logs when sufficient
data were available. Total volume of water was then calculated, assuming a specific yield1
varying from 0.08 in hard rock formations, up to 0.20 in mostly gravel and sands aquifers,
based on global literature. Due to the assumptions made in the process, these values should
be considered only as an indicator of the order of magnitude of storage, not as accurate
estimates. Estimates of groundwater storage in the Ayeyarwady Basin indicate an enormous
volume in the order of 2,000 km3. However, current annual recharge is less than 1.5% of this.
Radiocarbon dating indicates that this resource has accumulated over a long period and may
represent a “fossil” resource, with minimal replenishment. In addition, much of this volume
may not be technically or economically accessible.

1.4 RECHARGE
Water enters into an aquifer primarily through the process of recharge from rainfall.
Water may also enter into an aquifer by the processes of recharge from canal seepage (Rr),
return flow from irrigation field (Rf) , leakage from overlaying and underlying aquifers, i.e.
leaky aquifer (Qli), artificial recharge (Qr), seepage from streams and lakes (Qsi), inflow from
the neighboring basins (Qi). Water can come out from an aquifer by the process of
withdrawal from the groundwater aquifer (Qp), evapotranspiration from groundwater (Et),
outflow to the neighboring basins (Qo), seepage to the streams and lakes (Qso), leakage to
overlaying and underlying aquifers (Qlo), discharge through spring (Qs). Considering the
various inflows and outflows as above, the groundwater balance equation can be written as:

𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑄 +𝑄 +𝑄 +𝑄 =𝑄 +𝐸 +𝑄 +𝑄 + 𝑄 + 𝑄 + ∆𝑆

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 ∆𝑆 is the the change in storage. Sometimes, from practical point of view, it may not
be possible to compute all the components of the groundwater balance equation. Many times
some components are lumped together to get a net response of these components.
Shallow groundwater and surface water are dynamically interconnected by recharge
and discharge processes. Where groundwater tables meet the surface, groundwater can play
an important role in aquatic ecosystems, providing a proportion of water to support springs,
marshes, and streams. The relative contribution of groundwater and surface water may vary
seasonally. In a monsoonal climate, such as in the Ayeyarwady Basin, baseflow in rivers
during the dry season may be substantially groundwater-derived. Conversely, wetlands and
streams may act as recharge zones to replenish shallow groundwater. Groundwater recharge
is usually an important groundwater resource parameter as it helps to define the
annual renewable portion of the storage. Understanding recharge dynamics is a prerequisite
for sustainable management of the resource. There are very few studies that estimate
recharge in Myanmar (Than Zaw, 2010; Bremer, 2017). Calculating recharge accurately
requires intensive studies and data, which are usually not available in Myanmar. For this
study, recharge was estimated for each aquifer group based on annual rainfall and a
recharge/rainfall (R/R) ratio, which describes the portion of rainfall infiltrating to
groundwater compared to the portion going to runoff and/or evapotranspiration. The R/R
ratio was always conservatively estimated for each unit based on their generic
permeability properties, literature research, and expert opinions. Due to the assumptions
made in the process, these values should be considered only as an indicator of the order of
magnitude of recharge, not as accurate estimates.

2. SOLUTE TRANSPORT IN GROUNDWATER

The groundwater may be contaminated from various sources. Some of the sources are
natural and some of them are manmade. Some of the sources of groundwater contamination
are:
 Septic tanks and cesspools
 Injection wells of hazardous wastes, agricultural and urban runoff, municipal
sewage, etc
 Landfill leaching
 Mine wastes
 Animal burials
 Radioactive waste disposal sites
 Pesticide and fertilizer applied to crop field
 Saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifer
 Leaching of natural minerals like fluoride, arsenic, iron, etc.
The solute present in groundwater aquifer can move from one place to another place
mainly by the processes of diffusion and advection. The mixing of solute also takes place by
the process of mechanical dispersion. The transportation of pollutants from one place to
another place will contaminate the aquifer and the aquifer may become unusable for
domestic, industrial, irrigational, etc. uses. As such modeling of the transport processes is
essential to mitigate the aquifer contamination problem. In an aquifer, flow takes place

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through a complex network of interconnected pores, or openings. However, when dealing
with flow in an aquifer, there are the microscopic flow patterns inside individual pores and
consider some fictitious average flow which takes place in the porous medium comprising the
aquifer. Soils and porous or fissured rocks are examples of porous media, as are ceramics,
fibrous aggregates, filter paper, or sand filters. Groundwater migrates from areas of higher
hydraulic head toward lower hydraulic head, transporting dissolved solutes through the
combined processes of advection and dispersion. Advection refers to the bulk movement of
solutes carried by flowing groundwater. Dispersion refers to the spreading of the contaminant
plume from highly concentrated areas to less concentrated areas. In many groundwater
transport models, solute transport is described by the advection-dispersion-reaction equation
in which dispersion coefficients can be calculated as the sum of molecular diffusion,
mechanical dispersion, and macro dispersion.

3. GROUNDWATER CONTAMINANTS IN MYANMAR

Groundwater will normally look clear and clean because the ground naturally filters
out particulate matter. But, natural and human-induced chemicals can be found in
groundwater. As groundwater flows through the ground, metals such as iron and manganese
are dissolved and may later be found in high concentrations in the water. Industrial
discharges, urban activities, agriculture, groundwater pump age, and disposal of waste all can
affect groundwater quality. Contaminants can be human-induced, as from leaking fuel tanks
or toxic chemical spills. Pesticides and fertilizers applied to lawns and crops can accumulate
and migrate to the water table. Leakage from septic tanks and/or waste-disposal sites also can
introduce bacteria to the water, and pesticides and fertilizers that seep into farmed soil can
eventually end up in water drawn from a well. Or, a well might have been placed in land that
was once used for something like a garbage or chemical dump site. In any case, if you use
your own well to supply drinking water to your home, it is wise to have your well water
tested for contaminates. The inorganic contaminants found in groundwater are described as
follows[2];
Aluminum
It occurs naturally in some rocks and drainage from mines.
Antimony
It enters environment from natural weathering, industrial production, municipal waste
disposal, and manufacturing of flame retardants, ceramics, glass, batteries, fireworks, and
explosives.
Arsenic
It enters environment from natural processes, industrial activities, pesticides, and
industrial waste, smelting of copper, lead, and zinc ore.
Barium
It occurs naturally in some limestones, sandstones, and soils.
Beryllium
It occurs naturally in soils, groundwater, and surface water. Often used in electrical
industry equipment and components, nuclear power and space industry. Beryllium enters the

10
environment from mining operations, processing plants, and improper waste disposal. It
found in low concentrations in rocks, coal, and petroleum and enters the ground.
Cadmium
It found in low concentrations in rocks, coal, and petroleum and enters the
groundwater and surface water when dissolved by acidic waters. It may enter the
environment from industrial discharge, mining waste, metal plating, water pipes, batteries,
paints and pigments, plastic stabilizers, and landfill leachate.
Chloride
It may be associated with the presence of sodium in drinking water when present in
high concentrations. It often found from saltwater intrusion, mineral dissolution, industrial
and domestic waste.
Chromium
It enters environment from old mining operations runoff and leaching into
groundwater, fossil-fuel combustion, cement-plant emissions, mineral leaching, and waste
incineration. It is used in metal plating and as a cooling-tower water additive.
Copper
It enters environment from metal plating, industrial and domestic waste, mining, and
mineral leaching.
Cyanide
It often used in electroplating, steel processing, plastics, synthetic fabrics, and
fertilizer production; also from improper waste disposal.
Dissolved solids
It occur naturally but also enters environment from man-made sources such as landfill
leachate, feedlots, or sewage. It is a measure of the dissolved "salts" or minerals in the water.
May also include some dissolved organic compounds.
Fluoride
It occurs naturally or as an additive to municipal water supplies; widely used in
industry.
Hardness
It is the result of metallic ions dissolved in the water; reported as concentration of
calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate is derived from dissolved limestone or discharges from
operating or abandoned mines.
Iron
It occurs naturally as a mineral from sediment and rocks or from mining, industrial
waste, and corroding metal.
Lead
It enters environment from industry, mining, plumbing, gasoline, coal, and as a water
additive.
Manganese
It occurs naturally as a mineral from sediment and rocks or from mining and industrial
waste.
Mercury

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 It occurs as an inorganic salt and as organic mercury compounds. Enters the
environment from industrial waste, mining, pesticides, coal, electrical equipment (batteries,
lamps, switches), smelting, and fossil-fuel combustion.
Nickel
It occurs naturally in soils, groundwater, and surface water. Often used in
electroplating, stainless steel and alloy products, mining, and refining.
Nitrate (as nitrogen)
It occurs naturally in mineral deposits, soils, seawater, freshwater systems, the
atmosphere, and biota. It is more stable form of combined nitrogen in oxygenated water.
Found in the highest levels in groundwater under extensively developed areas. It enters the
environment from fertilizer, feedlots, and sewage.
Nitrite (combined nitrate/nitrite)
It enters environment from fertilizer, sewage, and human or farm-animal waste.
Selenium
It enters environment from naturally occurring geologic sources, sulfur, and coal.
Silver
It enters environment from ore mining and processing, product fabrication, and
disposal. It is often used in photography, electric and electronic equipment, sterling and
electroplating, alloy, and solder. Because of great economic value of silver, recovery
practices are typically used to minimize loss.
Sodium
It is derived geologically from leaching of surface and underground deposits of salt
and decomposition of various minerals. Human activities contribute through de-icing and
washing products.
Sulfate
It is elevated concentrations may result from saltwater intrusion, mineral dissolution,
and domestic or industrial waste.
Thallium
It enters environment from soils; used in electronics, pharmaceuticals manufacturing,
glass, and alloys.
Zinc
It is found naturally in water, most frequently in areas where it is mined. It enters
environment from industrial waste, metal plating, and plumbing, and is a major component of
sludge.

3.1. Groundwater Quality

Water quality constrains the use of groundwater as much as quantity. A range of
potential contaminants can affect suitability for different uses. Arsenic, fluoride, and iron are
of particular concern in domestic supplies because of their impacts on human health. Salinity
affects suitability for both domestic and agricultural purposes. Water quality issues can be
divided into natural (geogenic) contaminants and man-made or induced pollution as mention
above. Naturally occurring contamination may be exacerbated by human activity [3].
Geogenic:
o Salinity

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 o Arsenic
o Fluoride
o Other trace elements
Man-made:
o Faecal contamination of shallow groundwater
o Industrial pollution
o Agri-chemicals
Agricultural chemicals include pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers. Volatile organic
compounds enter environment when used to make plastics, dyes, rubbers, polishes, solvents,
crude oil, insecticides, inks, varnishes, paints, disinfectants, gasoline products,
pharmaceuticals, preservatives, spot removers, paint removers, degreasers, and many more.
Pesticides enters environment as herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, rodenticides, and
algicides. Groundwater quality is assessed and monitored using direct sampling of wells and
chemical analysis.

Table 2. Groundwater Contaminants in Myanmar proposed by NDWQS

Inorganic Contaminants NDWQS (mg/L)

Arsenic 0.05
Cadmium 0.003
Chromium 0.05
Copper 2.0
Cyanide 0.07
Fluoride 1.5
Lead 0.01
Manganese 0.4
Mercury 0.001
Nitrate 50
Selenium 0.04
Aluminium 0.2
Chloride 250
Hardness 500
Iron 1.0
pH 6.5-8.5
Sodium 200
Sulphate 250
Zinc 3
Calcium 200
Magnesium 150
Total Dissolved Solid 1,000
Electrical Conductivity 1,500

Because there is little correlation between the different components of water quality,
results should be presented for each key parameter, indicating whether groundwater meets the

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standards for different uses. With the exception of salinity and arsenic, water quality issues
are mainly localized, responding either to local geological conditions (such as fluoride at
Wetlett) or local human pressures (such as faecal contamination). According to the proposed
Myanmar Natural Drinking Water Quality Standards NDWQS (Ministry of Health, 2014),
the groundwater contaminants are in Table.2.

4. CAUSES OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION IN MYANMAR

The main causes of groundwater contamination in Myanmar are mining sector and
agriculture sector. Urban sector water pollutants were most prominent in the cities of Yangon
(HEZ 5), Mandalay (HEZ 3), Magway (HEZ 4) and Sagaing (HEZ 2). Salinity intrusion
generally affects groundwater quality in shallow aquifers in the Lower Ayeyarwady Delta. In
the Pegu Group, pumping from freshwater aquifers may cause groundwater from nearby
saline aquifers to flow toward the pumped zone. Variations in salinity in the Central Dry
Zone have been studied in detail, identifying zones with high probability of brackish water.
Saline intrusion of seawater occurs in unconsolidated sediments in the delta. Irrigation-
induced salinity is not widely reported in Myanmar, although use of marginal-quality
groundwater has resulted in problems in some areas. These issues are directly related to
human pressures placed on groundwater systems. Elevated arsenic levels are observed in
aquifers in recent (Holocene) alluvium in the Ayeyarwady River, particularly in the delta but
also in other areas. Elevated arsenic is not found in the Chindwin and Mu Rivers. Because of
the strong geogenic control, no trend in arsenic occurrence is expected over time, and the
current practices of drilling deeper or changing location for contaminated wells (for local
drillers) can be effective in preventing exposure to arsenic. Testing of wells for arsenic,
before use, is critically important and should be mandatory for all new wells[5]. There is
insufficient data to accurately describe the status and trends of most sources of anthropogenic
groundwater contamination.
The production of industrial raw materials and construction materials are the leading
source of pollution in industrial zones in the Chindwin (HEZ 2) and Middle Ayeyarwady
(HEZ 3) zones. In the Lower Ayeyarwady (HEZ 4) and the Ayeyarwady Delta (HEZ 5),
minerals and petroleum products, clothing and apparel, and food and beverage are the
industry sectors which are the largest toxic chemical polluters. The lead load was the highest
in the Middle Ayeyarwady and Ayeyarwady Delta. The highest loads of toxic chemicals and
metals were identified as being produced in Mandalay, Yangon and Pathien.
Mining, particularly of gold and jade, is widespread within the Upper Ayeyarwady
(HEZ 1) and Chindwin zones of the Ayeyarwady Basin (HEZ 2). There are very few data
available on the influences of such activities upon water pollution in the Ayeyarwady Basin,
though many villagers have expressed concerns that it may be damaging. Mining activities
are broadly responsible for high turbidity and sediment loads in rivers, and generation of
wastewater that is discharged to natural waterways. Within the Ayeyarwady Basin,
unregulated extraction practices and proliferation of small-scale mining (using ultra low-tech,
and environmentally unsound methods) pose high risks to surface water quality. Discharges
from mining activities, such those associated with microbial contamination in the Uyu River,
also provide localised risks to people using river water for drinking, bathing and cooking.

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 Agriculture is an important industry in Myanmar, and is experiencing increased
attention regarding the extent to which it impacts upon water quality. Use of fertilizers in
agriculture is recognized as a potential source of water pollution. High Nitrate-Nitrogen
(NO3-N) concentrations found in surface and ground water is currently receiving attention. A
certain portion of (NO3-N) pollution comes from the use of agricultural fertilizers which can
enter directly from the fields into the streams or underground sources.

4.1. Mining sector

Myanmar has long been recognised for its extensive deposits of tin, tungsten, copper,
gold, silver, zinc, lead, jade, and other gemstones. The impact of the proliferation of the
unregulated mining sectors has led to an increase in environmental degradation through
habitat loss, reduction in water quality and land-use change along the main branches of the
Ayeyarwady. Land is indiscriminately cleared for hydraulic and pit mining, and the natural
flow regimes of the river, as well as environmental flows, experience severe changes. Major
sources of erosion/sediment loading at mining sites can include open pit areas, heap and
dump leaches, waste rock and overburden piles, tailings piles and dams, haul roads and
access roads, ore stockpiles, vehicle and equipment maintenance areas, exploration areas, and
reclamation areas. A further concern is that exposed materials from mining operations (mine
workings, wastes, contaminated soils, etc.) may contribute sediments with chemical
pollutants, principally heavy metals. Hydraulic mining releases large quantities of sediment
that can impact surface water for several miles downstream of the mining activity. Metals are
particularly problematic because they do not break down in the environment. They settle to
the bottom and persist in the stream for long periods of time, providing a long-term source of
contamination to the aquatic insects that live there, and the fish that feed on them. These
contaminants enter river systems, and the impacts on food security and water pollution are
acutely evident in many downstream- areas associated with mining operations in the ARB[4].
Heavy metals produced during the mining process have become one of the primary
sources of soil pollution in the mining area. The presence of heavy metals in contaminated
soils is of great concern as they are not biodegradable and thus pose a risk for humans and the
environment [6], [7]. Among them, arsenic (As) is one of the most common metals in
contaminated sites because of its widespread accumulation in air, rock, soils, and water by
naturally and industrially. In Myanmar, the mining sector is playing an important role in
contributing to the country’s income as a country endowed with rich mineral resources and a
long history of mining. In some gold mine, they use cyanide and amalgam so it affected the
nearest stream or river water [8], [9]. Thus, environment  tally and economically sustainable
mining activities are essential for the long-term development of the sector. In Myanmar, there
were a few research for the contamination of and surface and groundwater of harmful effects
caused by improper mining activities. Most of the research interests are geologically mapping
and chemical refining effect, not including the point of view about the environmental issue in
mining areas. Gold and copper mineralization is abundantly distributed and associated with
sulfide minerals in the Mandalay region, Myanmar. Arsenic and heavy metal can be
distributed into the environment naturally from the weathering, oxidation, and erosion of
sulfide minerals.

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4.2. Agriculture sector
Myanmar has developed as an agrarian society, and both within the ARB, and at the
national level, agriculture has been fundamental for the Myanmar economy. Approximately
67% of the population live in rural areas, and agricultural sectors employ about 56 % of
workers there, and up to 42% of employment in the urban areas (Government of Myanmar
2016b). Myanmar’s three principal agro-ecological zones, viz. the delta coastal zone, the
central dry zone and the hilly, upper regions, enjoy a diversified, mature agricultural
landscape. Agricultural production and population are largely concentrated in the central dry,
delta and coastal zones. Monsoon (rain-fed) paddy rice dominates agricultural production,
accounting for over 43% of agricultural output, but farming systems are much more
diversified than what was commonly assumed. Myanmar is the second largest exporter of
beans and pulses after Canada; it has experienced strong growth in the production of: cotton;
pulses; maize; fruits and vegetables; sunflower; meat; poultry, and fish. Farms across the
country are routinely double cropped, with farmers generally growing a rice crop in the
humid, rainy season, and a cereal or pulse crop in the dry, cool months. There were modest
increases in total planted areas across the country between 2000 and 2016, from
approximately 6,000,000 ha to 6,900,000 (Government of Myanmar, 2016).
When fertilizers are applied to agricultural lands, a portion usually leaches through
the soil and to the water table. The analysis of various forms of nitrogen, in groundwater,
from agricultural fields, reflected some sort of chemical pollution in the form of higher values
of total alkalinity, chloride, total hardness, Ca and Mg hardness. This indicates that long term
uses of fertilizer lead to infiltration of nutrients like Calcium and Magnesium to the
groundwater which may ultimately lead to changes in the chemical characteristics of water. A
comparison of various forms of nitrogen showed that the nitrate content was high in
groundwater from the fertilizer trial areas. Total nitrogen (inorganic and organic forms) in
water was highest for agricultural areas. The high values of total nitrogen in groundwater of
agricultural areas clearly indicate the percolation of nitrogenous fertilizers to the groundwater
but the levels are still relatively low.

5. CONCLUSION
The report shows the groundwater contaminants and causes of groundwater
contamination in Myanmar. The groundwater potential of dry zone are especially
represented. Salinity is mostly associated with aquifers of the marine Pegu Group sediments
and with intrusion of seawater in the delta. Isolated occurrence of elevated fluoride, uranium,
and metals are found in specific geological contexts, but data are scarce. The contamination
due to agriculture is also described. In summarize, since nitrate percolation to ground water is
a slow process, there is danger of high levels of nitrate accumulation in ground in the next
decades. Developing a comprehensive database of mining activities and a monitoring
framework regulating environmental and social aspects of mining development is
recommended. The environmental investigation is required in the near future to determine the
detailed situation surface and groundwater quality.

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[1] Fetter, Charles Willard, Thomas B. Boving, and David K. Kreamer. Contaminant
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[2] USGS, Contamination of Groundwater

[3] M. Viossanges (consultant), Dr. Robyn Johnston. Soba 2a: Groundwater Resources.
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[4] Burma Environmental Working Group. Online Burma/Myanmar Library, 2011

[5] Dr. Daw Khin Ni Ni Thein. National Water Resources Committee., Ayeyarwady SOBA
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[6] A. Boularbah, C. Schwartz, G. Bitton, W. Aboudrar, A. Ouhammou, and J. L. Morel,

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[7] F. Html, “Heavy Metals in Contaminated Soils: A Review of Sources, Chemistry, Risks
and Best Available Strategies for Remediation,” 2017

[8] T. Osawa and Y. Hatsukawa, “Artisanal and small-scale gold mining in Myanmar :
Preliminary research for environmental mercury contamination,” no. 25, 2015

[9] K. Htun, “Sustainable Mining in Myanmar,” vol. 36, no. 1, 2014

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