SET 1: ECE 2405 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING 1– MAY-AUGUST 2021

1. Introduction: Evaluation of Irrigation Requirements, Determination of soil suitability for crops

Irrigation: Is the application of water supplementary to that supplied directly by precipitation for the
production of crops
• Also defined as; Irrigation is applying water to ensure sufficient soil moisture is available for good
plant growth. It is used to augment the rainfall that occurs during the growing season.
• Also irrigation is a science of planning and designing a water supply system for agricultural land to
protect the crops from bad effect of drought or low rainfall.
Uses
(1) Irrigation is used on full season agronomic crops to provide a dependable yield every year.
(2) It is also used on crops where water stress affects the quality of the yield, for example: flower
farming, vegetables and fruits farming.
1.2 Irrigation engineering
Irrigation engineering deals with the analysis and design of irrigation systems which include dams,
weir, canals, drains etc. Good knowledge of hydraulics or fluid mechanics is required for design of
irrigation systems.
Two basic types of irrigation systems exist: Open canal systems and pressured pipe systems. In
general, irrigation systems fall under: surface irrigation, drip irrigation or sprinkler irrigation.
It is essential for a design engineer to know the quantity of water that should be applied to crops and
how frequently this should be done. Specifically, the crop’s water requirements are to be met at the
period of peak moisture demand when the irrigation frequencies, or intervals, are minimum. During
design, data are obtained from local field experiments. However, soil-water-plant-climate relationships
are part of the basic principles vital for design.
Design and management of irrigation infrastructure, its application and selection of best practices to
each system is key to success.
The key areas in irrigation planning include:
(i) Analysis of climatic data
(ii) Analysis of hydrological data and water requirements
(iii)Irrigation and drainage networks
(iv) Implementation of irrigation and drainage
(v) Management and maintenance of irrigation schemes

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Importance of irrigation
The application of improved irrigation methods and techniques on small farms is expanding rapidly as
a result of the increasing demand for higher irrigation efficiency, improved utilization of water and
intensification and diversification of production.
The role and contribution of irrigated agriculture in food and fibre production worldwide is looked at
as:
(i) Without irrigation there would not be enough food to feed the present world population of
over 7.7 billion people (as at December 2018).
(ii) 40% of all crops produced are grown under irrigation
(iii) Irrigated area accounts for only 10% of cultivated area
(iv) In ASAL predictable agriculture is only possible through irrigation
However, irrigation development faces difficult problems and stiff competition from alternative
demands on water. Such other demands in competition with irrigation are:
(i) Domestic water requirements specifically in upcoming urban areas
(ii) Industrial water requirements
(iii) Recreational water requirements
(iv) Artificial farming systems like aquaculture
It is also important to note that irrigated agriculture, in order to compete with the above demands, must
improve efficiency of water utilization such that the output in production from unit water input
compares with the competing demands. Irrigation water application efficiency must increase from the
current average of about 40% to more than 70% through:
(i) Gradual shift from surface systems to piped systems
(ii) Adaptation of irrigation methods with high application efficiencies i.e drip irrigation
(iii) Irrigation schedule based on measured water deficiencies
(iv) Proper operation and maintenance of irrigation systems
(v) Wide adaptation of deficit irrigation where appropriate
(Deficit irrigation: ensure the optimal use of allocated water)
(vi) Application of plant biotechnology.
Factors which influence the need for irrigation
a) The timing and amounts of rainfall during the season,
b) The soil's ability to hold water,
c) The crop's water requirements.
d)
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1.3 Major factors considered in planning for an irrigation system

Irrigation development should be based on convincing evidence of beneficial outcomes and
sustainability of the system. Feasibility studies provide the means for assessing developmental options
for investment, in this case, irrigation or controlled drainage project. Feasibility study for irrigation
development assesses the physical aspects of land, water and climate, and evaluates crop production
potential and cropping programs within the context of the physical aspects.
The feasibility study should provide options for the client with recommendations for the best option
combining technical, financial and economical viability, social desirability and environmental
sustainability.
For irrigation projects, the feasibility study should cover the following components:
1) climate and natural resources
2) Agriculture/agronomic issues
3) Credit and marketing
4) Engineering and infrastructural components
5) Social/political issues
6) Organization and management aspects
7) Health and environmental aspects
8) Economic and financial analysis of the project.

1.4 Irrigation status in Kenya

• Irrigation development is very low since only 105,800 ha is developed (19%) compared to
potential (539,000ha).
• There is immerse potential of irrigation to contribute towards attainment of the country goals. This
can best be done by focusing on:
✓ Rehabilitation and augmentation of irrigation and drainage schemes
✓ Irrigation policy formulation.
✓ Enhanced water harvesting and storage for irrigation

1.4.1 Broad Government initiatives for enhanced irrigation development

The government has embarked on the following
• Restructuring Government and re-engineering of ministerial functions
• Increased budgetary allocations for infrastructure development
• Creating enabling environment for participation by key stakeholders

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• Involvement of the private sector and other stakeholders in the irrigation developments

Irrigation potential and development by basins

Basin Potential (ha.) Developed (ha.)
Tana 205,000 68,700
Athi 40,000 11,100
Lake Basin 200,000 10,700
Kerio Valley 64,000 5,400

Ewaso N’giro 30,000 10,000

Total 539,000 105,800

1.4.2 Categories of Irrigation Systems in Kenya

• Private Schemes - Developed, owned and managed by individual farmers or Companies (41%
of developed potential).
• Public Schemes - Developed and centrally managed by government agencies (15% of
developed potential).
• Smallholder (community based) irrigation schemes - owned, operated and managed by the
farmers through their irrigation water users’ associations (IWUAs) (44% of the developed
potential).
Comparative irrigation development status (1985 – 2005)
Category Developed (ha)
1985 1998 2005
Smallholder Schemes 17,500 34,650 47,000

National Schemes 11,500 12,000 16,000

Private Irrigation 23,000 40,000 42,800

Total 52,000 87,350 105,800

1.4.4 Challenges and Constraints in Irrigation Development

• Wrong Perception-Sector’s potential and importance.

• Lack of a National Irrigation Policy, Legal and Institutional Frameworks
• Inadequate Public and Private sector Investment in the sector
• Inadequate development of irrigation infrastructure and water storage facilities
• Inadequate technical capacity for both the technical staff and Farmers
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• Inadequate Farmers Organization and Participation

• Inadequate support services like Credit infrastructure, Extension etc.

1.4.5 Strategies to improve irrigation development and management

• Increased investments in irrigation infrastructure development.

• Development and promotion of affordable and appropriate irrigation technologies.
• Institutionalization of public – private partnerships in irrigation development.
• Enhancing community participation in irrigation development and management
• Capacity development for both staff and farmers
• Promotion of water harvesting and storage especially at scheme levels.
• Integrated development approaches to provision of critical irrigation services
• Involvement of communities in water resource management, distribution and equitable sharing
within the developed schemes.
• Upgrading of irrigation systems from the old traditional types (earthen conveyance canals to
lined canals and piped networks).
• Encouraging where possible the change of infield distribution networks from the furrows and
basins to sprinklers and simple drips.
• Encouraging communities to harvest rain water to supplement scheme water requirements
within the individual schemes.

1.4.6 On-going irrigation policy reforms

• Finalization of the national irrigation policy and legal framework addressing all types of
irrigation schemes.
• Promotion/implementation of irrigation management transfers in NIB schemes
• Promotion of participatory approaches in irrigation development and management.

1.5 TUTORIAL 1
1. Briefly describe the background and concept of irrigation.
2. Sketch the water-use trend by sectors in the global scale.
3. What are the opportunities and challenging factors in irrigation and water management?
4. Discuss the physiographic and economic factors affecting irrigation and water
management in your area.
5. What is the role and contribution of irrigated agriculture in food production worldwide?

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6. What are the major aspects included in the analysis of water from a potential source of water for
irrigation?
7. How do irrigation systems fail?
8. Summarize the virtual water concept.
9. What increases the value of the irrigation engineering?

2. Soil and water dynamics

Water holding characteristics of soils
Under irrigation, soil and water compatibility is very important. If they are not compatible, the applied
irrigation water could have an adverse effect on the chemical and physical properties of the soil.
Determining the suitability of land for irrigation requires a thorough evaluation of the soil properties,
the topography of the land within the field and the quality of water to be used for irrigation. A basic
understanding of soil/water/plant interactions will help irrigators efficiently manage their crops, soils,
irrigation systems and water supplies.
Soils
The soil acts as a reservoir for water because it holds and stores water against the force of gravity, and
the stored water can be used for irrigation. Therefore information on the distribution of major soils in
the project area and their characteristics is important. The Kenya’s soil survey report provides detailed
soils information on any parcel of land in Kenya. The soil properties of texture, structure, depth,
permeability and chemistry play an important role in irrigation management.
Soil Texture: Soil texture is determined by the size and type of solid particles that make up the soil.
Soil particles may be either mineral or organic. In most soils, the largest proportion of particles is
mineral and is referred to as "mineral soils." For mineral soils, the texture is based on the relative
proportion of the particles under 2 millimeters (mm) or 5/64th of an inch in size. As shown in Figure 1,
the largest particles are sand, the smallest are clay, and silt is in between.

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Figure 1: Soil particle sizes

The soil texture is based on the percentage of sand, silt and clay (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Soil Textural Classes

Determination: Soil texture can be determined by separating and weighing the sand, silt and clay. For
example, if a 1000 grams sample of soil was sifted through screens and found to contain 450g of sand,
350g of silt and 200g of clay, then the soil would be composed of 45% sand, 35% silt and 20%
clay. As shown by the dotted lines in Figure 2, this soil has a loam texture. There are 12 basic soil
textures shown on Figure 2.

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Soil Structure: Soil structure refers to the grouping of particles of sand, silt, and clay into larger
aggregates of various sizes and shapes. The processes of root penetration, wetting and drying cycles,
freezing and thawing, and animal activity combined with inorganic and organic cementing agents
produce soil structure (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Examples of the most common soil structures.

Also shown is the structures' effect on downward movement (infiltration) of water. Structural
aggregates that are resistant to physical stress are important to the maintenance of soil tilth and
productivity. Practices such as excessive cultivation or tillage of wet soils disrupt aggregates and
accelerate the loss of organic matter, causing decreased aggregate stability.

The movement of air, water, and plant roots through a soil is affected by soil structure. Stable
aggregates result in a network of soil pores that allow rapid exchange of air and water with plant roots.
Plant growth depends on rapid rates of exchange. Good soil structure can be maintained by practicing
beneficial soil management such as crop rotations, organic matter additions, and timely tillage
practices. In sandy soils, aggregate stability is often difficult to maintain due to low organic matter,
clay content and resistance of sand particles to cementing processes.
Soil Series: The USDA classification system consists of six categories. The highest category (soil
order) contains 11 basic soil groups, each with a very broad range of properties. The lowest category
(soil series) contains over 12,000 soils, each defining a very narrow range in soil properties.

Many soil series do not have a deep, uniform soil profile. Restrictive subsurface layers often interfere
with root penetration. In these situations the roots will be concentrated in the upper part of the soil
profile. This type of information is important for irrigation management.

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Soil Depth: Soil depth refers to the thickness of the soil materials which provide structural support,
nutrients, and water for plants. For example, soil series that have bedrock between 25 and 50 cm from
the surface are described as shallow. Bedrock between 50 and 100 cm is described as moderately deep.
Above 100 cm are described as deep.

Soil Permeability and Infiltration

A soil's permeability is a measure of the ability of air and water to move through it. Permeability is
influenced by the size, shape, and continuity of the pore spaces (interconnectivity), which in turn are
dependent on the soil bulk density, structure and texture. Most soil series are assigned to a single
permeability class based on the most restrictive layer in the upper 60cm of the soil profile (Table 1).
However, soil series with contrasting textures in the soil profile are assigned to more than one
permeability class. In most cases, soils with a slow, very slow, rapid or very rapid permeability
classification are considered poor for irrigation.
Table 1: Soil Permeability Classes
------------------------------------
Infiltration Rate
Classification (mm/hour)
------------------------------------
Very Slow Less than 1.5
Slow 1.5 to 5
Moderately Slow 5 to 15
Moderate 15 to 50
Moderately Rapid 50 to 150
Rapid 150 to 500
Very Rapid Greater than 500
------------------------------------
Infiltration is the downward flow of water from the surface through the soil. The infiltration rate
(sometimes called intake rate) of a soil is a measure of its ability to absorb an amount of rain or
irrigation water over a given time period. It is commonly expressed in mm per hour. It is dependent
on the permeability of the surface soil, moisture content of the soil and surface conditions such as
roughness (tillage and plant residue), slope, and plant cover.
Coarse textured soils such as sands and gravel usually have high infiltration rates. The infiltration rates
of medium and fine textured soils such as loams, silts, and clays are lower than those of coarse textured
soils and more dependant on the stability of the soil aggregates. Water and plant nutrient losses may be
greater on coarse textured soils, so the timing and quantity of chemical and water applications is
particularly critical on these soils.

The Interaction between Soil and Water

Information on soil and crop characteristics is required to determine Plant Available Soil Water
(PASW). Texture, structure, layering, water-holding capacity, and depth are important soil
characteristics. Crop rooting pattern, the depth of rooting, density of roots with depth, and crop
susceptibility to water stress are important crop characteristics.

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The hydrologic properties of soil play an important role in a crop’s ability to transpire water with their
root systems. Knowledge of volumetric soil moisture content (θ, m3 m-3) is important input into the soil
water balance model. Permanent Wilting Point (θPW)[PWP] is the soil moisture level at which plants
can no longer adsorb water from the soil. Plant transpiration and direct evaporation will decrease the
moisture level in soil to a point below θPW and, in some cases, down to near dryness.

Soil characteristics
Soil characteristics of particular importance to irrigated agriculture include
(1) The capacity of the soil to hold water and still be well drained;
(2) The flow characteristics of water in the soils;
(3) the physical properties of the soil matrix, including the organic matter content, soil depth, soil
texture, and soil structure;
(4) Soil chemical properties, including the translocation and concentration of soluble salts and nutrients
due to the movement, use, and evaporation of the soil water.
Knowledge of all these relationships and how they influence each other is critical to all who desire to
improve irrigation practices and obtain the best, most efficient use of water.

Soil is a medium that stores and moves water. If a cubic meter of typical silt loam topsoil were
separated into its component parts, about 45% of the volume would be mineral matter (soil particles),
organic residue would occupy about 5% of the volume, and the rest would be pore space. The pore
space is the voids between soil particles and is occupied by either air or water. The quantity and size of
the pore spaces are determined by the soil's texture, bulk density and structure.
Water is held in soil in two ways: as a thin coating on the outside of soil particles and in the pore
spaces. Soil water in the pore spaces can be divided into two different forms: gravitational water and
capillary water (Figure 4).

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Figure 4: The two primary ways that water is held in the soil for plants to use is by capillary and
gravitational forces.
Gravitational water generally moves quickly downward in the soil due to the force of gravity.
Capillary water is the most important for crop production because it is held by soil particles against
the force of gravity.
As water infiltrates into a soil, the pore spaces fill with water. As the pores are filled, water moves
through the soil by gravity and capillary forces. Water movement continues downward until a balance
is reached between the capillary forces and the force of gravity. Water is pulled around soil particles
and through small pore spaces in any direction by capillary forces. When capillary forces move water
from shallow water table upward, salts may precipitate and concentrate in the soil as water is removed
by plants and evaporation.
Water Holding Capacity of Soils
Soil porosity refers to the space between soil particles, which consists of various amounts of water and
air. Porosity depends on both soil texture and structure. For example, a fine soil has smaller but more
numerous pores than a coarse soil. A coarse soil has bigger particles than a fine soil, but it has less
porosity, or overall pore space. Water can be held tighter in small pores than in large ones, so fine soils
can hold more water than coarse soils.

Permeability refers to the movement of air and water through the soil, which is important because it
affects the supply of root-zone air, moisture, and nutrients available for plant uptake. A soil's
permeability is determined by the relative rate of moisture and air movement through the most
restrictive layer within the upper 100cm of the effective root zone. Water and air rapidly permeate
coarse soils with granular sub-soils, which tend to be loose when moist and don't restrict water or air
movement. Slow permeability is a characteristic of moderately fine subsoil with angular to sub-angular
blocky structure.

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Water-holding capacity is controlled primarily by soil texture and organic matter. Soils with smaller
particles (silt and clay) have a larger surface area than those with larger sand particles, and a large
surface area allows a soil to hold more water. In other words, a soil with a high percentage of silt and
clay particles, which describes fine soil, has a higher water-holding capacity. Organic matter
percentage also influences water-holding capacity. As the percentage increases, the water-holding
capacity increases because of the affinity organic matter has for water. Available water is retained in
the soil after the excess has drained (field capacity to wilting point). This water is the most important
for crop or forage production. Plants can use approximately 50 percent of it without exhibiting stress,
but if less than 50 percent is available, drought stress can result. Unavailable water is soil moisture that
is held so tightly by the soil that it cannot be extracted by the plant. Water remains in the soil even
below plants' wilting point.

Soil is a valuable resource that supports plant life, and water is an essential component of this system.
Management decisions concerning types of crops to plant, plant populations, irrigation scheduling, and
the amount of nitrogen fertilizer to apply depend on the amount of moisture that is available to the crop
throughout the growing season. By understanding some physical characteristics of the soil, you can
better define the strengths and weaknesses of different soil types.

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