Norma RTP1

CHAPTER
26
FIBER-REINFORCED PLASTIC
PRESSURE VESSELS AND
ASME RTP-1–REINFORCED
THERMOSET PLASTIC
CORROSION-RESISTANCE EQUIPMENT
Peter Conlisk1 and Bernard F. Shelley
26.1 INTRODUCTION Section 26.2 discusses the basics of FRP technology, particularly
aspects that might be foreign to metal-vessel engineers.
This chapter is intended primarily for engineers and designers
whose experience with vessels is primarily with metal equip-
ment. Those having experience with fiberglass equipment but not 26.2 FRP TECHNOLOGY
with Section X [1] or RTP-1 [2] will also find this chapter useful, The purpose of this section is to discuss technology used in
but they may want to skim over the following sections on FRP2 Section X and RTP-1 that may not be familiar to engineers and
technology. designers of metal vessels. This section describes the resins and
Section X is part of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel reinforcing fibers included in RTP-1 and Section X. The docu-
(B&PV) Code and has been enacted into law in 37 jurisdictions in ments govern vessels built of epoxy, vinyl ester, polyester, furan
the United States and Canada. Although the authors of RTP-1 and phenolic resins reinforced with glass, and carbon and aramid
wrote it so that it could be used as a Code, RTP-1 has not been fibers. It also describes the following processes used to manufac-
enacted into law anywhere; therefore, it is at present a voluntary ture RTP-1 and Section X vessels: contact molding, bag molding,
standard. Both standards govern vessels constructed of thermoset- centrifugal casting, and filament winding. The joining of vessel
ting resin reinforced with glass fibers. In addition to glass fibers, parts made by these methods is also discussed.
Section X also provides for vessels reinforced with carbon or Stress analysis of FRP equipment involves lamination theory
aramid fibers. The pressure scope of Section X is 15 psig to and plate-and-shell theory. Plate-and-shell theory is widely used
15,000 psig internal pressure of which the upper limit depends on by metal-vessel designers and is therefore not discussed except
the size and construction of the vessel. RTP-1 covers tanks and where it forms part of the bases for design examples. Lamination
vessels with design pressures 0–15 psig. Both standards have pro- theory is a branch of mechanics concerned with plates and shells
visions for vessels with external pressure from 0–15 psig. made of layered material, where the layers are bonded together,
Neither RTP-1 nor Section X makes a good handbook or text- but have different elastic properties. Lamination theory is essen-
book on FRP vessel design. This chapter is intended to serve as a tial to the engineering of FRP tanks and vessels but is not needed
manual on the use of the documents. An engineer who specifies an to design and analyze metal equipment. Engineers familiar with
FRP vessel does not need to have the under-standing of FRP that metal-vessel design are usually unacquainted with lamination the-
the vessel designer possesses. However, in specifying the vessel, ory; therefore its rudiments are discussed. This chapter presents
the engineer necessarily makes many design choices, for which rea- the physical, intuitive basis for lamination theory and examples of
son he or she should understand the rudiments of FRP technology. its application, but not its mathematical development. Lamination
1
theory is used in both RTP-1 and Section X.
Late Peter J. Conlisk was the originator of this chapter for the 1st, 2nd and 3rd
editions. Bernard F. Shelley updated this chapter for the 4th edition.
Acoustic-emission (AE) examination is another technology
2
FRP is an acronym that stands for fiber-reinforced plastic; RTP is an acronym that widely applied to both new and in-service FRP tanks and vessels,
stands for reinforced-thermoset resin. Herein, FRP, RTP, and fiberglass are all used as although not as widely to metal equipment. It is required for some
synonyms. Section X vessels and is optional for RTP-1.
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26-2 • Chapter 26
26.2.1 FRP-Composite Materials

FRP-composite materials governed by Section X and RTP-1
consist of thermosetting plastic that is reinforced by glass, aramid,
or carbon fibers. The vast majority of FRP-composite tanks and
vessels use glass fibers. Thermosetting resins are viscous liquids
that can be cured to form rigid solids. The curing process is initi-
ated by the addition of a hardening agent, the use of catalysts and
initiators, the use of heat, or the use of a combination of chemical
agents and heat. Once cured, the now-rigid plastic cannot be melted
and rehardened, for which reason the vessel parts built of com-
posites made with thermosetting resins cannot be welded together
but must instead be assembled by adhesive joints. Vessel parts are
built up layer by layer with glass fibers bound together with the
thermosetting resin. The layers are applied to molds or mandrels
by many processes that are described in this chapter.
The fiber reinforcement contributes structural performance
required of the vessel or tank. The fibers are the primary contribu-
tor of strength and stiffness of the vessel parts. Section X covers
FRP reinforced by E-glass, S-glass, or aramid and carbon fibers,
whereas RTP-1 covers FRP reinforced by either E-glass or S- FIG. 26.1 FIBERGLASS-REINFORCING MAT
glass. The average diameter of a glass fiber is approximately
0.0005 in.; the diameter varies from 0.00025 in. to 0.00075 in.
Table 26.1 summarizes fiber properties.
Section X provides for five kinds of resin, each described as other resins and have good chemical resistance. They are usually
follows: cured with heat.
Furan This is a liquid thermosetting resin in which the furan
Isophthalic Polyester This is the lowest cost system governed ring is an integral part of the polymer chain made by the conden-
by the ASME standards. Isophthalic polyester has good strength sation of furfuryl alcohol. Furan resins have excellent corrosion
and corrosion resistance and is therefore widely used for FRP resistance especially with fluids with organic contaminates. They
chemical-process equipment. It is cured at room temperature. also provide higher temperature resistance than most polyester
resins. They are very brittle in nature, hard to handle and must be
Vinyl Ester These resins combine both epoxy and polyester post cured at elevated temperatures.
technology. They have excellent corrosion resistance, strength, and RTP-1 governs FRP made with isophthalic polyester, vinyl
toughness, but they are more expensive than isophthalic polyester, and chlorendic Bisphenol-A Fumerate resins; it does not
esters. They can be cured at room temperature. cover phenolic, furan or epoxy laminates.
The resin and glass are combined and applied to the vessel-part
Chlorendic Bisphenol-A Fumerate These resins are used for mold in thin layers called laminae. Many laminae combine to form
more exotic systems to improve corrosion resistance and high- the full-part thickness, and this “stack-up” or sequence of laminae is
temperature service and are therefore more expensive than vinyl called a laminate. Laminae can be classified by the form of reinforc-
ester. They are cured at room temperature. ing glass they contain. The common lamina types are as follows:
Phenolic These resins have better flammability properties (e.g., Mat Lamina Figure 26.1 shows a magnified view of this prod-
higher flame retardance and lower smoke emissivity) than the uct form. The mat commonly used in tanks and vessels weighs
other four families of resin. Phenolic composites are more brittle either 0.75 oz/ft2 or 1.5 oz/ft2 and is supplied in rolls of various
than composites built with the other resins, and phenolic resins are widths. When it is combined with resin, applied to a mold, and
harder to process than the others. Phenolics are cured at room cured, a 1.5 oz/ft2 mat ply is typically 0.43 in. thick and is by
temperature. weight about 35% glass fiber.
Epoxy There is wide range of epoxy resins available. Epoxy Woven-Roving Lamina Figure 26.2 shows woven-roving rein-
composites typically are stronger than composites made with the forcing glass. There are five fiber bundles per inch in the vertical

COMPANION GUIDE TO THE ASME BOILER & PRESSURE VESSEL CODE • 26-3
FIG. 26.2 WOVEN-ROVING REINFORCING GLASS
direction and four in the horizontal direction. The woven-roving

lamina weighs 24 oz/yd2 (2.7 oz/ft2).3 A typical specimen is 0.33 in.
thick and is by weight 50%–60% glass fiber.
Filament-Wound Lamina The following brief description of

filament winding is taken from an article on the Composite
Fabricators Association Web site [3].
What is filament winding? Filament winding has been com-
pared to “wrapping a whole bunch of string around a spool and
then taking the spool out late.” That’s a fairly simple analogy, but
it’s close to the mark. The spool essentially is the internal part,
referred to as the mandrel that forms the shape of the filament
wound structure. The string is the reinforcing fiber that is system-
atically wound around the mandrel until it totally covers the sur-
face area to a depth desired by the designer. In order to keep the
string in the place, the fiber reinforcement is saturated with the
glue, or resin, which eventually cures and binds the fibers in place.
A filament-wound lamina has all the fibers running in the same
FIG. 26.3 SPOOLS OF CONTINUOUS ROVING
direction. The fibers are continuous and are precisely placed by
the winding process. Therefore, they are more tightly packed than
the fibers in mat and woven-roving laminae. Filament-wound C-veil, Carbon-Fiber Veil, and Nexus Lamina The corrosion
laminae have a higher glass content than the other types— resistance of the process surface of a laminate is often enhanced by
60%–70% by weight. Figure 26.3 shows spools of glass-roving applying a corrosion barrier. Typically, the innermost surface con-
laminae (bundles of individual fibers) that are used for filament sists of a C-veil, carbon-fiber veil, or nexus ply followed by two or
winding. About 5,000 individual fibers make up a strand that is three mat plies. A C-veil ply is a resin-rich layer about 0.01 in. thick
wound on the spool. The fibers are about 0.005 in. in diameter. and reinforced with a C-glass veil. Veil is a gauzy sheet of randomly
The roving bundles are applied at various wind angles, which are oriented C-glass fibers weighing about 0.1 oz/yd3.
the angles between the fiber and a line on the surface of the part The glass content is approximately 10% by weight. In a nexus
that is parallel to the axis of the cylinder being constructed. lamina, the C-glass veil is replaced by a thin, feltlike sheet made
from polyester fibers. Veil made from carbon fiber is also used,
and occasionally double C-veil or nexus layers are used.
3
For reasons unknown to the author, it is an industry practice to quote mat Mat and veil-reinforced laminae are isotropic in the plane of the
weight in oz/ft2 and woven-roving weight in oz/yd2. laminate, whereas woven-roving and filament-wound piles are

not be different in different directions. For example, the tensile a laminate consisting of a veil ply, two mat plies, and three sets of
strength of mat laminae is the same in both directions, whereas alternate mat and woven-roving plies —finished by a mat ply—is
the tensile strength of filament-wound laminae is 32 times greater designated by “V, MM, 3(M, WR), M.” A filament-wound laminate
in the fiber direction than it is in the cross-fiber direction. In some 0.46 in. thick, with a wind angle of 55 deg. and a standard corro-
laminae (such as mat or woven-roving), the compressive strength sion barrier, is designated by V, 2M, 9(FW 55 deg.). The lami-
in a given direction is less than the tensile strength. In filament- nate has a veil and two mat plies for a corrosion barrier, followed
wound plies, the compressive strength is less than the tensile by eighteen plies of 0.02 in. thick filament-wound layers with
strength in the fiber direction, but it is greater than the tensile alternate plies at 55 deg. and 55 deg.
strength in the cross-fiber direction. There is no obvious general Table 26.5 lists the lamination sequences commonly used for
relationship between shear strength and the other strength values. mat–woven-roving laminates, and Table 26.6 gives the drafting
Complicated elastic and strength properties make stress analy- symbols that specify the sequences. The assumptions made in
sis of FRP equipment more difficult and time-consuming than these tables are that veil plies are 0.01 in. thick, mat plies are
analysis of metal equipment of similar complexity. Finite-element 0.043 in. thick, and woven-roving plies are 0.033 in. thick. The
methods make such stress analysis practical. Many commercially glass fiber in the mat plies weighs 1.5 oz/ft2, whereas the fiber in
available finite-element codes have layered composite-plate ele- the woven-roving plies weighs 24 oz/yd2.
ments that employ lamination theory (to be described in Section The “E ” plies in Table 26.5 are exotherm plies. Resin curing is
26.9.1) to form the stiffness matrices of the elements and also an exothermic reaction that generates enough heat to damage the
provide lamina-by-lamina stress- and strain-field output. The laminate if the laminate thickness is built too fast. To prevent this
codes usually include failure criteria suitable for use with FRP
laminates, one of which—the Tsai-Wu Tensor Interaction Criterion
(to be discussed)—is used by both RTP-1 and Section X. If an FRP
tank or vessel can be validly modeled by plate elements, finite-
element analysis is somewhat more expensive than analysis of a
comparable metal vessel, but not prohibitively so.
26.2.1.1 Notation for Laminate Sequences As stated previously,

a laminate is composed of a sequence of laminae. This paragraph
explains the common notations used for specifying a laminate
sequence or stack-up. “V ” designates a corrosion-veil lamina; “M,”
a mat lamina; “WR,” a woven-roving lamina; and “FW á,” or
“FWá,” a filament-wound lamina in which a is the wind angle.
A stack-up is described by combining these symbols; for example,

not be different in different directions. For example, the tensile a laminate consisting of a veil ply, two mat plies, and three sets of
strength of mat laminae is the same in both directions, whereas alternate mat and woven-roving plies —finished by a mat ply—is
the tensile strength of filament-wound laminae is 32 times greater designated by “V, MM, 3(M, WR), M.” A filament-wound laminate
in the fiber direction than it is in the cross-fiber direction. In some 0.46 in. thick, with a wind angle of 55 deg. and a standard corro-
laminae (such as mat or woven-roving), the compressive strength sion barrier, is designated by V, 2M, 9(FW 55 deg.). The lami-
in a given direction is less than the tensile strength. In filament- nate has a veil and two mat plies for a corrosion barrier, followed
wound plies, the compressive strength is less than the tensile by eighteen plies of 0.02 in. thick filament-wound layers with
strength in the fiber direction, but it is greater than the tensile alternate plies at 55 deg. and 55 deg.
strength in the cross-fiber direction. There is no obvious general Table 26.5 lists the lamination sequences commonly used for
relationship between shear strength and the other strength values. mat–woven-roving laminates, and Table 26.6 gives the drafting
Complicated elastic and strength properties make stress analy- symbols that specify the sequences. The assumptions made in
sis of FRP equipment more difficult and time-consuming than these tables are that veil plies are 0.01 in. thick, mat plies are
analysis of metal equipment of similar complexity. Finite-element 0.043 in. thick, and woven-roving plies are 0.033 in. thick. The
methods make such stress analysis practical. Many commercially glass fiber in the mat plies weighs 1.5 oz/ft2, whereas the fiber in
available finite-element codes have layered composite-plate ele- the woven-roving plies weighs 24 oz/yd2.
ments that employ lamination theory (to be described in Section The “E ” plies in Table 26.5 are exotherm plies. Resin curing is
26.9.1) to form the stiffness matrices of the elements and also an exothermic reaction that generates enough heat to damage the
provide lamina-by-lamina stress- and strain-field output. The laminate if the laminate thickness is built too fast. To prevent this
codes usually include failure criteria suitable for use with FRP
laminates, one of which—the Tsai-Wu Tensor Interaction Criterion
(to be discussed)—is used by both RTP-1 and Section X. If an FRP
tank or vessel can be validly modeled by plate elements, finite-
element analysis is somewhat more expensive than analysis of a
comparable metal vessel, but not prohibitively so.
26.2.1.1 Notation for Laminate Sequences As stated previously,

a laminate is composed of a sequence of laminae. This paragraph
explains the common notations used for specifying a laminate
sequence or stack-up. “V ” designates a corrosion-veil lamina; “M,”
a mat lamina; “WR,” a woven-roving lamina; and “FW á,” or
“FWá,” a filament-wound lamina in which a is the wind angle.
A stack-up is described by combining these symbols; for example,

26-6 • Chapter 26
FIG. 26.4 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A CHOPPER GUN
occurrence, the laminator pauses after the corrosion barrier is laid 26.3.1 Contact Molding
down until the peak of the exothermic reaction occurs, after which The following definition is from the glossary of Section X [1]:
the laminate begins to cool. The laminator resumes activity until the
first E ply is reached; then waits again for the peak exotherm. (The Contact molding—a process for molding reinforced plastic in
E plies are ordinary mat plies.) Fabrication continues in this man- which reinforcement and resin are placed on a mold—cure is
ner, with a pause at each exotherm ply. To build thicker either at room temperature using a catalyst–promoter system
mat–woven-roving parts, the laminator simply adds more 3(MR), M or by heat in an oven, and no additional pressure is used.
sequences, giving proper attention to the exotherm plies.
The ply thicknesses assumed in the foregoing paragraph are Contact molding includes two processes: the hand lay-up and the
typical of industry practice, but Fabricators may not use precisely spray-up. In the hand lay-up method, the mold is first prepared with
these values. Instead, they may use the values that their shops a parting agent so that the resin does not adhere to the mold as it
actually produce. Because of these minor variations among cures. On head molds, wax-parting agents or a liquid such as
Fabricators, it is better to specify the laminate in a vessel part by polyvinyl alcohol is used; on cylindrical mold, Mylar film is usually
drafting symbols such as those in Table 26.6 rather than simply used. A sheet of reinforcing material, such as a C-glass veil, is then
giving the thickness and type of laminate. For example, an engi- placed on the mold and wetted with catalyzed and promoted resin.
neer who wants to specify a mat–woven-roving laminate 38 in. (Catalyst and promoter are added to all resins except epoxy so that
thick would specify a V, 2M, 3(MR)M stack-up in addition to they will cure and become solids. A hardener may be added to the
specifying the reinforcing glass weights. epoxy, or it may be heat-cured.) The resin-wetted reinforcing mate-
rial is compacted and pressed to the mold by hand with a roller to
squeeze out excess resin and to remove air bubbles. Rollers resem-
26.3 FABRICATION METHODS4 ble paint rollers, except that the type used in this application is
metal with deep grooves about 18 in. wide and 41 in. deep, with a 14 in.
Pressure-containing parts for RTP-1 and Section X, Class II pitch. Rollers vary from 2 or 3 in. to 34 in. in diameter and from 3 in.
vessels are made by contact molding and filament winding. Parts to 12 in. in width. After the first lamina is applied, the second and
for Section X, Class I vessels are made by those two processes as subsequent plies are added the same way. Veil, mat, and woven-
well, but also by bag molding and centrifugal casting. Section X, roving plies are all applied by the hand lay-up method.
Class III vessels are only made by filament winding over a metal- In the spray-up method, resin and reinforcing glass are applied to
lic or thermoplastic liner with polar boss openings. Each of these the mold with a chopper gun. Figure 26.4 shows a schematic depic-
methods is discussed in the following paragraphs. tion of a chopper gun. Four hoses carry fluids to the gun: an air
hose that powers the chopper and provides a stream of air for carry-
ing the chopped glass and resin to the mold; a resin hose; a hose
that conveys the catalyst and promoter to the gun; and a solvent
hose. A glass strand, which (as mentioned previously) contains
4
about 5,000 individual glass fibers, also enters the gun. In the gun,
In the FRP tank and vessel industry, the term Fabricator is used the same way
the resin, promoter, and catalyst are mixed and then sprayed onto
as Manufacturer is in the metal vessel industry. The term Manufacturer is usually
reserved for those who manufacture resin, reinforcing glass, and other components the mold surface. At the same time, the roving strand enters the gun
supplied to the Fabricator. and is chopped into lengths that vary from 34 to 2 in., and the

chopped glass is also sprayed onto the mold at the same place as but before the winding is resumed, the laminator usually applies a mat
the resin. The result is that a layer of resin-wetted glass fibers is bedding ply, either by using the hand lay-up method or by using a
deposited on the mold. The mass of chopped glass fiber and cat- chopper gun. The laminate laid down at the ends while the carriage is
alyzed and promoted resin is compacted with a roller, as in the reversing has a variable wind angle (from 55 deg. to 0 deg.) as well as
hand lay-up process. A lamina made this way is generally consid- variable thickness, for which reason the laminate is called the turn-
ered equivalent to a mat ply of the same thickness. When the opera- around zone. This portion is usually cut off and scrapped.
tor pauses, even for a short time, he or she pumps solvent through Filament-wound laminates have of a 60%–70% glass content
the gun to remove the resin. If this is not done, the resin—being by weight, considerably higher than mat or mat–woven-roving
catalyzed and promoted—would rapidly solidify and clog the gun. laminates. Consequently, filament-wound laminates are stronger
Contact molding is used to make all pressure-containing parts, and stiffer than the others. Because the process is more automated
including nozzles with flanges. It is versatile and requires only than contact molding, the quality is more predictable. Once a
inexpensive, simple tooling. However, it is also labor-intensive, winding setup is working properly, the quality is more repeatable
involving so much handwork that quality control is more difficult and the quality control is easier than with contact molding.
than with more automatic processes. Cylinders as small as 1 in. and as large as 80 ft are filament-
wound. Mandrels with either horizontal or vertical axes are used,
26.3.2 Filament Winding as are winders on which the mandrel is mounted so that it can be
Figure 26.5 is a schematic diagram of filament winding. A band rotated about more than one axis. These winders can produce ves-
of glass or other fiber roving is pulled from the creel through a resin sels complete with heads.
bath and wound onto the mandrel. For winding a cylindrical shell,
Mylar film is ordinarily used as the parting agent. The roving band is 26.3.3 Bag Molding
2–6 in. or more wide, depending on the diameter of the part being Only Section X, Class I provides for bag molding. Qualification
wound. Consider winding an 8 ft diameter vessel shell with a of a Class I design is by destructive testing of a prototype. If the
55 deg. wind angle. The roving band would be about 5 in. wide and prototype satisfies Section X requirements, vessels identical to the
consist of 45 strands. (Nine strands per in. of width is typical.) Each prototype may be built and receive an ASME RP Stamp. Design
strand has about 5,000 individual fibers; thus the 5 in. band consists qualification of Class II vessels is by mandatory design rules and
of 225,000 fibers. The creel would hold 45 spools of roving. The nondestructive acceptance testing. Class I rules are suitable for
carriage feeding the band onto the mandrel moves axially along the mass-produced vessels, whereas Class II rules are used for one-of-
mandrel to maintain the proper wind angle. When the carriage a-kind or limited-production equipment. The two classes are dis-
reaches the end of the mandrel, it reverses direction, laying down a cussed more thoroughly later in this chapter.
band with the opposite slope of the band put down on the first pass. Figure 26.6 sketches the bag-molding concept. The catalyzed
With a 55 deg. wind angle, the bands would form a helix on the resin–glass mixture is applied to the inside of the mold, the bag is
shell, with a pitch of 211.2 in.; therefore, the bands are widely inserted and pressurized, and the resin is cured either at room
spaced. The carriage is carefully controlled so that on the third pass temperature or by the application of heat. The resin–glass mixture
(the second pass in the original direction), the band is next to the may be applied by contact molding; otherwise, the reinforcing
band made on the first pass. Eventually this process results in the fibers may be a preform, a reinforcement that is preshaped to the
covering of the mandrel with two plies of material: one with a wind general geometry of the intended molded part, usually by light
angle of 55 deg.; the other, 55 deg. The process continues until pressing or by distribution of chopped fibers of a perforated for-
the desired thickness is built up. Laminate thickness increases quickly mer. It is used on more complex or deep-draw moldings to opti-
enough during winding so that the process must be paused to let the mize the distribution and orientation of the fibers [4]. The
peak exotherm occur, just as in contact molding. After the exotherm Fabricator may also apply the resin and glass onto the bag and
FIG. 26.5 FILAMENT WINDING

26-8 • Chapter 26
high enough speed for the centrifugal force to press the

resin–glass mass against the mold. Either room- or elevated-
temperature curing may be used. Centrifugal casting produces
hollow cylindrical parts, such as vessel shells.
26.3.5 Joining Vessel Parts

The aforementioned processes produce vessel parts: shells,
heads, nozzles, and so on. Because the resins governed by the
ASME documents are all thermosets, once cured they will not melt
and solidify into good material. Thus vessel parts cannot be joined
by welding. The industry has developed adhesive-joint techniques
for assembling parts; these are discussed in this section.
Figure 26.8 shows the steps for making the type of butt joint
required by RTP-1 for making head-to-shell or shell-to-shell
girth joints. Bonders apply the structural overlay—also called
strap-ping—to the outside of the vessel, which is usually covered
with a film of wax. Air inhibits the cure of most resins used for
vessels, so the common practice is to coat the outside surface of a
part with resin that contains a small fraction of wax. The wax
floats to the surface, preventing the contact of air with the curing
FIG. 26.6 BAG-MOLDING CONCEPT resin and producing a wax film on the outside of the vessel. This
film would interfere with bonding to the surface, so it is therefore
removed before a structural joint is applied. The bonder first sands
then insert the bag into the mold. Bag molding can produce parts the surface to which the joint is to be applied with a coarse abra-
with a higher glass content than contact molding, as the sive until the wax is removed and the glass fiber is exposed. The
reinforcement–resin mass is compacted more during bag molding joint plies are then applied by the use of hand lay-up methods.
than during the rolling step of contact molding. Thus bag-molded The joint may be of all-mat-ply construction or of alternate plies
parts are stronger and stiffer than contact-molded parts. In addi- of mat and woven-roving. If the joint is all mat, each ply overlaps
5
tion, bag molding can produce vessels with integral heads. the preceding ply by 16 in. If the joint is alternating mat and woven-
roving, the woven-roving plies are of the same width as the mat ply
underneath them, and each mat ply extends 12 in. beyond the ply
26.3.4 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING beneath it. Steps (2) and (3) in Fig. 26.8 illustrate the application of
the structural strapping. Peak exotherms are accommodated the
Figure 26.7 is a schematic depiction of centrifugal casting. same way as in making laminates, as discussed previously. The
Resin, resin catalyst and promoter, and glass fiber are all con- design rules in RTP-1 govern the thickness of the joint overlay;
veyed to a device that chops the glass and blends the ingredients; their intention is for the joint laminate to be at least as strong as the
sprays them onto the inside of the mold. The mold rotates at a stronger of the laminates in the parts being joined and for the over-
FIG. 26.7 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

FIG. 26.8 RTP-1–STYLE BUTT JOINT
FIG. 26.9 BELL-AND-SPIGOT JOINT
lay to be wide enough to provide adequate shear strength to carry

the load from the part to the joint overlay to the second part.
The final step (4) of Fig. 26.8 is to make a corrosion seal for the
joint. This seal is made on the inner (process) surface, as shown in
Fig. 26.8, and the seal is a minimum of two plies of 112 mat with an
additional C-veil or nexus veil on the inside. The innermost mat play
is at least 3 in. wide, the next ply extends at least 12 in. beyond the
first, and the veil ply extends at least 12 in. beyond the mat plies.
The joint is applied to cured FRP parts. Therefore, the bond
between the joint and the parts is adhesive; it is not the molecular
bond that forms when the parts are cured. Adhesive bonds are not
as strong as molecular bonds, but they are strong enough to pro-
vide safe joints as long as the requirements of the applicable
ASME Standard are satisfied.
Figure 26.9 illustrates the bell-and-spigot joint, another design
detail provided by RTP-1. This joint is used to assemble shell seg-
ments or to join the head and shell. The first step in making the
joint is to fit and hold the parts, which is ordinarily done with fix-
tures. The next step is to apply the resin putty as shown in Fig.
26.9. The resin putty is made of the same resin as the parts being
joined and is thickened with particulate-mineral filler. Recall that
the strapping is put in place and then compacted with a roller. The
resin putty serves as a foundation for the application of the struc- FIG. 26.10 SECTION X–STYLE BUTT JOINT
tural strapping—that is, something to press the roller against.
Finally, the corrosion seal is installed.
Figure 26.10 illustrates a Section X, Class II butt joint—a vari-
ation on the RTP-1 butt joint shown in Fig. 26.8 —that constitutes
a head-to-shell joint, although the detail also applies to shell-girth fixtures or with a few dabs of hot-melt adhesive to hold the nozzle
joints. The difference between the RTP-1 joint and the Section X in place while the attachment laminate is applied. Next, the resin
joint is that the parts to be joined are scarfed first, as in steel weld- putty is placed as shown in Fig. 26.11 to provide a base for the
ing, and then the structural overlay is applied. Rules for dimen- structural attachment layers. Finally, the structural overlay is
sions of the joint are given in Section X, Article RD-1175 [1]. installed. Either RTP-1 or Section X, whichever applies, governs
Both RTP-1 and Section X use the same styles of joints for the dimensions of the overlay. Flanges are attached to nozzle
attaching nozzles to shells or heads. Figure 26.11 shows one type necks by similar joints, and the reinforcing pad is added to mini-
of joint —a penetrating nozzle —in which the nozzle neck pro- mize stress intensification caused by cutting the hole in the shell
trudes inside the shell or head to which it is attached. The nozzle or head on which the nozzle in installed. Reinforcing-pad dimen-
neck–flange assembly is first attached to the head or shell with sions are given in Section X or RTP-1, as applicable.


from the strain. Lamination theory, a branch of mechanics that from the stress that would occur in a homogeneous laminate—
treats this situation, is used to formulate the relationship between 1,845 psi.
the strain in a plate or shell and the force and moment resultants In a homogeneous laminate, stress would vanish in the cross-
in the solid. load direction. However, again because of different elastic proper-
As an example of the results of lamination theory, consider the ties, the Poisson’s contraction induces stress in the cross-fiber
stress distribution in a 7-ply mat–woven-roving laminate 0.271 in. direction, as shown in Fig. 26.14. Stress in the mat plies is 175 psi
thick subjected to a tensile force resultant of 500 lb/in. in the princi- tension; in the woven-roving plies, it is 303.4 psi compression.
pal direction of the woven-roving plies. The laminate construction The force resultant from these stresses is 0.
is given in Table 26.7. In a homogeneous plate, the stress would be As a second example, consider the same laminate subjected to a
500/0.271 1,845 psi, but because the two types of ply in the lam- 22.58 in.-lb/in. bending moment. In a homogeneous laminate, the
inate have different elastic properties, the stress is not constant maximum bending stress is given by the following familiar equation:
through the thickness. (Note: please see Table 26.3 for the lamina 6M 6 * 22.58
properties used in this example.) Figure 26.13 plots the normal s = = = 1,845
stress in the load direction. Figure 26.14 graphs normal stress in the t2 0.2712 (26.3)
direction perpendicular to the load. The strain constitutes the uni-
form extension in the load direction and the Poisson’s ratio con- Figure 26.15 shows that the stresses for laminae 1, 2, and 3 are
tractions in the perpendicular direction. Figure 26.13 shows that 1171.4 psi, 1860.2 psi, and 391.5, respectively, all in compression.
the stress in the 4-mat plies is the same (1,235 psi) and that the The stress in lamina 4 vanishes, whereas the stress in laminae 5,
stresses in the woven-roving plies are equal at 2,904 psi but 6, and 7 are symmetric to laminae 3, 2, and 1, respectively, but are
higher than the stress in the mat plies. Stress in the woven-roving tensile instead of compressive. Note that the maximum bending
plies, although higher because they are stiffer than the mat plies, stress is not in the extreme fiber. Figure 26.16 gives the ply stresses
are under the same strain. Both stresses are considerably different in the cross-load direction. In this case, the neutral bending plane is
FIG. 26.13 NORMAL STRESS IN LOAD DIRECTION FOR EXTENSIONAL STRAIN

26-12 • Chapter 26
FIG. 26.14 NORMAL STRESS PERPENDICULAR TO LOAD DIRECTION FOR EXTENSIONAL STRAIN
FIG. 26.15 NORMAL STRESS FROM BENDING LOAD IN BENDING DIRECTION
FIG. 26.16 NORMAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN DIRECTION PERPENDICULAR TO BENDING

at the middle plane, but that is only because this laminate is sym- a value stipulated in Section X or RTP-1 for the layer in question,
metric about the middle plane. the stress state in the layer is acceptable; however, if the positive
If a veil and 2-mat corrosion barrier were added, the laminate root is less than the stipulated value, the stress state is excessive
would no longer be symmetric and the neutral bending surface and not allowed.
would not coincide with the middle surface. Furthermore, there The physical meaning of R is that if all three stresses are multi-
are laminates where the neutral plane for bending in one direction plied by R, the ply is just at the point of failure. Thus R is like a
does not coincide with the neutral bending plane for bending in safety factor; the greater R, the farther from failure the lamina is.
the perpendicular direction. Fortunately, modern engineering soft- Because the five lamina strength values are different for different
ware provides practical ways of treating these complexities. lamina types, and also because the stress varies from lamina to
Engineers analyzing structures built of ductile metals often use lamina, the criterion is applied to each layer separately.
either the von Mises or the Tresca criterion to decide whether a Finite-element stress analysis of FRP tanks and vessels take
state of stress is excessive. But in general, an FRP lamina has five more time than analysis of metal equipment of comparable con-
independent strength properites, as discussed in Section 26.2.1. figuration. Instead of inputting one or two sets of isotropic material
The Tsai-Wu quadratic interaction criterion is in general use for property values for the entire vessel, the analyst must input a set
layered-composite materials; it represents a generalization of the of orthotropic values for each type of laminate in the vessel.
von Mises criterion [5] and provides a strength criterion for FRP. Furthermore, instead of simply inputting a plate thickness for
Both RTP-1 (in paragraph M3-530) and Section X (in para- each vessel part of different thickness, the analyst must input an
graph RD-1188.5) use the same form of the Tsai-Wu quadratic entire lamination sequence for each part and must also sift
interaction criterion. The purpose of the criterion is to distinguish through the stress distribution in each lamina. For example, if a
between stress states that overload any lamina and stress states vessel shell consists of twelve plies of material, the analyst
that are acceptable. Both standards employ strength ratios for this must check the stress distribution in every ply instead of one
purpose. The equations that state the quadratic interaction criterion bending and one membrane stress distribution for the entire
in terms of a strength ratio may be written as follows: part.
Modern finite-element software makes stress-distribution check-
ing a practical task. The analyst can set up a set of material con-
R2(FxxS2xx + 2FxySxxSyy + FyyS2yy + FssS2xy) stants for each lamina type in the vessel and then refer to the
property set when he or she inputs data that defines the lamination
+ R(FxSxx + FySyy) - 1 = 0 sequence. Many software systems that have a capability for
(26.4)
layered-composite plate elements provide efficient ways for
specifying stack-ups and also provide ways of finding the most
where highly stressed lamina without the analyst having to view the
Sxx the normal stress in a principal direction of the lamina in stress distribution in every lamina. The Algor post-processor, for
question example, produces a “worst-ply” plot. The program makes color-
Syy the normal stress in the other principal direction contour plots of the reciprocal of the strength ratio, where the
Sxy the shear stress in the plane of the lamina value plotted is the worst 1/R for any lamina at that point on the
R the strength ratio vessel. Using this plot, the analyst can quickly isolate areas (if
there are any) where the strength criterion is violated; then, he or
The other parameters are defined in terms of the five lamina she looks at individual ply plots in those areas to isolate the loca-
ultimate strengths, as follows: tions and plies where stress is excessive. Other software systems
have other ways of filtering the voluminous stress output pro-
1 1 1 duced by composite-element calculations.
Fxx = F = F = 2 A simpler strength criterion is being introduced into the current
XXc yy YYc ss Su
edition of RTP-1, ASME RTP-1-2011. The criterion is intended
1 1 1 for details of design and construction for which no rule is provided
Fxy = - 2FxxFyy Fx = -
2 X Xc in Subpart 3A, but for which other recognized engineering formulas
1 1 exist. They may be accepted by comparing calculated stress with
Fy = - (26.5) ultimate laminate strength to establish a minimum design factor.
Y Yc
Other recognized formulas include stress calculations presented in
various sections of the ASME pressure vessel codes, formulas
where included in the non-mandatory appendices of RTP-1, and well
X and Xc the tensile and compressive strengths in the x documented formulas presented elsewhere.
direction, respectively Combined flexural and membrane stress must comply with the
Y, Yc the tensile and compressive strengths in the y direc- following inequalities:
tion, respectively
Su the shear strength
smc sfc 1
Given the five strength values and a stress state, that is, a set of + …
St Sf F10 (26.6)
values for Sx, Sy, and Sxy, equation (26.4) can be solved for R.
This equation is quadratic in R and therefore has two roots for R:
one positive, the other negative. If the positive root is greater than and

26-14 • Chapter 26
smi sfi 1 R2d sxsy sy 2

ca b - + a b + a b d … 1
sx 2 ss 2
+ …
St Sf F5 (26.7) ° 2
Xd XdYd Yd Sd (26.8)
This criterion is scientifically better than the others in the two

Where standards, but it is just now being introduced into use.
smc calculated maximum sustained membrane stress
sfc calculated maximum sustained flexural stress
smi calculated maximum combined intermittent and 26.5 SCOPES OF SECTION X AND RTP-1
sustained membrane stress
sfi calculated maximum combined intermittent and This section discusses the scope of both Section X and RTP-1.
sustained flexural stress The scope of Section X is discussed first, followed by that of
St ultimate tensile strength RTP-1.
Sf ultimate flexural strength
F10 design factor for sustained loads 10 26.5.1 Scope of Section X
F5 design factor for sustained loads 5 Section X has two classes of vessels: I and II, both of which
differ in scope. In brief, the classes are distinguished as follows:
Examples of sustained stress are hydrostatic stress and design
pressure stress. Examples of loads that induce intermittent stress
(1) Class I vessel designs are qualified through possibly
are wind, earthquake and loads from personnel standing on a ves-
destructive fatigue and pressure testing of a prototype.
sel. In the two inequalities, maximum stress means the stress with
Vessels similar to the prototype may then be built and the
the largest absolute value. Absolute values of stress are used in
ASME Code Symbol RP applied, but the prototype itself,
the inequalities.
however, may not receive the Code Symbol RP.
(2) Class II vessel design is qualified through mandatory design
Quadratic Interaction Damage Criterion Section X, in a pre-
rules and nondestructive acceptance testing, which includes
vious edition, Peter Conlisk introduced a new strength criterion
an acoustic-emission (AE) examination.
based on acoustic emission measurements of FRP samples which
(3) Class III vessel designs require advanced stress analysis
define the lowest stress at which significant damage occurs. The
including ASME Section VIII, Div. 3 analysis for the metal-
required tests are defined by Article RT-8 in Section X. For contact
lic bosses at each end. Futher the designs are qualified
molded laminates, flexural and shear tests are required. For fila-
through possible destructive fatigue and pressure testing of
ment wound laminates, a sample filament wound cylinder must be
a prototype like class I but in addition are subject to addi-
tested. The values upon which the criterion is based are:
tional prototype testing including flaw, permeability, boss
Rd damage criterion stress ratio 1.25 torque test, penetration and environmental testing. Finally
Sd damaged based design value with respect to shear stress in an acoustic emission test is performed during the final
the plane of the laminate. hydrotest to further ensure the production vessel is of sound
Xd tensile and compressive damage based design value in the design. At the present time Class III vessels are limited to
x (strong) direction the stationary storage of hydrogen gas.
Yd tensile and compressive damaged based design value in
the y (weak) direction Table 26.8 gives the pressure scope for Class I vessels.
° damage criterion design factor 0.75 Vessels with only polar-boss openings must satisfy the follow-
sx stress in the lamina material direction x at the point and ing requirements to be eligible for the higher pressure scope:
lamina under investigation
sy stress in the lamina material direction y at the point and (1) openings shall be centered on the axis of rotation;
lamina under investigation (2) openings shall be of the polar-boss type wound in place on
ss in-plane shear stress at the point and lamina under investigation the axis of revolution;
(3) the boss diameter shall not exceed half the vessel inside
The Quadratic Interaction Design Criterion is: diameter; and
(4) the filaments shall not be cut.

FIG. 26.17 INTERNAL PRESSURE SCOPE FOR SECTION X VESSELS
The pressure scope for Class II vessels is more complicated, liner is further limited to 100 inches and the burst pressure of the
depending on the size of the vessel. As is discussed below, Section liner shall not exceed 10% of the burst pressure of the vessel.
X vessels must be between 6 in. and 192 in. in diameter. There The design temperature of Section X vessels must not exceed
are two methods for design calculations: Method A that uses 250ºF or 35ºF less than the maximum-use temperature of the
design rules like Section VIII, Division 1, and Method B that resin, whichever is less. The maximum design temperature of
provides for design by stress analysis. Vessels designed by Section X, Class III vessel shall be at least 35°F below the
Method A are limited to 100 psi internal design pressure and 144 in. maximum-use temperature of the resin but in no case shall it
diameter. exceed 185°F. The minimum design temperature is –65°F. The
Vessels designed by Method B rules shall have pressure and maximum-use temperature of a resin is either the glass-transition
diameter restrictions as follows: temperature (TG) or the heat-deflection (also called heat-distortion)
temperature, whichever the Fabricator and resin supplier prefer.
1. The algebraic product of the internal pressure in psig and the When a polymer is cooler than its TG, it is rigid and hard; when
diameter in inches shall not exceed 14,400 lb/in (Equation it is hotter than TG, it is rubbery. The Section X resins are used
26.9). below the TG, whereas other resins (such as tire rubber) are used
2. The maximum internal pressure shall not exceed 250 psig. above it. The elastic modulus of Section X resins drops orders of
3. The maximum inside diameter shall not exceed 192 in. magnitude at and above the TG [6]. The heat-deflection tempera-
Vessels may be designed using a combination of Methods A ture is the temperature at which a specified bar specimen deflects
and B. For such vessels the maximum design pressure is limited 0.01 in. when loaded as a simple beam to a constant 264 psi (see
to 100 psig with a maximum inside diameter of 144 in. Vessels ASTM D 648, Test Method for Deflection Temperature of
designed by either Methods A or B are limited to a maximum Plastics under Flexural Load, for details). It is usually measured
external pressure of 15 psig. for resin castings, not laminates [7]. For the resin used in Section
X, the TG and heat-deflection temperatures are approximately
14400 equal. The temperature scope applies to both Class I and Class II
P =
D (26.9) vessels.
Vessels fabricated under Section X intended for Section IV
potable-water use are limited to applications permitted herein.
where The vessels are limited to internal pressure only with a maximum
P ⫽ is the design pressure in psi and allowable working pressure (MAWP) of 160 psig. The maximum
D ⫽ is the diameter in in. These rules are expressed by Figure allowable temperature used shall be 210ºF [8].
26.17 The following classes of vessels are exempted from the scope
of Section X [9].
The maximum external design pressure for Class II vessels is
15 psig. (1) Pressure containers, which are integral parts of rotating or
The pressure scope for Class III vessels shall not be less than reciprocating mechanical devices (e.g., pumps, compressors,
3000 psig nor more than 15000 psig. The outside diameter of the turbines, generators, engines, and hydraulic or pneumatic

26-16 • Chapter 26
cylinders) where the primary design considerations and or (4) vessel internals, such as entrainment separators and
the stresses are derived from the functional requirements of packing-support plates;
the device. (5) pumps;
(2) Piping systems in which the primary function is to transport (6) piping; and
fluids from one location to another within a system of which (7) underground, fully buried closed vessels
it is an integral part.
(3) Piping components, such as pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets, The geometric jurisdiction is similar to Section X. RTP-1
valves, expansion joints, fittings, and pressure-containing includes the following:
parts of other components (e.g., strainers) and devices that (1) Where external piping is to be connected to the vessel,
are used for mixing, separating, snubbing, distributing and (a) the first threaded joint for screwed connections;
metering, or controlling the flow, provided the pressure- (b) the face of the first flange for bolted connections; and
containing parts are generally recognized as piping compo- (c) the vessel side sealing surface for proprietary connections
nents or accessories. or fittings.
(4) Vessels that have any part of their shells, heads, nozzles, fit- (2) The vessel attachment joint when an attachment is made to
tings, or support laminates heated above the aforementioned either the external or the internal surface of the vessel.
maximum temperature allowable. (3) Covers for vessel openings such as manholes and
(5) Vessels having an inside diameter or maximum internal hand-holes.
cross-sectional dimension not exceeding 6 in. without any (4) The vessel side sealing surface for proprietary fittings
limitation of the length of the vessel or pressure. attached to the vessels for which rules are not provided by
(6) Pressure vessels for human occupancy. RTP-1, such as gages and instruments.
(7) Vessels intended to store, handle, transport, or process
lethal fluids. RTP-1 vessels are limited to those constructed of thermosetting
polyester or vinyl ester, each reinforced by glass fibers.
The jurisdiction of Section X vessels includes only the vessel
and integral communication chambers; it terminates where
(1) the external piping is connected to the vessel at the threaded
first joint, the first circumferential adhesive-bonded joint, 26.6 DESIGN QUALIFICATIONS OF
and the face of the first flange in bolted flanged connections; SECTION X AND RTP-1 VESSELS
or where
(2) the lugs, skirts, and other supporting structures are joined This section discusses design qualification of Section X and
directly to a vessel at the first joint or connection beyond the RTP-1 vessels. Design qualification of Section X, Class I vessels
vessel, but the attachment of the supporting structure to the is by destructive testing. Qualification for Class II vessels requires
vessel is included in the scope. design calculations and a successful AE examination. RTP-1 ves-
sel designs are qualified by design computations and, in some
Section X vessels are limited to those constructed of thermoset- cases, by proof testing.
ting epoxy, polyester–vinyl ester, furan or phenolic resins rein-
forced by glass, or carbon or aramid fibers. 26.6.1 Section X, Class I Design Qualifications
No design calculations are required for Section X, Class I
26.5.2 Scope of RTP-1 vessels. Section X does contain Nonmandatory Appendix AA
The pressure scope of RTP-1 is simpler than that of Section X (Suggested Methods of Preliminary Design for Class I Vessels), but
and applies to stationary vessels used for the storage, accumula- the Fabricator is not obligated to use it. The Fabricator must build a
tion, or processing of corrosive and other substances at pressures prototype of a new design and subject it to a cyclic and a qualifica-
not exceeding 15 psig external and/or 15 psig internal above any tion pressure test. Table 26.9a summarizes these requirements.
hydrostatic head. The maximum temperature within the scope of The pressure qualification test is a type of hydrostatic pres-
RTP-1 is not defined. RTP-1, Article 1-130 states only that sure test. Filament-wound vessels and pipes tend to “weep” at
pressures considerably less than their burst pressures, that is,
applications above 180F require that the designer recognizes test liquid oozes through the laminate and beads on its surface,
and accounts for possible reduced mechanical properties at possibly at pressures well below bursting. When this occurs, it
the elevated temperature and possibly decreasing mechanical is sometimes difficult to pump the liquid into the test piece
properties with time as a consequence of thermal and chemi- quickly enough to attain the desired test pressure, for which
cal exposure. Such elevated temperature applications require reason Section X permits the use of a flexible bladder inside the
special design attention, and consultation with the Resin vessels during the pressure qualification test to attain the quali-
Manufacturer is essential. fication pressure. No leakage may occur during cyclic testing,
In this connection, it should be noted that RTP-1 requires a nor may a liner or bladder be used that is not part of the vessel
Registered Professional Engineer experienced in the design of RTP-1 design.
vessels to certify the design, including the design temperature(s). When a prototype vessel satisfies these requirements, a vessel
Certain types of FRP equipment are excluded from the scope of identical to it may be built and marked with the ASME RP Code
RTP-1. They are as follows: Symbol. It may not, however, receive a Code Stamp. Section X
provides a thorough set of quality assurance requirements to
(1) vessels with an internal design pressure in excess of 15 psig; ensure that production vessels are essentially identical to the suc-
(2) hoods, ducts, and stacks; cessful prototype vessel. These requirements are discussed in the
(3) fans and blowers; forthcoming paragraphs.

26.6.2 Section X, Class II Design Qualifications lamination theory equations that are used, which are usually volu-
Class II requirements are more similar to those of other sections minous and possible to perform with a pencil, some paper, and a
of the Code. Section X, Class II requires design computations and slide rule, although ordinarily commercial software is used. It is the
a hydrostatic test, the latter part of an AE examination that is responsibility of the Registered Professional Engineer who certifies
required for all Class II vessels. Unlike other Code sections, the the design to establish that the software used in the design gives
Fabricator is required to develop materials’ data for his or her identical results to the equations in Section X. Figure 26.18 shows
design calculations. A Registered Professional Engineer must cer- the components for which method A rules exist and indicates the
tify that the design calculations satisfy Section X. article giving the rule for a particular component.
Manufacturers of metal vessels build them of plate and other Method B governs design-by-stress analysis. A set of thicknesses
metal-product forms that are made of standardized alloys. for vessel parts is chosen and the stress fields are calculated
Therefore, it is possible to make a compilation of materials’ data, throughout the vessel for that choice as well as for all relevant
such as from Section II, Part D of the Code, and use it as input for load combinations. The strength criterion specified by Section X
design calculations. However, that approach is not useful for FRP is applied to determine whether the computed stresses satisfy the
vessels. Fabricators combine resin and fiber reinforcement to pro- criterion. Section X, Article RD-1188 uses a form of the Tsai-Wu
duce vessel components, with results that differ among them. criterion. Given the strain fields in a vessel for a particular load
Neither the Resin Manufacturer nor the Fiber Manufacturer has combination, Section X lays out a procedure for calculating the
control of these differences and therefore cannot certify any par- strength ratios, but it does not specify how the analysis to deter-
ticular set of properties for a cured laminate. Section X requires mine the strain fields should be implemented.
Fabricators to measure mechanical properties of the laminates
that they produce for use in design computations.
Section X provides two kinds of design calculation: method A
and method B. Method A is design-by-rule analysis, in which the
thicknesses of the pressure-containing parts are given by simple
mathematical expressions in terms of design pressure, dimensions
of the part, and elastic constants of the laminate of which the part is
made. The properties used in method A are effective elastic con-
stants of the laminate taken as a unit, not the elastic properties of
the individual laminae comprising the laminate. To provide material
data for a particular design, the Fabricator must measure the elastic
properties of each type of lamina he or she intends to use in the ves-
sel. The design-basis lamina must be composed of the same resin
and reinforcing fiber that will be used as well as the same catalyst,
promoter, and other additives. Based on the lamina properties, the
design engineer uses lamination theory to calculate the elastic FIG. 26.18 SECTION X, CLASS II, METHOD
constants of the laminate. Section X, Article RD-12 contains the B COMPONENTS

26-18 • Chapter 26
Section X, Nonmandatory Appendix AC (Discontinuity Stresses attachments need not be included in the stress analysis of the ves-
for Class II Method B Vessels) discusses discontinuity stress analy- sel if, in the opinion of the registered Professional Engineer, they
sis, although very few engineers today use discontinuity analysis, are insignificant. Thus the engineer may design as many compo-
for it has been largely supplanted by finite-element analysis—the nents as possible with the simple rules of method A and supple-
way most method B calculations are done. The Code does not pro- ment these calculations with method B stress analysis, as needed.
vide rules for deciding whether a given analysis is valid; that is the He or she may use this experience and informed judgment to
responsibility of the Registered Professional Engineer. accept some design details without analysis. Section X, Class II
No vessel can be designed entirely by method A; every vessel provides a practical, reliable way to design FRP vessels. The AE
contains supports, for which method A lacks rules. (The same examination demonstrates the structural integrity of the vessel.
comment is true of Section VIII, Division 1.) Article RD-1150 Section 26.7 presents a design example that has all the compo-
requires that design calculations be provided for internal and nents shown in Fig. 26.18.
external attachments such as supports. Using a combination of
methods A and B is allowed. There is a very important paragraph
in the preface that states,
26.6.3 Section X, Class III Design Qualifications
Design calculations are required for Section X, Class III ves-
The Code contains mandatory requirements, specific prohibi- sels. Section X, Appendix 8 does not contain mandatory design
tions, and nonmandatory guidance for construction5 activities. rules but does refer to non-linear stress analysis as a basis for
For the Code does not address all aspects of these activities and designing the structural walls of these vessels. In addition limits
those aspects which are not specifically addressed should not be are placed on the maximum fiber stress of 28.5% for glass fibers
considered prohibited. The Code is not a handbook and cannot and 44.4% for carbon fibers of the tensile strength of the fibers.
replace education, experience, and engineering judgment. The The metallic end bosses are to be designed using applicable
phrase engineering judgment refers to technical judgments ASME Section VIII, Division 3 rules. The fabricator must build a
made by knowledgeable designers experienced in the applica- prototype of a new design and subject it to a cyclic and qualifica-
tion of the Code. Engineering judgments must be consistent tions tests as shown in Table 26.9b. The User must provide a
with Code philosophy and such judgments must never be used Users Design Specification which enumerates the service condi-
to overrule mandatory requirements or specific prohibitions of tions for the vessel. In addition a minimum 20 year cycle life is
the Code. mandated for this type of vessel.
Since the Class III vessel contains a either a metallic or thermo-
In the spirit of this paragraph, Article RD-1186 on attachments plastic liner, no leakage is permitted during the hydrostatic, cyclic
states that the effect of local structural discontinuities from small or volumetric expansion tests.
TABLE 26.9b SECTION X, CLASS III QUALIFICATION TESTS
Qualification Test Criteria

Hydraulic Pressure 1.25 × Design Pressure & held for 30 min-no leaks
Hydraulic Expansion 1.25 × Design Pressure and expansion limited to 110%
Hydraulic Burst Failure pressure to be at least 3.5 × design pressure for glass fibers and 2.25 × design pressure for
carbon fibers
Cyclic Fatigue Cycle from 10% of design pressure to design pressure for a minimum of 2.6 × the design cycle life
without leakage or failure
Creep Vessel shall be pressured to 1.25 × design pressure at 185°F and held for 2000 hr then subject to a leak
and burst test and satisfy the criteria for the leak and burst test.
Flaw Two vessels are tested with two longitudinal flaws cut into shell. One is subject to a burst test and the
other to a fatigue test. The burst test shall be a minimum of 2 times design pressure and the fatigue
test shall last a minimum of 1000 cycles without leakage.
Permeation Vessel shall be filled with 5% hydrogen and 95% nitrogen, placed in a sealed container and monitored
(for non-metallic liners only) for 500 hours leak rate to be less than 0.15 std/cc per hour per liter of vessel volume.
Torque Boss fittings shall be tighted to 150% for specified torque and a leak test at design pressure conducted
without leaks or damage to the threads.
Penetration Vessel is pressurized to design pressure and subject to an impact from an armor piercing bullet of
0.3 in. dia or greater. at 45 degrees to the sidewall without rupture.
Environmental The vessel shall be impacted in 5 spots along the shell by a pendulum with an impact energy of 22.1 ft-lbs
then subject to exposure for 48 hours with sulfuric acid, sodium hydroxide, gasoline, ammonium
nitrate and windshield washer fluid. The vessel is cyclic pressurized from 10% of design pressure to
125% design pressure for 3000 cycles then held at 125% design pressure without leaks or rupture.
5
The term construction, as used in this Foreword, is an all-inclusive term that comprises materials, design, fabrication, examination, inspection, testing, certification, and
pressure relief.

Finally an acoustic emission examination is performed during

the hydrostatic testing of the production vessel with acceptance
criteria given in para. 8-620(b)(7)(e).
When a prototype vessel satisfies these requirements, a vessel
identical to it may be built and marked with the ASME RP Code
symbol stamp. It may not, however, receive a Code Stamp unless
it passes the quality control requirements to ensure the produc-
tion vessels are essentially identical to the successful prototype
vessel.
26.6.4 Design Qualifications of RTP-1 Vessels

Design qualifications of RTP-1 vessels resemble those for
Section X, Class II. The RTP nomenclature is slightly different:
Subpart 3A design is analogous to the method A design in Section
X and Subpart 3B is analogous to the method B design. Part 3 of
RTP pertains to design; Subparts 3A and 3B are subsets of Part 3,
the former covering design-by-rule analysis, the latter covering
design-by-stress analysis.
Figures 26.19 and 26.20 sketch the components for which
Subpart 3A rules are available. The notes on the drawings refer to
the articles in RTP-1 that cover the indicated detail. The “NM”
notes—for example, the note indicating the footprint load on the
FIG. 26.20 AVAILABLE DESIGN BY SUBPART
top of the vessel in Fig. 26.20—refer to nonmandatory provisions.
3A COMPONENTS (CHART 2 OF 2)
That means that RTP-1 may be satisfied by using the component
design in the NM article, although the provision is not compulsory.
RTP-1 introduced a new pressure containing component: flat
sandwich plates with balsa cores. Non-mandatory Appendix NM-
footprint-load requirement may dictate the thickness of a top
15 “Flat Cored Plate Design.” Mandatory Appendix M-13 “Balsa
head. Although the collection of components covered by
Wood Receiving and Inspection Procedures” provide quality
Subpart 3A is more complete than the method A collection in
assurance requirements for the balsa.
Section X, neither has the variety available in Section VIII,
RTP-1 defines the footprint load as a 250 lb vertically down-
Division 1.
ward load that is distributed uniformly over a 16 in.2 compact
Material properties for design are treated differently in Subpart
area, an area with an aspect ratio close to 1.0 (e.g., a circle or
3A than they are in Section X. RTP-1 requires the results of
square). The footprint-load requirement is intended to prevent
mechanical properties tests on samples cut from complete lami-
damage to the vessel if someone stands on it, such as the time
nates, as opposed to tests on individual laminae. The property
when the piping is connected to a nozzle on the top head.
tests must be run on all types of laminates used.
Because RTP-1 vessels may have very low design pressures, the
The strength criterion required by Subpart 3B rules, like
method B in Section X, is based on the Tsai-Wu quadratic
interaction criterion. However, there are differences in the way
the criterion is applied.
Sections 26.7–26.10 provide a series of design examples illus-
trating design calculation and specification of all the components
shown in Figs. 26.19 and 26.20.
26.6.5 Design Qualification Overview

Design qualification in Section X Class I is empirical, based
on a thorough prototype testing. Class II design is based partly
on calculation, partly on testing. Material testing provides material
properties, calculation establishes the part dimensions and
thicknesses, and an AE examination gives an experimental verifi-
cation of the design. Section X, Class III design is based on
advanced stress analysis and thorough prototype testing with the
additional requirement of a an AE examination to verify the
design during the hydrostatic test of the production vessel. RTP-1
design is based either entirely or largely on measured material
properties and calculation, and it does not require hydrostatic
testing of vessels with design pressures less than 0.5 psig and
diameters not exceeding 12 ft For larger vessels or those with
design pressures greater than 0.5 psig, a hydrostatic test is
FIG. 26.19 AVAILABLE DESIGN BY SUBPART 3A required. All three methods are based on long experience and pro-
COMPONENTS (CHART 1 OF 2) duce safe, reliable vessels.

26-20 • Chapter 26
26.7 SECTION X EXAMPLE: DESIGN leaves the task of design and installation of corrosion barriers
SPECIFICATION to the Fabricator. The nontreatment of liners and corrosion bar-
riers is a good example of the following statement from the
Section X, Article RG-310 states the requirement for a Design preface of Section X:
Specification as follows in a single paragraph: The Code does not address all aspects of these activities and
The User, or an agent acting in his behalf, requiring that a vessel those aspects which are specifically addressed should not be con-
be designed, fabricated, tested and certified to be a vessel comply- sidered prohibited.
ing with this Section, shall provide or cause to be provided for Table 26.10 is an example of a Design Specification for a
such a vessel information as to operating conditions, including Section X vessel. The first set of entries gives the vessel designa-
intended use and material compatibility with the contents, in tion in addition to the names, addresses, telephone numbers, and
such detail as will provide the basis for design, material selec- e-mail addresses of the User, the User’s Agent, and the individual
tion, fabrication, and inspection in accordance with this Section. who prepared the Design Specification.
This information will be designated hereinafter as the Design The final version of the Design Specification is often a collab-
Specification. oration between the User and the Fabricator. However, the
Figure 26.21 is a sketch of a Section X vessel suitable for use Design Specification is a key part of the User’s request for quota-
in a Design Specification. The vessel is a reactor with internal tion. Thus, so that the Fabricator’s bids are comparable, it is wise
design pressure of 40 psig that will be filled with 1.2 specific for the User to develop a complete, thorough Design
gravity liquid coincident with the internal design pressure. The Specification.
empty reactor will also be subjected to 10 psig external pressure. In this example, the User has chosen the resin and therefore
The design temperature is 150F for both internal and external accepts responsibility for compatibility of the resin with vessel
design pressures. Acme 105 vinyl ester resin, reinforced by glass contents. If the User had wished the Fabricator to select the
fibers, is determined to be suitable for the liquids the User intends resin, the User would have needed to make a complete disclo-
to process in the reactor. The User desires the Fabricator to sure of the vessel contents, including any changes in the contents’
choose the brand of reinforcing glass fiber. The contents are cor- composition during the chemical reactions occurring in the ves-
rosive, so the User requires a conventional-veil-ply and 2-mat-ply sel. It is obvious that the person who selects the resin must
corrosion barrier. In addition, the User requires a visual inspection understand what the vessel will contain, but sometimes Chemical
level 2. (Visual inspection and other quality control provisions are Manufacturers regard such information as proprietary. If they want
discussed later in this section.) to keep the composition of the contents secret, they must choose
Many FRP vessels require corrosion barriers, but Section X the resin themselves.
does not provide rules for their construction (although it does Because the reactor will be installed indoors, there are no snow,
allow their use). Section VIII treats liners the same way. For rain, or wind loads. Unprotected FRP is subject to damage from
example, many steel vessels have rubber liners that are the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. Therefore, if the vessel will be
required to prevent excessive corrosion. Without the proper stored outdoors for a long period before it is installed, the User
design and installation of the liners, these vessels would not be would need to inform the Fabricator. The Fabricator would then
safe and reliable. Section VIII leaves the task of design and recommend an ultraviolet inhibitor for the final coat of resin or a
installation to the Manufacturer, and similarly, Section X pigmented-gel coat on the outside of the vessel.
The User’s Design Specification should contain any informa-
tion necessary to the Fabricator but not governed by Section X.
For example, the corrosion barrier should be specified, and
although tolerances on nozzle locations are important as well,
they are not provided in Section X and should thus be included in
the Design Specification. Scheduling, shipping, delivery, pay-
ment, and other commercial arrangements must be worked out
and possibly documented in the Design Specification.
Nozzle elevations are measured from the bottom of the skirt. It
is tempting to reference them from the bottom tangent line, but
that location is not easily located in a finished FRP vessel.
Consider Fig. 26.10, which shows a head-to-shell joint. The thick,
bulging joint overlay conceals the exact location of the tangent
line.
Section X, Class II vessels are required to satisfy visual inspec-
tion criteria, but they apply only to the structural part of the lami-
nate. A visual inspection of defects, such as pits and bubbles, are
at least as important in the corrosion barrier; however, Section X
does not cover them, for which reason the User’s Design
Specification should provide criteria for such an inspection.
Article 6-940 and Table 6-1 of RTP-1, however, do contain such
criteria that are suitable for use with Section X equipment. The
User could reference the RTP-1 provisions in the Design
Specification.
All too often, a User’s Design Specification lists several national
FIG. 26.21 SECTION X DESIGN EXAMPLE standards on FRP equipment, such as RTP-1, Section X, ASTM

pipe-and-tank standards, and the now-obsolete National Bureau of apply”—practice that invites chaos. In the author’s experience,
Standards’ PS15-69 document. The User’s standard imposes all of RTP-1 for tanks and low-pressure vessels and Section X for higher-
them on the same vessel and states something to the effect of “in pressure vessels, together with a good User’s Design Specification,
case of conflicts among these standards, the most stringent shall shall suffice.

ASME RTP-1-2011
Table 1-1 User’s Basic Requirements Specification (UBRS)

(As Required by the Provisions of ASME RTP-1)
Page 1 or 4
RTP Edition No. 2011
UBSR Revision No. 0
User firm name Universal Chemical, Inc.
User’s Agent firm name Thermoset Consulting
Title of equipment Process Vessel
User’s designation no. Equipment Number 1-075
Installation location (name and address) Universal Chemical, Inc.

450 Elm Street
Dekalb, Illinois
UBRS prepared by (User or User’s Agent):
Name P. J. Comstock Phone no. 314-999-0001 Date January 3, 2012
Address Thermoset Consulting

125 Broadway
St. Louis, Missouri
1. Equipment description (equipment sketch and nozzle schedule must be attached):

See attached sketch and schedule
2. Additional Fabricator responsibilities:

[ ] Special requirements
[ ] Acoustic emission testing
[ ] Inspection or testing requirements not listed in the Standard
[ ]
[ ]
[ ] User waives visual inspection prior to application of the final exterior coat: [ ] Yes [X] No
[ ] Visual inspection acceptance level (refer to Table 6-1 of ASME RTP-1): [ ] Level 1 [X]Level 2
Quantity limitations for gaseous air bubbles or blisters No more than 10 in any square foot

Where For this choice of values:

K0 a numerical factor from Table 1173.2 in Section X that
is a function of the ratio of major to minor axes of the t1 0.685 in.
head (for the ratio 2, K0 0.9) t2 1.279 in.
F the design factor 10 Thus the internal-pressure hoop stress governs, and the mini-
D0 D 2t 98.412 in., using the thickness required for mum allowed is t 1.28 in.
internal pressure Both Section X and RTP-1 have adopted new and more compli-
1,2 Poisson’s ratio given in Table 26.12 cated rules for computing the allowable external pressure on a
When inserted into equation (26.12), these values yield PA cylindrical part, and both standards adopted the same rules. The
7.739 psig, which is less than design external pressure of 10 psig. new treatment is simplified version of the rigorous NASA SP-
Equation (26.12) cannot readily be solved for t, because D0 8007 solution for lateral and longitudinal external pressure. The
depends implicitly on t. D0 D t could be substituted into the equations use more material properties. Previously, hoop and
equation, which could then be solved for t. The result would be a axial tensile modulii and hoop and axial Poisson’s ratios were
rather messy quadratic equation for t. It is easier to have a pro- needed. Now, the equations use all the properties in Table 26.12
gram such as Mathcad solve the equation, or else to use a cut-and- except hoop tensile modulus, E2. The four elastic modulii may be
try method. A Mathcad solution for t with PA 10 psig gives t obtained by testing or by lamination theory calculations. The four
1.377 in. Thus the minimum thickness for the top head, governed Poisson’s ratios are ordinarily calculated.
by external pressure, is 1.377 in. In addition to the dimensions used in the example above, the
Equation (26.11) also applies to the bottom head, but in this design length for external pressure design and the shell thickness
case P 48.61 psig. All the other values that go into equation are required. The design length is defined the same way by RD-
(26.11) are the same. The result is t 1.425 in. As far as 1172.1 of Section X and 3A-310 of RTP-1, and it is taken as the
external pressure is concerned, the top and bottom heads have greatest of the following:
the same load, geometry, and material properties, so the 1. The distance between head tangent lines plus one-third the
required thickness is the same at 1.377 in. However, because depth of each formed head, if there are no stiffening rings
this is less than the thickness required for internal pressure, it (excluding conical heads and sections).
is the internal pressure that governs the thickness of the bottom 2. The distance between cone-to-cylinder junctions for vessels
head. with cone or conical heads if there are no stiffening rings.
Thicknesses given by design formulas can usually not be built 3. The greatest center-to-center distance between any two adja-
exactly, because they do not correspond to a real laminate sequence. cent stiffening rings.
A real laminate must have an integral number of plies. In the 4. The distance from the center of the first stiffening ring to the
notation of Table 26.6, the next practical laminate closest to, but not formed head tangent line plus one-third the depth of the
thinner than, 1.377 in. is the one with a sequence of five sets of formed head (excluding conical heads and sections), all mea-
3(MR) followed by one M, which comes out to 1.40 in. if mat plies sured parallel to the axis of the vessel.
are assumed to be 0.043 in. thick and woven roving plies are 5. The distance from the first stiffening in the cylinder to the
assumed to be 0.033 in. thick. Similarly, the actual laminate for the cone-cylinder junction.
bottom head-calculated thickness of 1.425 in. is 1.474 in., which has
a laminate sequence of five sets of 3(MR), M followed by MRM. To continue the example, let L 144 in. The above calculation
This could also be written 5[3(MR), M], MRM. gives a thickness of 1.3 in. Then the OD of the cylinder is 96
2(1.3) 98.6 in. The equations in RD-1172.1 for calculating the
26.8.3 Shell-Design Computations allowable external pressure, PA, are:
Article RD-1171.1 gives the following rule for the minimum
thickness of a cylindrical shell subjected to internal pressure: The
3 1 5
minimum shell thickness shall be the greater of t1 or t2, KD 0.8531 g E 42f E14 t 2
where PA = 3
(26.15)
(1 - v1fv2f) L a b F
3 D0 2
PR 4
t2 = 2
0.001E2 (26.13)
PR
t1 = where:
2(0.001E1) (26.14)
D0 the outside diameter of the shell
KD 0.84, a knockdown factor
Equation (26.13) is based on the membrane stress in the axial F design factor 5
direction; equation (26.14), on the hoop membrane stress. The
and the other symbols are defined above. The parameter is
allowable stress is 0.001 times the relevant modulus, discounted by
defined by:
0.6P. The symbols are as defined previously, except for R, which is
the inside radius of the shell. The numerical values are as follows:
g = 1 - 0.001 Zp if Zp … 100
P 47.58 psig from Table 26.13 g = 0.9 if Zp 7 100 (26.16)
E1 1.666 106 psi (from Table 26.12)
E2 1.785 106 (also from Table 26.12)
R 48 in Zp is given by:

26-24 • Chapter 26
E2 the tensile hoop modulus

Ss the secondary bond strength in shear 1,000 psi maximum
At the bottom joint, P 47.58 psi, R 48in., E2 1.786
106 psi, and t 1.3 in.; we will take Ss 1,000 psi. Given these
values, L0 11.42 in. and t0 1.314 in. The same practical lami-
nate schedules used for the shell can be used here, so the actual
overlay thickness is 1.355 in. with a stack-up of 5[3(MR), M].
The top-joint overlay dimensions are calculated the same way
and with the same numbers except that P 41.34 psi. The result-
ing dimensions are L0 9.92 in. and t0 1.138 in. The practical
laminate has a stack-up of 4[3(MR), M], MM and is 1.17 in. thick.
After laying down each 3(MR), M, the laminator must wait for the
peak exotherm and then resume with an M ply. Therefore, finish-
ing the overlay with three M plies was a good choice for the most
economical acceptable overlay.
26.8.5 Nozzle, Nozzle Attachment, and Reinforcing

FIG. 26.22 HEAD-TO-SHELL JOINT DIMENSIONS
Pad Design
Table 26.14 is a reproduction of Table RD-620.1 from Section
X; it gives the dimensions of nozzles and their flanges constructed
of contact-molded and pressure-molded FRP. Nozzles and flanges
3 1 of these dimensions satisfy the design requirements of Section X.
E2f2 E 21 1 L2
Zp = (1 - v1f v2f)2 Flanges or nozzle designs not listed in this table can be designed
E21f
a tb
D0 (26.17) by using Article RD-1176, a method that represents an adaptation
2 of Mandatory Appendix 2 of Section VIII, Division 1 (Rules for
Bolted Flange Connections with Ring-Type Gaskets) to full-faced
When inserted in (26.17) the values above give Zp 353.4, gasket flanges. In the Section X version of the method, many of
which is greater than 100 and thus 0.9. Then the value of PA the method’s stress factors are given by graphs; in the Section VIII
from (26.15) is 9.3 psi, which is less than the required 10 psi version, the same factors are used, but they are provided here in
(Table 26.10). Using ply thicknesses from Table 26.2, the thinnest both graphical and equational forms. For anybody considering
laminate with an integral number of plies that is at least 1.3 in computerizing the method, the equational forms of the stress fac-
thick is 5[3(MR),M], or 1.355 in thick. With t 1.355 in, Z p tors are much more convenient to use than the graphical forms.
338.9, 0.9 and PA 10.3 psi, which satisfies the requirement. Table 26.15 lists the nozzle and flange dimensions for the
The internal pressure requires t 1.3 in. But the closest practi- example vessel, which are taken from Table 26.14 and are for
cal stack-up is 5[3(MR),M] which has nominal thickness 1.355 in, 50 psig. Table 26.16 lists practical and minimum allowable thick-
and which satisfies the external pressure requirement. nesses for the nozzles. The columns labeled “minimum” represent
Section X included a new Non-mandatory Appendix AI “Rigorous the minimum allowable dimensions for 50 psig; those labeled
NASA SP-8007 Solution for Lateral and Longitudinal Pressure” “actual” represent the dimensions corresponding to laminates
which gives an example of the use of the rigorous solution. RTP-1 with practical stack-ups.
introduced Non-mandatory Appendix NM-16, “External Pressure Each nozzle has attachment overlays and a reinforcing pad.
Design Example for Cylindrical Shells.” It has the same example as Figure 26.23 shows these dimensions. The dimensions to be cal-
the Section X appendix. culated are Lb, the length of the secondary overlay on the nozzle
neck; tb, the thickness of the secondary overlay; Lp, the length the pad
26.8.4 Shell-to-Head Joints will extend from the nozzle neck; and tp, the thickness of the
Figure 26.22 indicates the two dimensions of the joint: t0 is the reinforcing pad. RD-1174.2 has an algorithm for obtaining these
overlay thickness and Lo is the length of overlay on each side of dimensions. The calculated attachment laminate length, Lbc, is given by
the joint. RD-1175.2 provides the following simple formulas for FPr
Lbc =
t0 and L 0: 2Ss (26.20)
P(R + t)
t0 =
0.001E2 (26.18) where
F the design factor 10
PR P the internal pressure at the nozzle
2(Ss>F)
L0 =
(26.19) r the inside radius of the nozzle
Ss the secondary shear bond strength in shear (1,000 psi
maximum)
where
P the pressure at the center of the joint If Lbc < 3 in., then Lb 3 in.; otherwise, Lb Lbc.
t the shell thickness The calculated overlay thickness, tbc, is given by the following
F the design factor 10 equation:


26-26 • Chapter 26
Pr PR
tbc = tp1 =
Ss - 0.6P (26.21) 0.001E2 (26.22)
Section X defines E2 as the tensile modulus of the secondary
overlay in the circumferential direction. Because the direction of
If tbc < 0.25 in., then tb 0.25 in.; otherwise, tb tbc, As an the woven-roving laminae in secondary overlays is usually not
example, consider the manway opening. Here, P 46.02 psig controlled, E2 in this equation shall be taken as the lesser of the
and r 12 in.; let Ss 1,000 psi. In this case, Lbc 2.761 in.; two tensile moduli. Therefore, to compute the reinforcing pad
thus, Lb 3 in. The tbc 0.333 in., which is greater than 0.25 in.; dimensions, E2 1.686 10 psi. Section X gives the following
therefore, tb 0.333 in. procedure for computing tp2:
The thickness of the reinforcing pad shall be the greater of the Step (1) Compute the factor:
following:
23(1 - v1v2)
4
a b
r
(1) A thickness of secondary overlay with strength equivalent b =
2 2Rt (26.23)
to the tensile strength in the circumferential direction of the
shell thickness removed, tp1. The symbols in equation (26.23) are as defined previously.
(2) A thickness of secondary overlay, tp2, that when added to Step (2) Using from step (1), obtain a Kt factor from
the shell thickness reduces the bending stress at the opening Fig. 26.24, which is the relevant curve from Fig. RD-1174.3 in
to an allowable level. The allowable bending stress is Section X.
defined as 0.1% of the flexural modulus of the reinforcing Step (3) Compute the maximum stress at the opening, Smax:
laminate in its circumferential direction.
Smax = S2Kt.
Thickness tp1 is given by the following equation: (26.24)
FIG. 26.23 NOZZLE-ATTACHMENT-LAMINATE AND REINFORCING-PAD DIMENSIONS

FIG. 26.24 Kt AS A FUNCTION OF B
where
S2 0.001E2
E2 the circumferential tensile modulus of the shell
(Note: There are a lot of E2’s floating around in the nozzle
design; please do not be confused.)
Step (4) Determine from the following equation the moment, M,
associated with Smax being applied at the edge of the opening:
Smax t2
M =
6 (26.25) Equation (26.24) then provides Smax 14,520 psi, equation
where (26.25) renders M 4,091 in.-lb/in., and, finally, equation (26.26)
t the vessel thickness furnishes tp2 1.362 in. The greater of tp1 and t2p is 1.362 in.; thus
Step (5) Determine the thickness of reinforcement, tpb, that will the minimum acceptable reinforcing pad thickness is 1.362 in.
reduce the stress imposed by M to the allowable Sf, defined as Reinforcing pad length provisions are similar to attachment
0.001Ef (where Ef is the flexural modulus of the reinforcing lami- overlay provisions: There is a calculated length as well as a mini-
nate in the circumferential direction). Assume an equivalent mum length, the latter dependent on the nozzle size. The calculated
moment to be M/ 2. pad length, Lpc, is given by the following equation:
6a b
M
2 pLcPF
tt2 = - t Lpc =
Q Sf (26.26) 4Ss (26.27)
Table 26.17 states the minimum pad length requirements. The

The thickness of the reinforcing pad, tp, shall be the greater of required pad length is the greater of Lpc or the length in Table 26.17.
tp1 or tp2. Recall that Lc is the maximum chord length of the opening.
Let us return to the manway opening example. The input values Hillside nozzles and those nozzles installed in the shell so that the
are as follows:
P 46.02 psig
R 48 in.
r 12 in.
E2 1.686 106 psi
v1 0.24
v2 0.22
Ef 1.732 106 psi
t 1.3 in.
Given these values, equation (26.22) yields tp1 1.238 in.,
equation (26.23) gives 0.986, and Fig. 26.24 gives Kt 8.14.

26-28 • Chapter 26
nozzle axis does not intersect the shell axis have Lc greater than For this case, equation (26.29) gives s = 589 psi. The critical
the nozzle diameter. buckling stress from equation (26.28) is 3,301 psi; when divided
The manway centerline intersects the vessel centerline and is by Fb 5, the stress equals 660 psi. The allowable stress from a
normal to it so that Lc 24 in. From the foregoing values, Lpc material strength standpoint is 0.001E 1,666 psi. The applied
8.674 in., but the minimum value in Table 26.17 is 12 Lc or 12 in. stress is less than either allowable stress, so therefore the skirt
Thus Lp 12 in. for the manway. thickness is acceptable.
In the same way, the attachment laminate and reinforcing pad
dimensions were calculated for the other nozzles, the results of
which are contained in Table 26.18. None of the thicknesses in 26.9 RTP-1: EXAMPLE 1 DESIGN
Table 26.18 correspond to laminates with integral numbers of SPECIFICATION
plies. Table 26.19 provides these thicknesses, together with realiz-
able lamination schedules. Figure 26.25 is a sketch of the first RTP-1 design example: a
This completes the part of the design example that can be done flat-bottomed storage tank with nozzles that can be designed with
with Section X method A rules. What remains is to calculate the Subpart 3A rules. Typical tanks have more nozzles, but the noz-
required skirt thickness, which is done in the next section by zles presented in Fig. 26.25 illustrate Subpart 3A design rules as
using methods available to engineers familiar with the design of well as many would.
FRP structural components. The tank is intended for outdoor service in an area with
Seismic Zone 0, so therefore the tank must withstand wind but
26.8.6 Support Skirt Design not seismic loads. In addition, it is located in an area where
Because the vessel will be installed indoors, and also because building codes require outdoor structures to support a 35 lb/ft2
there are no earthquake loads, the only structural requirement on snow load. The tank will contain liquid with a specific gravity of
the skirt is that it supports the weight of the vessel and its con- 1.2. RTP-1 requires the purchaser, or his or her agent, to com-
tents. It must withstand direct stress and it must not buckle. In plete a User’s Basic Requirements Specification (UBRS), which
accordance with the design of the shell, the allowable stress is set is RTP-1’s Design Specification. (The completed UBRS for the
at 0.001E, where E is the axial modulus. The critical buckling tank is found in Appendix 26.A.) Most entries in the UBRS are
stress, scr , is given by the following equation: self-explanatory, but some are not, particularly to those unfamil-
iar with FRP. Such UBRS entries are discussed in the following
0.3Et
scr = paragraphs.
R (26.28) Parts 6.00 and 7.00 in the UBRS concern the choice of construc-
tion materials. There is a set of entries appropriate for the User who
where selects the resin and another for the User who wants the Fabricator
E the axial modulus of the skirt to select the resin. In the present example, the User selects
t the thickness of the skirt Derakane 470, basing the decision on personal experience. Items
R the radius of the skirt 7.10, 7.20, 7.50, and 7.60 therefore need not be filled in. Items 7.30
The allowable buckling stress is 15scr. Equation (26.28) is used and 7.40 are required for design of the tank, and if the User requires
in Nonmandatory Appendix 3 of RTP-1, Article NM3-321, and is the Fabricator to choose the resin, these items must be completed
valid when the length of the skirt is more than several times Lc because they give the Fabricator a basis for selection.
1.72(Rt)0.5, the critical length. The stress in the skirt,
, is simply The User’s standard cited in 8.00 would contain technical and
the supported weight divided by the cross-sectional area. The sup- possibly commercial matters not covered by RTP-1. For example,
ported weight W 56,500 lb, which was computed by ordinary RTP-1 does not give tolerances on nozzle location, for which rea-
methods; the axial modulus E 1.666 106 psi; and R 48 in. son a User’s Design Specification should state them.
Let us take t 0.317 as a trial value for the thickness, correspond- In 11.00, there is an entry for “man load,” which provides for a
ing to the lamination schedule 3(MR), MM. In addition, Lc 6.71 in., person standing on the top head, but Articles 3A-340 and 3B-300
the length of the skirt—60 in.—is 8.9 times Lc, and equation state the same requirement. A reason for including a provision for
(26.22) applies. The applied stress is computed as follows: the man load in the UBRS is to remind the User that there may be
a different, more demanding man-load requirement.
W Section 19.00 deals with the recording of the Inspector’s desig-
s =
p[(R + t)2 - R2] (26.29) nation. Three individuals named in RTP-1, Article 1-400 are con-

FIG. 26.25 RTP-1, EXAMPLE 1 DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION
cerned with various aspects of inspection: a Certified Individual, control. He can be the Inspector, but he cannot be the Certified
an Inspector, and an inspector. RTP-1, Article 1-400 delineates Individual.
their roles as follows: The following paragraphs demonstrate the application of
This Standard requires that specific inspections be carried out Subpart 3A rules to the tank. Material properties are considered
by Inspection Personnel experienced in the fabrication of RTP first, followed by the design of the top head, the design of the
vessels. In addition, other inspections may be carried out as a part shell and flat bottom, the design of the nozzles, nozzle reinforcements,
of the Fabricator’s Quality Control Program. Throughout this and attachment overlays, and finally the design of hold-down lugs
Standard, Inspection Personnel are referred to as either inspec- to resist wind forces. Table 26.20 lists the section numbers of this
tor(s) (lowercase “i”), Inspectors (uppercase “I”), or Certified chapter where component calculations are given.
Individual(s) (uppercase “CI”).
A Certified Individual is an employee of the Fabricator authorized 26.9.1 Laminate Properties
by ASME to use its marks. The Certified Individual’s principal The tank will be built of mat–oven-roving laminates as in the
responsibility is to protect the ASME mark by carrying out the duties previous example, but the laminates will be thinner and will
described in this Standard (RTP-1). He can also be the Inspector. include the corrosion barrier in the calculation of the vessel’s
An Inspector is an individual who shall be mutually acceptable strength RTP-1 permits. For these reasons, the laminates will have
to the User and Fabricator and shall carry out his duties in accord a higher proportion of mat than in the previous example.
with this Standard. An Inspector’s reporting relationship to man- Consequently, the modulus and strength will be somewhat less
agement must be independent of the Fabricator’s production and and the Poisson’s ratio will be higher. RTP-1 Fabricators are
marketing groups. He can also be the Certified Individual or the required to obtain laminate properties for design by testing lami-
inspector, but not both. nates of the same construction, resin, and glass that they intend to
An inspector is an individual engaged in inspection activities use in the vessel. Table 26.21 lists a typical set of properties,
during the course of fabrication, usually as a function of quality which will be used in the example.

26-30 • Chapter 26
graph in RTP-1 can be read to four figures, as the text seems to

imply. Appendix 11 was derived from an article by Eric Reissner
that gives a solution to the problem in terms of Coulomb functions
[10]. The author of this chapter wrote a Mathcad worksheet based
on the paper from which the values of Gt and Gb were obtained.)
Because the snow load applies an external pressure, the head
must be checked for elastic stability. Article 3A-320 of RTP-1
FIG. 26.26 STRESS FUNCTIONS FOR FOOTPRINT gives the following formula for the minimum allowed thickness
LOADING for an F&D head subjected to external pressure, Pd:
FPd 0.5
t = Rc a b
26.9.2 Top Head Design 0.36Ef (26.31)
Because the tank is vented, there is no internal pressure in the
top head. It must, however, withstand two loads: the snow load of
where
35 psf (0.243 psi) and the man load of 250 lb on a 16 in.2 area.
Ef the flexural modulus
As it is possible that someone would want to clear snow from
the top of the tank, the loads will be treated as acting simulta- RTP-1 requires F for elastic stability, Ef 1.25 106 psi,
neously. Nonmandatory Appendix 11 of RTP-1 provides a method and Pd 0.243 psi. The minimum required thickness is 0.236 in.,
for calculating the stress in the center of an F&D head under the which is less than 0.29 in.; thus the head satisfies the buckling
footprint load. The stress would be less if the load were applied requirements.
elsewhere on the head, so the calculation suffices. The stress on
the top surface is given by Gt /t2, where t is the thickness of
the crown of the head and Gt is a value from a graph in 26.9.3 Shell Design
Nonmandatory Appendix 11. Similarly, the stress on the under- Hydrostatic pressures for heights in the shell needed for design
surface is Gb/t2. Figure 26.26 is the graph that gives Gt and Gb as a were computed in the usual way. These are listed in Table 26.22.
function of (Rct)1/2. Here, Rc is the crown radius of the head. RTP-1, Article 3A-210 gives the following algorithm for deter-
In an F&D head, the crown radius equals the shell diameter; mining the minimum required thickness for a contact-molded,
thus Rc 144 in. The minimum pressure-containing part thick- cylindrical shell. Compute thicknesses th and ta as follows:
ness allowed by RTP-1 is 0.22 in. Using this thickness, (Rct)1/2
5.63 in.; from the graph, Gt 193.2 lb. and Gb 103.9 lb.
PDF
Therefore, the stress on the upper surface of the head is th =
193.2/0.222 3,992 psi; on the lower surface, it is 103.9/0.222 2Sh (26.32)
2,146 psi. The membrane stress,
s, from the pressure exerted by NaxF
the snow load is given as follows: ta =
Sa (26.33)
PRc
ss =
2t (26.30)
where
which, for the current values, yields
s 79.5 psi because the P the combined hydrostatic and design pressure at the
snow load is 35 lb/ft2 0.243 psi. Thus the stress under the height at which the thickness is computed
footprint load on the top surface 3,299 79.5 3,378 psi. D the shell diameter
The snow load may act for many days, but the footprint load acts F 10, the design factor on internal pressure
only for a short time, for which reason the design factor for tempo- Nax the axial force per unit circumferential length
rary loads, F 5, may be applied to find the allowable for the com- Sh the ultimate hoop tensile strength
bined stress: 16,000/5 3,200 psi, which is less than the absolute Sa the ultimate axial tensile strength
value of the applied stress. Therefore, the head must be thicker. The
next thickest practical mat–wovenroving laminate is 0.29 in. thick The greater of th or ta is the required minimum thickness. For
with a stack-up of V, 2M, 2(MR)M. In this case, Gt 213.7 lb and simplicity, the shell will be of uniform thickness. Thus P 7.8 psi,
Gb 121.8 lb, and the footprint stresses on the upper and lower the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the shell (because the
surfaces are 2,541 psi and 1,448 psi, respectively. The membrane tank is vented, the design pressure is 0). Given the values of D
stress from the snow load becomes 60.3 psi; therefore, the stress 144 in. and Sh 16,000 psi, th 0.351 in. The weight of the head
under the footprint becomes 2,601 psi, which satisfies the allow- was calculated by ordinary methods as 286 lb. The projected area
able stress criterion. (Note: Neither the graph in this book nor the of the head in ft2 is as follows:

pD2
A = 2
= 113.1
(26.34)
Thus the total snow load is 113.1 35 3,939 lb. The circum-
ference of the tank is D 452.4 in.; therefore, Nax (3,939
286)/452.4 9.34 lb/in. The axial and hoop strengths are the
same, so Sa 16,000 psi and
9.34 * 10
ta = = 0.00584
16,000 (26.35)
Thus the hoop stress governs and the required minimum thick-
ness is 0.351 in. The next thickest realizable laminate is 0.37 in.
26.9.4 Design of Bottom and Bottom Knuckle
thick with a stack-up of V, 2M, 3(MR)M. Given the shell thickness and tank diameter, RTP-1 has rules
The bending moment at the base of the shell from wind is given for the thickness of the bottom and design of the knuckle that
by the following equation: require no calculation. Article 3A-250 states the minimum flat-
bottom thicknesses given in Table 26.23.
H2 Subpart 3A rules currently apply to tanks and vessels up to 16 ft
Mw = Pw D
2 (26.36) in diameter, a limit that may be increased soon by the RTP-1
Committee. For tanks 12 ft–16 ft in diameter, RTP-1 requires a
From the UBRS, Pw 20 psf. For computing the wind design analysis. There are gaps in the diameter ranges because the
moment, the height is taken as the shell height plus the head rule is for commonly available tooling.
height of 17.16 ft The diameter is 12 ft; therefore, the base wind The rules for the knuckle are somewhat more complicated.
moment Mw 35,336 ft lb. The moment produces a stress sw Article 3A-350 states the following:
that can be calculated as follows from the ordinary beam formula:
The radius of the bottom knuckle of a flat bottom vessel shall
Mwc not be less than 1 in. if the diameter is 4 ft or less, and 1.5 in. for
sw =
I (26.37) diameters exceeding 4 ft. The minimum thickness of the radius
section shall be equal to the combined thickness of the shell wall
where and the bottom. The reinforcement of the knuckle radius area
I the moment of inertia of the shell cross section shall taper so that it is tangent to the flat bottom, and shall not
c D/2 extend beyond the tangent line onto the tank bottom. The
knuckle reinforced area shall extend for a minimum distance of
The moment of inertia can be obtained from the following 8 in. from the inside tank bottom up the vertical wall for tanks
equation: up to and including 4 ft in diameter, and 12 in. for tanks over 4 ft
D - t 2
I = pa b t = 4.272 * 105 in.4
in diameter. The reinforcement shall then taper into the side wall
2 (26.38) for an additional 4 in. The perimeter of the tank bottom shall be
in a flat plane, and the bottom shall have no projections which
exceed 41 in. and which will prevent uniform contact with a flat
With these values, sw 71.5 psi. The axial stress from the support surface when the tank is filled with liquid.
weight is given as follows:
W Figure 26.27 shows the knuckle construction for this example.
swt = = 11.3 By coincidence, the shell and bottom have the same thickness,
p(D - t)t (26.39) but this is not always true. The bottom has a straight flange, for
which reason the knuckle radius does not contain a joint (the
The stresses add weight on the leeward side of the tank, where joint is a few in. up the side). This is not clearly stated as a
the total axial stress is 82.8 psi. This is far less than the allow- requirement, although it is treated as such and is certainly good
able stress. To be complete, the compressive stress on the leeward practice. On the inside of the joint, a seal overlay is applied to
side must be checked for buckling. The critical buckling stress for prevent process liquid from getting into the joint. The seal over-
bending under wind moment is as follows: lay has the same stack-up as the corrosion barrier—namely, V,
MM. On the outside of the joint, a butt-joint overlay is installed.
0.39Et
scr = Article 4-320 provides the rules for butt joints between the
R (26.40) heads and the shell and between the shell courses, and also for
joints in the flat portion of a fully supported (as by a slab) flat
where bottom. In this case, the rules require the joint to be constructed
R the radius of the tank of mat–woven-roving laminate (the same as the parts being
joined) of at least the same thickness as the thicker of the parts
For the values given in equation (26.40),
cr 2,776 psi, being joined. The first ply of the joint overlay must be a mat ply
which is much greater than the applied stress. The method used in at least 3 in. wide; the next, a woven-roving ply of the same width
equation (26.40) for wind loading is the same as that illustrated in as the mat ply; the last, a mat ply extending beyond the woven-
Nonmandatory Appendix 3, Article NM3-321 of RTP-1. roving ply beneath it by at least 12 in. on each side. The sequence

26-32 • Chapter 26
FIG. 26.27 KNUCKLE FOR FLAT-BOTTOM TANK
continues, with alternating plies of mat and woven-roving and least 4 in., which is in addition to the 12 in. full-thickness part
with each mat ply extending at least 12 in. on either side of the of the overlay.
ply beneath it until the required thickness is attained. The
knuckle-reinforcement overlay is then added. It would also be of 26.9.5 Hold-Down Lug Design
a mat–woven-roving laminate and would extend at least 12 in. Because the tank will be subjected to wind loading, it must be
up the shell, as measured from the inside surface of the tank bot- equipped with hold-down lugs. Although no mandatory rules gov-
tom. The reinforcement overlay would be at least equal to the ern these lugs, Nonmandatory Appendix NM-4 gives a method for
bottom thickness and would taper into the shell to a width of at designing them. The forthcoming analysis of the lugs uses this
method, which applies to the type of lug sketched in Figs. 26.28,
26.29, and 26.30. Figure 26.28 shows a cross section of the hold-down
lug, tank wall, and overlay, where the cutting plane is vertical
through the center of the lug. Note that the vessel-wall thickness
under the lug is the sum of the bottom knuckle reinforcement and
the shell thickness. Figure 26.29 shows an elevation view of the
FIG. 26.28 CROSS SECTION OF HOLD-DOWN LUG

ASSEMBLY FIG. 26.29 ELEVATION VIEW OF LUG ASSEMBLY

FIG. 26.30 TOP VIEW OF NOZZLE ASSEMBLY
lug assembly, and Fig. 26.30 shows a top view of the lug’s nozzle (4) Yield in bending at the base of the lug.
assembly. (5) Shear failure of the vessel wall.
The retainer bar keeps the lug from sliding out of the overlay (6) Bending failure of the vessel wall.
that might not adhere to the steel lug. The bottom of the lug is
deliberately spaced above the slab to ensure that the weight of the Table 26.24 lists the quantities that are input to the lug compu-
vessel and its contents are transmitted to the slab through the bot- tations as well as the symbols used to represent the quantities in
tom of the vessel, not through the lugs. The lugs need only to the forthcoming equations. We are attempting to determine the
resist downward forces. Anchor bolts or clips that secure the lug lug dimensions, but because the calculation is of the cut-and-try
to the slab must not be tightened excessively; in fact, some User’s method, the dimensions are input.
Design Specifications call for making these threaded fasteners The allowable peel load and the allowable bond shear stress are
only finger-tight and using a jam nut to ensure that the nut stays in values suggested in Nonmandatory Appendix NM-4. The lug
place. yield strength is for A-36 structural steel. Lugs are often cut from
Nonmandatory Appendix NM-4 checks against the following steel structural shapes; thus the yield strength is realistic.
six failure modes: The first series of computations determines the force on the
most heavily loaded lug. The lugs need to resist uplift only, for a
(1) Peel of the overlay from the vessel. downward force in the vicinity of a lug is resisted by the knuckle
(2) Shear failure of the overlay to the vessel secondary bond. pressing into the support lab. In the present example, a wind-
(3) Tensile failure of the overlay at the vertical edges of the lug. overturning moment, the uplift on the dished top head from the

26-34 • Chapter 26
wind, and the weight of the vessel less the bottom weight, all The allowable bond shear stress is 200 psi; therefore, the bond
influence the lug force. The wind uplift force on the top head, Uw, shear is acceptable.
is given by the following equation: Next, the tensile stress in the overlay adjacent to the vertical
edges of the lug is checked. The tension, T, is obtained from the
p 2 following equation:
Uw = DP P
4 0 w g (26.41)
PD0 (662.95)(145.48)
T = = = 8,037 lb
2w 2(6) (26.51)
Inserting the values in the table results in the following equations:
4Mq 4(35,340)
Uq = = = 11,720 lb The tensile hoop stress in the overlay, sov, is then
D0 144.74 (26.42)
T 8,037
sov = = = 2,835 psi
Uw = (144.74)2 c d(0.8) = 1,828
p 20 h1tov (10.5)(0.27) (26.52)
4 144 (26.43)
The allowable stress is 15 the tensile strength of the laminate—
The wind pressure is divided by 144 to convert it from psf to that is, 3,200 psi, for the stress results from wind, which is a
psi to be consistent with the other values in the equation. (The temporary load. Because the overlay hoop stress is less than
inside diameter of the tank shell is 144 in.; therefore, the outside that, it is therefore acceptable. Peel, overlay bond shear stress,
diameter is the inside diameter plus twice the thickness or 144.74 and hoop stress in the overlay are all less than their allowables,
in.) The effective uplift force from the wind moment, Uq, is and the lug attachment overlay is acceptable. What remains is
obtained as follows: to check the lug itself and the stresses in the vessel wall under
The net uplift force is then the lug.
The bending stress at the base of the lug can be computed from
U = Uw + Uq - Wv = 1,828 + 11,720 - 1,879 = 11,670 lb the following equation:
(26.44)
The force on a single lug, Flug, is then 3Flugwlug 3(1,945)(6)

sb = = = 15,560 psi
U 11,670 Llugt2b 4(4)(0.375)2 (26.53)
Flug = = = 1,945 lb
N 6 (26.45)
The allowable stress in the lug, which is assumed to be cut
The next step is to check resistance to peel. The maximum unit from a structural A-36–steel angle, is 23 of its yield stress or
radial load on the overwrap, wmax, is given as follows: 24,000 psi, which is greater than the bending stress in the lug.
Thus the lug stress is acceptable. The shear stress in the tank wall
3Fluge 3(1,945)(2.5) lb under the lug, Tw, is approximately given as follows:
wmax = = = 120.54
h2 112 in. (26.46)
P 662.95
The total radial load, P, is obtained from the following equation: tw = = = 149.3 psi
tkwk (0.74)(6) (26.54)
wmaxh (120.54)(2.5)
P = = = 662.95 lb
2 2 (26.47) which is a low value. Normal stress under the lugs is a combi-
nation of bending from the lugs and the membrane from pressure.
The computation of these stresses begins by computing the bend-
The length of the tensile perimeter, Ltp, is as follows
ing parameter, b:
Ltp = 2(h - tb) + wlug = 2(11 - 0.375) + 6 = 27.25 in. 1/4 1/4
(26.48)
2 2
b=≥ ¥ = ≥ ¥
3(1 - v ) 3(1 - 0.26 )
2
= 0.1763 in..- 1
145.48 2
a b t2k a b 0.742
The peel load (lb/in.) is then Dk
2 2
P 662.95 lb
Spl = = = 24.33
Ltp 27.25 in. (26.49) (26.55)
The axial bending moment in the shell under the lug, Max, is
which is less than the allowable peel of 50 lb/in. then obtained from the following equation:
The next mode to check is failure of the overlay to vessel sec-
ondary bond in shear. The shear stress is as follows:
Max = a b = a b =
P 1 662.95 1 in.-lb
Flug = 156.7
1,945 wlug 4b 6 4(0.1763) in.
tov = = = 30.87 psi
2h1wov 2(10.5)(3) (26.50) (26.56)

and the hoop moment, Mh, is as follows: Paragraph 3A-700 of RTP-1 contains rules for the opening
reinforcement. The rules apply to openings for nozzles or man-
in.-lb ways with cylindrical necks. Other restrictions are the following:
Mh = vMax = (0.26)(156.7) = 40.74
in. (26.57)
(1) Only openings for circular nozzles in which the diameter
does not exceed half the vessel diameter are covered by
The axial normal stress in the wall under the lug results from these rules.
the superposition of the axial membrane stress and the bending (2) Only openings in which the largest dimension along one
stress from Max, as follows: axis is no longer than two times the largest diameter along
U 6Max 11,670 6(156.7) the axis at 90 deg. to the first axis are covered by these rules.
sax = + 2 = + These dimensions shall be measured from one cut edge to
pDktk tk p(145.48)(0.74) 0.742 the opposite cut edge.
(3) These rules cover only the reinforcement of cylinders and
= 1,752 psi dished, elliptical, and conical heads using RTP-1 design-by-
(26.58)
rule thicknesses.
Similarly, the hoop stress is the sum of the hoop membrane and
the hoop bending stresses, as follows: The outside diameter of the reinforcing pad, dr, shall be the
greater of twice the opening’s largest dimension of the opening’s
PhydDk 6Mh (7.8)(145.48) 6(40.74)
s = + 2 = + largest dimension plus 6 in. The taper at the outer periphery of the
2tk tk 2(0.74) 0.742 reinforcement laminate shall not be included in dr. Reinforcing
pads shall not overlap. The thickness of the reinforcing pad, tr, is
= 1,213 psi given by the following equation:
(26.59)
tr = VMKTt - M(Tc - Tt)
(26.60)
As in the case of the overlay hoop stress, the allowable is 3,200 psi,
which is comfortably more than the greater of the hoop and axial where
stresses. V = 1 for internal pressure, 12 for external pressure
The lug design is adequate to resist wind loads. Table 26.25 M = 1 for vessel parts of contact-molded laminates
lists the six failure modes, the allowable stress, the imposed M =
/15,000 for other laminates, such as those that are
stress, and the ratio of allowable to imposed stress. It shows that filament-wound
the lug and attachment overlay are well designed. a = the hoop design strength, psi
The allowable stress for the vessel-wall shear is only a rough K = 1 for nozzles of greater than 6 in. diameter
value; it is rarely measured. It is the shear stress in a plane normal K = d/6 for 6 6
to the laminate and containing the axis of the vessel. Except for d = the nozzle’s largest hole dimension
gross impact (which is always the result of an accident), this kind Tc = the nominal wall thickness for construction
of failure is rare; therefore, the industry has not tried to define it. Tt = the minimum wall thickness that satisfies the design
The lug design method is only approximate and is based as much conditions
on experience as science. However, the method does result in reli-
If tr 0.129 in., no reinforcing is required
able lugs. Although finite-element or some other exacting stress
analysis might result in smaller lugs and overlays, the engineering
Now, let us consider nozzle A. The head is governed by external
cost would be greater than the material and labor savings unless the
pressure so that V = 12 . The head is contact-molded; therefore, M = 1.
Fabricator plans to build many lugs of the same design.
The diameter is 12 in., which is greater than 6 in., and K = 1.
From these values, Tc = 0.29 in. and T1 = 0.236 in. Then,
26.9.6 Nozzle Reinforcement and Attachment Design
Only nozzle A on the top head and the manway will be consid- 1
tr = * 1 * 1 * 0.236 - 1 * (0.29 - 0.236) = 0.064 in.
ered because in both cases it illustrates the design process as well 2
as many more examples would. External pressure from the snow
load governs the design of the reinforcing pad for nozzle A. (26.61)

26-36 • Chapter 26
From Fig. 4.8 of RTP-1, the attachment laminate thickness is

twice the neck thickness, 0.74 in.; from Table 4.1 of RTP-1, the
width is 6 in.
The dimensions of the reinforcing pad and attachment are
found the same way for nozzle B.
Table 26.27 lists the dimensions of the nozzle reinforcing pads
and attachments. The thicknesses have been rounded up from the
calculated values to correspond to practical laminate sequences.
26.10 RTP-1: DESIGN EXAMPLE 2

26.10.1 RTP-1 Example 2 Design Specification
Figure 26.31 sketches Example 2 of RTP-1 design. The vessel
has F&D top and bottom heads and is supported by a steel ring,
which is a rolled-structural channel. The vessel will be supported
by building steel in an octagonal factory-floor opening and
framed by steel beams. The support ring will be connected to the
building steel by lugs welded to the ring. The vessel may be filled
with a liquid with a specific gravity of 1.4, but it must have a
Thus tr 6 0.129 in., and no reinforcing is required. design internal pressure of 5 psig and a design external pressure
The attachment laminate is specified in RTP-1 by Figs. 4.4 and of 10 psig.
4.5 as well as Table 4.3 on pages 40, 41, and 42, respectively. The vessel will require vacuum-stiffening rings, even though
Table 4.3 is reproduced in this chapter as Table 26.26. they are not shown in Fig. 26.31. The figure is meant to illus-
The shear-bond width is the width of the attachment not only on trate a sketch that would be part of the Design Specification,
the vessel part or reinforcing pad, but up the nozzle neck as well. which would not usually show vacuum rings. The Fabricator
Nozzle attachment laminates are shown in Fig. 26.11. The would determine whether rings are needed and would also
attachment thickness is the greatest of 0.4 in.—twice the nozzle design them.
neck thickness, or tr. Assume a nozzle neck thickness of 0.29 Appendix 26.B provides the UBRS for the vessel. As in the
in, in which case the attachment laminate total thickness must previous example, many of the entries may be left blank. Table
be at least 0.58 in. Some of it may be on the inside of the instal- 26.28 provides a list of the sections of this chapter where the
lation, may be some on the outside; this is acceptable as long as calculations for the vessel components can be found. However,
the sum of the two is at least 0.58 in. Table 26.26 gives the manway and nozzle reinforcement and attachment designs are
width of the attachment to be at least 5 in. on the shell or head not included because they are the same as in the previous
to which the nozzle is attached and 5 more in. up the nozzle example.
neck. The vessel will be built of the same resin as that used in
Assume that the manway neck is 0.37 in. thick. The shell is gov- Example 1, but the Fabricator intends to build this vessel of
erned by internal pressure and is contact-molded; therefore, V 1 mat–woven-roving laminate as well. For this reason, the same
and M 1. The manway diameter is 24 in., so K 1 and dr laminate properties of Example 1 apply. For convenience, they are
48 in. In addition, Tc 0.37 in. and Tt 0.351 in. Thus the rein- listed in Table 26.29.
forcing pad thickness is as follows: Hydrostatic pressures at various levels in the vessel are
required during the design process. The hydrostatic pressure is
given by the following equation:
tr = 1 * 1 * 1 * 0.351 - 1 * (0.37 - 0.351) = 0.332 in.
Ph = gH
(26.62) (26.63)

FIG. 26.31 RTP-1,SECOND DESIGN EXAMPLE
where
Ph the hydrostatic pressure
g the specific weight of the contents
H the depth of the liquid at the level in question
Because the design condition is with the full vessel, H is mea- F 10, the design factor
sured from the top of the top head. Table 26.30 lists the hydrostatic
pressures used in design computations. Inserting the preceding values into equation (26.64) gives tr
0.40 in., which is the minimum thickness required to resist inter-
nal pressure. The maximum allowed external pressure to thick-
26.10.2 Design of the Top Head ness t is specified in paragraph 3A-320:
The top head will be subjected to an internal pressure of
5 psig, an external pressure of 10 psig, and the footprint load.
The hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the head is 1.027 psig;
therefore, the head must withstand a total of 6.027 psig.
Paragraph 3A-220 requires the head to have a thickness of at
least tr, as follows:
0.885PRcF
tr =
Su (26.64)
where
P 6.027 psi, the total pressure
Rc 120 in., the crown radius of the head
Su 16,000 psi, the ultimate tensile strength of the laminate

26-38 • Chapter 26
t 2 26.10.3 Design of the Shell and Vacuum Rings

Pext = 0.36 a ba b
Ef
Fv Ro (26.65) The shell must withstand two independent loads: external pres-
sure and combined design pressure–hydrostatic load. The usual
strategy is to first compute the shell thickness required for internal
In this equation, Ef is the flexural modulus, Fv 5, the design pressure and then to determine if this is sufficient for external
factor on elastic stability, and Ro R t, the outside crown radius. pressure. If it is not, the design must be rechecked with one or
Using the thickness required for internal pressure and the flexural more vacuum-stiffening rings added to the shell. If the external
modulus from Table 26.29: pressure condition can be satisfied with a satisfactory number
1.25 * 106 2 of rings, the design is accepted; if not, the shell thickness is
Pext = 0.36 a ba b = 0.9930 psi
0.40
increased and the design is checked again. Eventually, by trial and
5 120 + 0.4 (26.66)
error, a satisfactory design is reached. There is a trade-off
between the number of rings required and shell thickness. The
This is less than the required value Pext 10 psi. By trial and design engineer uses his or her judgment to determine whether a
error it can be established that t 1.299 in leads to Pext 10.32 psi. particular choice is satisfactory.
That thickness corresponds to a practical lamination sequence: V, Because the support ring will serve as a vacuum stiffener, the
MM, 4[3(MR), M], MRM. Equation 26.64 above for thickness shell design will be done in two stages. The first will be to design
required to resist internal pressure can be solved for the P that the part of the shell above the stiffening ring (to be taken as the
results from thickness of 1.299 in.: part of the shell above the upper surface of the support ring); the
second will be to design the part of the shell below the upper sur-
Sut 16000 * 1.299
P = = = 19.57 psi face of the ring.
0.885FRc 0.885 * 10 * 120 (26.67) At the top of the support ring, the hydrostatic pressure is 6.99
psig; the design pressure, 5 psig. The shell must therefore with-
stand a combined pressure of P 11.99 psig. Paragraph 3A-210
The MAWP for the top head is then this value of P less the
supplies a rule for the required shell thickness—that it must be the
hydrostatic pressure which gives 18.5 psi.
greater of t1 or t2, where
It remains to verify that the head will resist the combination
of footprint load and external pressure. The footprint load is Nax
t1 =
considered a temporary load, and therefore by Paragraph Su (26.69)
NM11-300, a design factor of F 5 may be used while consid- F
ering the combination of footprint load and stress from external
pressure.
Nonmandatory Appendix 11 of RTP-1 provides a method for and
calculating the stress in the center of an F & D head under the PR
t2 =
footprint load. The stress would be less if the load were applied Su (26.70)
elsewhere on the head, so the calculation suffices. The stress on F
the top surface is given by Gt /t2 where t is the thickness of
the crown of the head, and Gt is a value from a graph in
where
Nonmandatory Appendix 11. Similarly the stress on the under
P combined design pressure-hydrostatic load
surface is Gb /t2. Figure 26.26 in Section 26.9.2 above is a copy of
Nax the axial stress resultant
the graph that gives Gt and Gb as functions of (Rct)1/2. Here, Rc is
Su the tensile strength
the crown radius of the head. In this case (Rct)1/2 (120
F 10, the design factor
1.299)1/2 12.49 in. Then, from the graph, Gt 323 lb and Gb
224 lb. Thus the footprint stress on the top surface is
t The axial stress resultant from the design pressure is Nax Pd R/2
323/1.2992 191 psi and the footprint stress on the lower 5 60/2 150 lb/in.
surface is
b 224/1.292 133 psi. The membrane stress at the For t1:
top of the crown from external pressure is obtained from: 150
t1 = = 0.094 in.
16,000 (26.71)
10
PextRc -10 * 120
sm = = = - 461.9 psi
2t 2 * 1.299 (26.68)
For t2:
(8.31)(60)
t2 = = 0.312 in.
16,000 (26.72)
The superposition of this stress and the footprint stress on the
top surface gives 191 461.9 653 psi. The allowable stress 12
is 16000/5 3200 psi, which is much greater than the imposed
stress. Since the internal design pressure is less than the external Thus the required minimum thickness for resisting internal
design pressure, and since the positive footprint stress on the pressure is 0.312 in. In reality, the axial stress resultant would be
underside of the head is less in absolute value than the footprint reduced because the weight of the upper part of the vessel would
stress on the top, the combination of internal pressure and footprint partially counteract the pressure, but hoop stress governs, for
load is also acceptable. which reason this conservatism has no effect on the design.
A top head laminate with stackup V, MM, 4[3(MR), M]MRM, Paragraph 3A-310 gives an equation for computing the allowed
which is 1.299 in. thick, satisfies RTP-1. maximum external pressure on a given shell. It is:

ness as the minimum required for internal pressure, D0 120

3 1 5
KD 0.8531 g E2f4 E 41 t 2
PA = 3
2(0.312) 120.624 in. For this design, Equation (26.73) yields
(26.73) PA 0.22 psi, far too low.
11 - v1fv2f24 La b F
3 D0 2
2 If two evenly spaced vacuum rings are added to the shell above
the support ring, then the design length is 123.77/3 41.26 in.
where: With the thickness unchanged, Equation (26.73) gives PA 0.67
F design factor 5 psi, still too low. By using various values of t in the equation, one
KD knockdown factor 0.84 finds that t 0.9 in results in PA 10.05 psi. The lamination
1 0.001Zp if Zp … 100 Zp 0.9 otherwise schedule of the thinnest laminate with thickness at least 0.9 in
and thick is 3[3(MR)M]MRM which is 0.932 in thick. That thickness
results in PA 10.97 psi, which satisfies the design requirement.
3 1 The required moment of inertia of the vacuum rings is obtained
E 2f2 E 21 L2
11 - v1f v2f22
1
Zp = from paragraph 3A-330:
E21f
a
D0 Pv Ls D 30 Fv
tb I =
2 24Eh (26.74)
In Equation (26.73), D0 represents the outside diameter, t the shell
thickness, E1 the axial tensile modulus, E2f the hoop flexural modulus, where
E1f the axial flexural modulus, v1f Poisson’s ratio for bending stress in I the moment of inertia
x direction and contraction/expansion in y direction, v2f Poisson’s ratio Pv the design vacuum pressure
for bending stress in y direction and contraction/expansion in x direc- Ls half the distance from the centerline of the stiffening
tion and PA the allowable external pressure. The design length, L is ring to the next line of support on one side, plus half of
defined as the greatest of the following: the centerline distance to the next line of support on the
other side of the stiffening ring (both measured parallel
1. The distance between head tangent lines plus one-third the
to the axis of the cylinder)
depth of each formed head, if there are no stiffening rings
Fv 5, the design factor for elastic stability
(excluding conical heads and sections).
Eh the hoop modulus of the sitffening ring laminate
2. The distance between cone-to-cylinder junctions for vessels
with cone or conical heads if there are no stiffening rings. A line of support, Ls, is defined as follows:
3. The greatest center-to-center distance between any two adja-
cent stiffening rings. (1) a stiffening ring that meets the requirements of this paragraph;
4. The distance from the center of the first stiffening ring to the (2) a circumferential line on a head at one-third the depth of the
formed head tangent line plus one-third the depth of the head from the tangent line; or
formed head (excluding conical heads and sections), all mea- (3) a cone-to-cylinder junction.
sured parallel to the axis of the vessel.
The ring will be made of the same laminate, except for thick-
5. The distance from the first stiffening in the cylinder to the
ness, as the shell. Thus E2 1.785 106 psi. With t 0.932 in.,
cone-cylinder junction.
D0 120 2(0.932) 121.846 in. The design length for use in
In the current example, one-third the depth of a head is 7.27 in., Equation (26.73), Ls 41.26 in., the same as the shell design
the distance from the bottom tangent line to the top of the support length.
ring is 27.5 in. and the tangent line to tangent line length of the
10 * 41.26 * (121.846)3 * 5
shell is 144 in. Then the design length for the upper part of the I = = 87.113 in4
shell is 144 7.27 27.5 123.77 in. Taking the shell thick- 24 * 1.785 * 106
FIG. 26.32 VACUUM-STIFFENING RING SECTION

26-40 • Chapter 26
R the inside shell radius

Wt the total weight given in Table 26.31
Thus:
5 * 60 98,725 lb
Nax = + = 411.88
2 2p * 60 in. (26.79)
Inserting this value in equation (26.76) gives

411.88
No particular ring section is required by RTP-1. Perhaps the t1 = = 0.257 in.
16,000 (26.80)
most common section is a trapezoid, an example of which is
10
sketched in Fig. 26.32. The dimensions shown result in a moment
of inertia of 108.7 in.4 about an axis parallel to the vessel axis and
through the centroid of the section. It was computed by ordinary Hoop stress therefore governs, requiring a thickness of 0.499 in.
methods. The moment of inertia includes the attachment, the shell For simplicity, the entire shell will have the same thickness of
wall under the trapezoid, and the attachment laminate. The wall 0.909 in. The external pressure design length of the lower shell is
thickness of the ring is 0.28 in., with a lamination sequence of 27.5 in., which is less than 41.26 in. (the design length of the
MM,2(MR), M. upper shell). Thus, if the shell segments are of the same thickness,
A common way of building the ring is from a core of low- the lower shell would be adequate for the design external pres-
density rigid foam, which is attached to the vessel with an adhe- sure. The MAWP of the lower shell segment is calculated as
sive. Then, the ring is laid up over the core. The core is usually so before:
light that it does not contribute to strength or stiffness, but it is left
in the ring nevertheless. Sut 16,000 * 0.909
MAWP = = Phyd = - 8.31
The maximum allowable design pressure for the upper part of RF 60 * 10
the shell is obtained by solving the t 2 equation, which governs the
internal pressure, for P and inserting the values for this example = 15.93 psi
(26.81)
as follows:
Sut 16,000 * 0.932 Thus a shell that has a lamination sequence of V, 2M, 3[3(MR),
MAWP = - Phyd = - 6.99 = 24.9 psi
RF 60 * 10 M (0.909 in. thick), as well as two vacuum rings as shown in Fig.
26.32, satisfies the RTP-1 requirements.
(26.75)
In the portion of the shell below the upper surface of the sup- 26.10.4 Design of the Bottom Head
port ring, the axial load is the sum of the weight of the vessel con- The top head will be subjected to a hydrostatic pressure of
tents, the weight of the vessel below the support, and the force 9.33 psig (from Table 26.30) combined with the design pressure
from the internal design pressure. (Table 26.31 lists the sum of of 5 psig to give a total pressure of P 14.33 psig. The external
these weights.) At the bottom of the shell, the total pressure is the design pressure is 10 psig. It will have the same geometry as the
hydrostatic pressure of 8.31 psig (from Table 26.30) plus the top head: torispherical, with a 120 in. crown radius, a 6% knuckle
design pressure of 5 psig, which sums to 13.31 psig. At the upper radius, and a 120 in. head diameter. The required thickness for
part of the shell, the required thickness for internal pressure and internal pressure is as follows:
contents weight is the greater of t1 and t2, where
0.885 PRcF 0.885 * 14.33 * 120 * 10
Nax tr = = = 0.919 in.
t1 = Su 16,000
Su (26.76)
(26.82)
F
and
The required thickness for external pressure is the same as for
PR 13.31 * 60 the top head—that is, 1.223 in.—and has a lamination sequence
t2 = = = 0.499 in.
Su 16,000 (26.77) of V, MM, 4[3(MR), M], M. From Section 26.7, the pressure
F 10 capacity of the head is 18.43 psi. Thus the MAWP is 18.43
9.33 9.10 psig.
Nax is the axial membrane stress resultant and is given by the

following equation: 26.10.5 Support Ring Design
The weight of the entire vessel and its contents are computed
PdR Wt by ordinary methods. The total weight of 103,327 lb must be sup-
Nax = + ported by the ring. The ring, in turn, is supported by eight evenly
2 2pR (26.78)
spaced lugs that mate with building steel, forming the edge of the
where octagonal opening that the vessel occupies. Figure 26.33 is a
Pd the design pressure sketch of a cross section of the ring. In this example, the

FIG. 26.33 SUPPORT-RING CROSS SECTION
Fabricator rolls the ring from a structural channel. (The ring is

c cos (f - a) d
WR f sin a fe
usually made in two halves connected with bolted splices.) The Mt = - - a +
2p sin f R (26.84)
vessel is built; then, the FRP-support and -retainer bands are
installed on the vessel. The ring is assembled onto the vessel
either on the site or in the Fabricator’s shop.
RTP-1, paragraph NM5-400 provides a method for designing where
the ring in Nonmandatory Appendix NM-5 (Ring Support of W the total supported weight
Vessels). The bending moment, Mb, and the twisting moment, Mv, R a, f = the geometric quantities defined by Fig. 26.34
at Section A in Fig. 26.34 are given by the following equations:
Note that the angle 2f is the angular separation between lugs
c sin (f - a) d
WR f cos a fe and that a locates a section of the ring. Given that there are N
Mb = - - 1 -
2p sin f R (26.83) lugs, f 180/N deg. The quantity e, the eccentricity of the lug
forces, is the radial distance from the line of action of the support
force to the shear center of the ring section, as shown in Fig.
26.35. The bending stress, j/b, and the torsional shear stress, t, are
then given as follows:
Mb
sb =
Zb (26.85)
and
Mt
t =
Zt (26.86)
where
Zb the bending section modulus of the ring about a radial
centroidal axis
Zt the torsional section modulus
For relatively thin-walled open sections, such as a rolled chan-
nel, Zt is well approximated by the torsional stiffness constant J
divided by the thickest part of the section wall. A good indicator
of yield in a steel channel is the von Mises stress, svm, obtained
from the bending and shear stresses by the following equation:
FIG. 26.34 GEOMETRIC QUANTITIES IN THE STRESS

svm = 2s2b + 3t2
ANALYSIS OF THE RING (26.87)

26-42 • Chapter 26
FIG. 26.35 VON MISES STRESS IN THE SUPPORT RING
Thus, for a given ring, the von Mises stress is given as a func- WRÆ
tion of a by equation (26.87). To verify the design of the ring, it is svm =
Zb (26.88)
necessary to find the section at which svm is greatest.
For the present example, W 103,327 lb, R 62 in., and N
8. Then f 180/8 22.5 deg. A candidate section is a C15 In the present case, Zb /Zt 13.113 and e/R 0.968. Figure
50 structural channel [11]. This channel has a moment of inertia NM5-8 is the chart for eight lugs; it yields Æ 0.15 for this
of 404 in. 4 and is 15 in. high. Then Zb 404/7.5 53.87 in.3, choice of Zb/Zt and e/R. The maximum von Mises stress is thus:
the torsional constant J 2.67 in.4, and the thickness for com-
103,327 * 62 * 0.15
puting Zt is 0.65 in. Thus Zt 2.67/0.65 4.108 in.3, and the svm = = 17,840 psi
shear center is 0.583 in. radially inward from the back of the 53.87 (26.88)
channel. Setting e 6 in. gives a reasonable allowance for the lug
design and clearance between the ring and building steel. Figure
26.35 is a plot of svm as a function of a for this set of values. 26.10.6 Vessel MAWP
The value of a for which svm is greatest is a = 14.28 deg., The MAWP is listed in Table 26.32 for each pressure-containing
where svm = 17,840 psi. The channel would be composed of component. The MAWP for the entire vessel is 9.10 psig, the least
A36 steel, which has a yield strength of 36,000 psi. A normal of those listed, and the maximum allowable external pressure is
allowable stress is 23 of the yield or 24,000 psi, of which the actual 10 psig, governed by the stiffening rings. The reason why the
stress is 74.3%. Thus the ring section is acceptable. MAWP is so much higher than the design pressure is that external
Computations for the maximum von Mises stress were done by pressure governs the design of all the components, requiring
using Mathcad. Figures NM5-6, NM5-7, and NM5-8 in RTP-1 greater component thicknesses than the internal pressure.
are design charts for streamlining this process. They plot a stress
function, Æ, as a function of Zb / Zt for various e/R, and there is a
separate chart for each number of lugs. The stress is then given by
the following equation:
26.11 QUALITY ASSURANCE OF SECTION
X AND RTP-1 VESSELS
26.11.1 Introduction
Manufacturers of both RTP-1 and Section X vessels are gov-
erned by stringent quality assurance systems that are certified by
the ASME. The shops themselves must have written quality con-
trol procedures and be accredited by the ASME. All vessel con-
struction must be done in accordance with a detailed procedure
specification; moreover, each vessel design must be qualified
either by testing (in the case of Section X, Class I or Class III) or
by design calculations backed by measured laminate properties (in
the cases of RTP-1 and Section X, Class II). Design calculations
for RTP-1 and Section X, Class II vessels must be certified by a

Registered Professional Engineer. Completed vessels must be tered Professional Engineer and the need for any changes to such
inspected by an individual certified by the ASME. documents to be approved by the Registered Professional Engineer.
Although both RTP-1 and Section X necessarily use similar The Fabricator’s Quality Control System also provides those indi-
quality assurance methods, ASME requirements from the two viduals building the vessel with other information not governed by
documents are not identical; although they accomplish the same the Code. The Foreword to Section X (and all other Codebook sec-
purpose by very similar means, they differ in detail. In the follow- tions) states that “the Code does not address all aspects of these
ing paragraphs, Section X requirements are considered first, fol- activities.”
lowed by those of RTP-1. (d) Production Flow and In-Plant Inspection and Checkoff The
system includes a basic production-flow procedure, including in-
26.11.2 Section X Quality Assurance plant inspection procedures and checkoff points as well as a
Section X contains requirements for the Fabricator’s quality means of documenting them. The purpose of this aspect of the
control system, vessel manufacturing procedure specification, and system is to guarantee that the Procedure Specification on the
inspection and testing. These three aspects of quality control are drawing is actually implemented. An example of a Procedure
each discussed in turn below. Specification is given below.
(e) Material Receiving Control and Identity Before and during
26.11.2.1 Fabricator’s Quality Control System The Fabriator’s fabrication, a system of material control ensures that the material
Quality Control System must be maintained to ensure that the ves- used complies with the applicable specifications and procedures.
sels he or she builds satisfy all Section X requirements. The The system provides documentation that the proper material is
Fabricator must also maintain a quality control manual that used in fabrication.
describes his or her system. The manual is reviewed by the ASME ( f ) Nonconforming Materials, Components, and Repairs All
team that originally accredits the Fabricator’s shop and must be nonconformities, including materials, components, and fabrication
available for review by the Authorized Inspector as a part of his or errors, are identified and documented. Components that fail to
her vessel inspections. The manual, which may contain proprietary meet the required standards may be repaired if the proposed repair
information, is not required to be distributed. As Section X states, is approved by the design engineer and by the Inspector before the
repair is begun. If the repair is not approved, the component is
It is intended that information learned about the system (The rejected. Some repairs may be required to satisfy Purchaser’s
Fabricator’s Quality Control System) in connection with the requirements that are not governed by the Code. For example,
evaluation will be treated as confidential and that all loaned excessive air bubbles in an FRP corrosion barrier would violate the
descriptions will be returned to the Fabricator upon comple- Purchaser’s specification, not Section X. Because repairing the
tion of the evaluation. barrier would not affect the pressure containment, the Registered
Professional Engineer and the Inspector would not be required to
Thus the ASME team that accredits the shop may borrow the approve the repair. Another example is a misplaced nozzle, for
manual, but must return it and not reveal the contents. The which the Code does not require a repair to be made. However, the
Authorized Inspector5 has access to the manual during the visits repair would affect the pressure containment, so in this case both
to the Fabricator’s facility, but does not retain a copy. Section X the Registered Professional Engineer and the Inspector would
does not require that the manual be available to Purchasers; there- need to approve the repair. If there is doubt, the prudent Fabricator
fore, if a Purchaser wishes to review the manual, the Fabricator would consult the Inspector to determine whether a given repair
must agree to let the Purchaser read it. needs his or her approval in addition to the Registered Professional
The complexity of the Quality Control System and manual Engineer’s approval. After all, it is the Inspector who decides
depend greatly on the size and complexity of the Fabricator’s whether a particular vessel may be stamped.
operations and the kind of equipment that the Fabricator builds. It (g) Resin Control Good resin control is essential to vessel qual-
should be appropriate to the Fabricator’s circumstances. Although ity. The Quality Control System contains resin specification and
the Code does not have a long, detailed set of requirements for mixing procedures; procedures for the storage, handling, and dis-
Fabricators’ Quality Control Systems, it does have an outline of posal of resins, catalysts, fillers, pigments, and promoters; and a
features to be included in the manual. These are as follows: procedure for identifying resin during fabrication.
(a) Authority and Responsibility This section defines the (h) Assembly, Fit-Up, and Dimensions Control Documentation
authority and responsibility of those in charge of the Quality of methods for assembly, fit-up, dimensional checks, and adhesive
Control System. These individuals must have well-defined respon- bonding of vessel components are included in the Quality Control
sibilities as well as the authority and freedom to identify and remedy System. The system may also contain procedures for dimensional
quality control problems. control not required by the Code, such as tolerances on nozzle
(b) Organization The manual contains an organization chart placement.
that shows the relationship among engineering, quality control, (i) Calibration of Measurement and Test Equipment The
purchasing, production, testing, inspection, and management per- Fabricator maintains a system, including documentation, for the
sonnel. A small shop may have combined functions, such as qual- calibration of all examination, measuring, and test equipment
ity control, testing, and inspection vested in one person, and used to show compliance with Code requirements. A description
therefore may have a very simple organization chart. of the system is included in the Quality Control System manual.
(c) Drawings, Design Calculations, and Specifications For both (j) Forms The Quality Control System manual contains sample
Class I. II and III vessels, the Quality Control System has proce- forms for documenting all system procedures that must be
dures to ensure that the latest revisions of drawings, procedures and followed. Pages 208–242 of Section X display many of these
specifications required by Section X are used for fabrication, forms. The Fabricator must, however, compose his or her own
inspection, and testing. For Class II vessels, the system also forms as well, such as those for documenting resin receipt, stor-
includes reference to the design documents certified by a Regis age, and use.

26-44 • Chapter 26
(k) Authorized Inspector As stated previously, the Inspector has Item III documents the test report that establishes the engineer-
access to the Quality Control System manual. In addition, he or ing constants used in design calculation for the vessel.
she has access to the design documents and records governed by Item IV documents the design qualification for the top head.
the Code that are relevant to the vessels to be inspected. The date the vessel was tested, the design and acceptance test
numbers, and the version of Section X are all given. Item IV(A)
26.11.2.2 Accreditation of a Fabricator The ASME authorizes lists the type and batch numbers of the reinforcing fiber forms,
a Fabricator’s shop to place the RP Section X) Symbol Stamp on as well as the resin and its catalyst and promoter. With this data,
vessels. The authorizing of shops is governed by the ASME Board all materials could be traced through the Fabricator’s receiving
on Conformity Assessment, not by the B&PV Code itself. The reports and back to the Material Manufacturer’s certifications
Board sends a team to a candidate Fabricator to deter mine and quality control data. The catalyst and promoter are chemi-
whether his or her shop can produce vessels in conformity with cals mixed with the resin just before it is used that initiate the
Section X. The team examines the Quality Control System, the cross-linking reaction that transforms the resin from a thick liq-
Procedure Specifications, and the fabrication work in progress; uid to a solid. In this case, the catalyst is benzoyl peroxide; the
then recommends to the Board whether to authorize the shop. promoter, dimethylaniline. Other catalysts and promoters are
Authorizations must be renewed every three years. used to cure vinyl ester resin. Item IV(B) gives the resin data
that the Fabricator collects for each different batch of resin. The
26.11.2.3 Example of a Procedure Specification The Procedure values in the example are typical of vinyl ester resins. Item
Specification for Class II vessels is defined by completing Form IV(C), (D), and (E) each record the results of quality checks and
Q-120, found on pages 219-228 of Section X. Form Q-120 has the inspections, and (F) shows the certification by a representative
following three parts: of the Fabricator and Inspector that the vessel part satisfies
Section X.
• Part I (Fabrication): This part must be completed for each Part II of Form Q-120 is a similar compilation for the overlay
separately fabricated vessel part, including nozzle necks and that joins the top head to the shell. There are, however, two
nozzle flanges. It specifies the materials, ply sequence, ply important differences. The first is that Part II(B) specifies the sur-
orientation, and procedures used to fabricate the vessel part. face preparation for the joint by referencing a procedure in the
Part I must be accompanied by Parts II and III. Fabricator’s Quality Control Manual. The second is that there are
• Part II (Assembly) This part must be completed for every sec- two lamination sequences, for part of the overlay could be (but is
ondary lay-up process required to join vessel parts. It lists the not required to be) on the inside of the vessel while the rest is on
materials, dimensions, and ply sequences of each secondary the outside. Vessels with FRP corrosion barriers will always have
overlay, including not only head-to-shell joints between sep at least the corrosion-barrier overlay part on the inside.
arate shell courses, but also overlays used to install nozzles, Part III of Form Q-120 provides a list of all Procedure
flange-nozzle neck connections, and opening-reinforcing Specifications for the parts and joint overlays in the vessel. It also
pads. Part II must be accompanied by Parts I and III. contains the certification by the Authorized Inspector that the ves-
• Part III (Summary) This part compiles a list of procedures used sel satisfies Section X and may receive the Section X RP Symbol
to fabricate individual vessel parts and join them into a com- Stamp.
pleted vessel. Part III must be accompanied by Parts I and II. An actual Form Q-120 would be much longer than the one
presented in Appendix 26.C. In addition to having eighteen
Appendix 26.C shows a Form Q-120 Procedure Specification overlays, the example vessel has fourteen parts for which Q-
for the Section X design example presented in Section 26.7. 120, Part I Forms would be required. Each part is four pages
Item I in Part I identifies the vessel, the vessel part for which long, so the complete form would be 4 (14 18) 1 129
the procedure is to be done, and the Fabricator, User, and pages long. Besides the Form Q-120, there are material-receiv-
Registered Professional Engineer who certify the design. It also ing reports, mechanical-property test reports, resin test records,
gives the procedure number, the procedure date, and the date the inspection records, the acoustic-emission (AE) test report, and
part was fabricated. the design report. Documentation for a Section X vessel is
Item II defines the essential design variables: the reinforcing voluminous.
fiber types; the resin, catalyst, and promoter; the laminate Procedure Specifications for the various types of Class I vessels
sequence; and the method of resin cure. In the top head, there are are similar to one another.
three types of reinforcement—a C-glass veil on the inner surface,
a 1.5 oz/ft randomly oriented mat, and a 24 oz/yd woven roving— 26.11.3 RTP-1 Quality Assurance
after which the ply sequence is stated. The orientation defines the Quality assurance and shop-accreditation requirements for
direction of the weave of the woven-roving relative to the vessel RTP-1 are very similar to those for Section X, especially Section
axis. The woven-roving in the example has four fiber bundles per X, Class II. The similarity is not surprising because both RTP-1
in. in one direction and five per in. in the perpendicular direction. and Section X use the same materials and manufacturing methods
The direction of the four-per-in. bundle coincides with the E1 and both also require accreditation by an ASME survey team
modulus direction. An orientation of 0 deg. aligns this direction before vessels are stamped. In addition, both require a Quality
with the vessel axis. Control System with a written manual, as well as thorough docu-
Item II(B)(3) states that the resin will be cured at room tempera- mentation of the design, fabrication, testing, and inspection of
ture, without a post-cure; (B)(4) gives the design Barcol hardness every vessel that receives the ASME mark. RTP-1 and Section X
as 40 5; (B)(5) is not applicable; and (B)(6) lists the design- both result in about the same amount of documentation for ves-
reinforcing fiber content as 41.1% 1% by weight. sels of similar complexity.

There are, however, a few significant differences, four of which 26.12 REFERENCES
are as follows:
1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section X, Riber-Reinforced
Plastic Pressure Vessels; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
• As part of the accreditation process, the Fabricator must build
a demonstration vessel to show that his or her shop can build 2. ASME RTP-1, Reinforced Thermoset Plastic Corrosion-Resistant
equipment that satisfies RTP-1. Though small, the vessel has Equipment; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
challenging design details, including a tangential nozzle and a 3. Beckwith, S. W., Filament Winding—The String and the Glue,
body flange. The vessel must be available to the ASME team Composite Fabricators Association Web site: http://www.cfahq.org/
that surveys the shop. documents/StringandGlue.doc.
• The Fabricator must produce demonstration laminates of 4. Murphy, J., The Reinforced Plastics Handbook, Elsevier Science
every type of all laminates that he or she needs to produce Publishers, 1994, p. 356.
and must conduct tests to determine their mechanical prop-
er ties. The test values must meet the values set by RTP-1. 5. Tsai, S. W., and Hahn, H. T., Introduction to Composite Materials,
Technomic Publishing Co., Westport, CT, 1980, p. 280f.
• Inspection personnel are different, as exemplified by the
RTP-1, Article 1-400 passage reproduced in Section 26.9. 6. Nielsen, L. E., Mechanical Properties of Polymers, Reinhold
• Bonders and laminators are tested and certified. Bonders are Publishing Co., New York, 1962, p. 11.
craftspeople who join FRP parts by means of secondary bonded 7. RTP-1, Mandatory Appendix M-11; The American Society of
overlays, whereas laminators are craftspeople who build the lam- Mechanical Engineers.
inates. To be certified, both must produce sample work according
8. ASME Section X, Article RG-113; The American Society of
to written procedures. The sample work is then tested; if it is Mechanical Engineers.
found satisfactory, the bonder or laminator may, by using the
written procedures, produce parts for a stamped vessel. 9. ASME Section X, Article RG-121; The American Society of
Mechanical Engineers.
26.11.4 Summary 10. Reissner, E., “Stresses and Small Displacements of Shallow Spherical
The quality assurance provisions of both Section X and RTP-1 Shells, II,” Journal of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 25, No. 4, 1947,
standards ensure that vessels that receiving the ASME mark—RP pp. 279–300.
for Section X, RTP for RTP-1—are built according to either of 11. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), Manual of Steel
these standards. Such vessels have high-quality design and fabri- Construction, Allowable Sress Design, 9th ed., pp. 1–40.
cation and provide long, reliable service.

26-46 • Chapter 26
APPENDIX 26.A
UBRS FOR RTP-1 EXAMPLE 1

ASME RTP-1-2011

Page 1 or 4
UBSR Revision No. 0

450 Elm Street
Dekalb, Illinois

125 Broadway
St. Louis, Missouri


[ ]
[ ]

26-48 • Chapter 26
ASME RTP-1-2011
Table 1-1 User’s Basic Requirements Specification (UBRS) (Cont’d)

Page 2 of 4
UBRS Revision No. 0
[ ] Additional inspection aids/methods (refer to para. 6-940(c) of ASME RTP-1)
3. Material Selection
3.1 Material selection by:
[ ] Resin manufacturer (include data per section 4 of this document)
[ ] Fabricator (include data per section 4 of this document)
[X] End User. Applicable User’s specifications/standards, codes, ordinances, FDA
requirements, etc. (list and specify; attach copies of local code/ordinances
requirements) Universal Chemical Inc. Specification Std. 48-09 "FRP Equipment"
[ ] Other
3.2 Material of construction:
Resin Derakane 470 Catalyst/cure system Fabricator's Choice
Veil C-glass veil Barcol hardness per para. 6-910(b)(4) 30
[X] Lift lugs: [ ] RTP [X] Carbon steel [ ] Other
[X] Hold down lugs: [ ] RTP [x] Carbon steel [ ] Other
4. Chemical service data (must be provided when Fabricator or resin manufacturer is making
material selection)
4.1 Description of process function and process sequence:
4.2 Contents:
Concentration
Chemical Name Max. % Min. % Exposure Time
4.3 pH range: max. min.
5. Design
5.1 Design Conditions:
Operating Design
Internal Pressure 0 0
External Pressure 0 0
Temperature 150°F 150°F
Specific gravity 1.2 1.2
Liquid Level Top of shell Top of shell

ASME RTP-1-2011

Page 3 of 4
UBRS Revision No. 0
Wind/seismic/snow code (include edition or year) ASCE-7/IBC-07

Basic wind speed 90 MPH Classification category Exposure C
Elevation above grade 0 ft Topographic factors Flat
Seismic zone 0 Site-specific seismic information (soil type,ground
Motion coefficients, etc.)
Snow load 20 psf
Capacities: Operating gal Flooded
5.2 Mechanical Agitator: [ ] Required [X] Not Required

Dead load lb
Static Bending moment ft-lb
Dynamic bending moment ft-lb
Torque ft-lb
Horsepower hp
Impeller speed RPM Impeller diameter in.
Number of impellers Foot bearing: [ ] Yes [ ] No
5.3 Heating and cooling:
[ ] Electric panels
[ ] Steam coil
[ ] Steam sparger
[ ] Heat exchanger
[ ] Other
5.4 Mechanical and other forces:
[ ] Violent chemical reaction
[ ] Subsurface introduction of gas or vapor
[ ] Subsurface introduction of steam
[ ] Transmitted mechanical load/force
[ ] Impact due to introduction of solids
[ ] Vacuum from pump down (or vessel draining)
[ ] Vacuum from cool down
[ ] Other
5.5 Corrosion barrier excluded from structural calculations:
[X] Yes
[ ] No
5.6 Declaration of critical service (only by User or User’s Agent; refer to para. 1-210 of ASME
RTP-1):
[ ] Yes
[X] No
6. Designation of Inspector (Review paras. 1-400, 1-430, and 1-440 of ASME RTP-1. It must
recognized that ASME RTP-1 establishes numerous duties for the Inspector, which
necessitates that the Inspector be present in the fabrication shop throughout a major portion
of the fabrication interval.). Inspector shall be:
[ ] Fabricator’s Quality Control principal
[X] User’s representative
[ ] Other

26-50 • Chapter 26
ASME RTP-1-2011
Table 1-1 Users Basic Requirements Specification (UBRS) (Cont’d)

Page 4 of 4
UBRS Revision No. 0
Inspector’s name Ralph Query Telephone 608-111-0002

Company Thermoset Consulting
Address 125 Broadway
St. Louis, Mo.
7. Approval of UBRS
7.1 Authorized User’s representative:
Name Title
Signature Date
7.2 Authorized Fabricator’s representative:

Name Title
Signature Date
Additional requirements:
GENERAL NOTE: This form may be reproduced and used without written permission from ASME if
used for purposes other than republication.


26-52 • Chapter 26
APPENDIX 26.B
UBRS FOR RTP-1 EXAMPLE 2

ASME RTP-1-2011

Page 1 or 4
UBSR Revision No. 0

450 Elm Street
Dekalb, Illinois

125 Broadway
St. Louis, Missouri


[ ]
[ ]

26-54 • Chapter 26
ASME RTP-1-2011

Page 2 of 4
UBRS Revision No. 0
[ ] Additional inspection aids/methods (refer to para. 6-940(c) of ASME RTP-1)
3. Material Selection
3.1 Material selection by:
[ ] Resin manufacturer (include data per section 4 of this document)
[ ] Fabricator (include data per section 4 of this document)
[X] End User. Applicable User’s specifications/standards, codes, ordinances, FDA
requirements, etc. (list and specify; attach copies of local code/ordinances
requirements) Universal Chemical Inc. Specification Std. 48-09 "FRP Equipment"
[ ] Other
3.2 Material of construction:
Resin Derakane 470 Catalyst/cure system Fabricator's Choice
Veil C-glass veil Barcol hardness per para. 6-910(b)(4) 30
[X] Lift lugs: [ ] RTP [X] Carbon steel [ ] Other
[X] Hold down lugs: [ ] RTP [x] Carbon steel [ ] Other
4. Chemical service data (must be provided when Fabricator or resin manufacturer is making
material selection)
4.1 Description of process function and process sequence:
4.2 Contents:
Concentration
Chemical Name Max. % Min. % Exposure Time
4.3 pH range: max. min.
5. Design
5.1 Design Conditions:
Operating Design
Internal Pressure 0.5 psig 5 psig
External Pressure 4 psig 10 psig
Temperature 120°F 120°F
Specific gravity 1.4 1.4
Liquid Level Full full

ASME RTP-1-2011

Page 3 of 4
UBRS Revision No. 0
Wind/seismic/snow code (include edition or year) Indoor tank

Basic wind speed MPH Classification category Exposure
Elevation above grade 0 ft Topographic factors Flat
Seismic zone 0 Site-specific seismic information (soil type,ground
Motion coefficients, etc.)
Snow load 20 psf
Capacities: Operating gal Flooded
5.2 Mechanical Agitator: [ ] Required [X] Not Required

Dead load lb
Static Bending moment ft-lb
Dynamic bending moment ft-lb
Torque ft-lb
Horsepower hp
Impeller speed RPM Impeller diameter in.
Number of impellers Foot bearing: [ ] Yes [ ] No
5.3 Heating and cooling:
[ ] Electric panels
[ ] Steam coil
[ ] Steam sparger
[ ] Heat exchanger
[ ] Other
5.4 Mechanical and other forces:
[ ] Violent chemical reaction
[ ] Subsurface introduction of gas or vapor
[ ] Subsurface introduction of steam
[ ] Transmitted mechanical load/force
[ ] Impact due to introduction of solids
[ ] Vacuum from pump down (or vessel draining)
[ ] Vacuum from cool down
[ ] Other
5.5 Corrosion barrier excluded from structural calculations:
[X] Yes
[ ] No
5.6 Declaration of critical service (only by User or User’s Agent; refer to para. 1-210 of ASME
RTP-1):
[ ] Yes
[X] No
6. Designation of Inspector (Review paras. 1-400, 1-430, and 1-440 of ASME RTP-1. It must
recognized that ASME RTP-1 establishes numerous duties for the Inspector, which
necessitates that the Inspector be present in the fabrication shop throughout a major portion
of the fabrication interval.). Inspector shall be:
[ ] Fabricator’s Quality Control principal
[X] User’s representative
[ ] Other

26-56 • Chapter 26
ASME RTP-1-2011
Table 1-1 Users Basic Requirements Specification (UBRS) (Cont’d)

Page 4 of 4
UBRS Revision No. 0
Inspector’s name Ralph Query Telephone 608-111-0002

Company Thermoset Consulting
Address 125 Broadway
St. Louis, Mo.
7. Approval of UBRS
7.1 Authorized User’s representative:
Name Title
Signature Date
7.2 Authorized Fabricator’s representative:

Name Title
Signature Date
Additional requirements:
GENERAL NOTE: This form may be reproduced and used without written permission from ASME if
used for purposes other than republication.


26-58 • Chapter 26
APPENDIX 26.C
EXAMPLE PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION FOR A SECTION X VESSEL


26-60 • Chapter 26


26-62 • Chapter 26


26-64 • Chapter 26


26-66 • Chapter 26


26-68 • Chapter 26

26-70 • Chapter 26

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CHAPTER

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26.2.1 FRP-Composite Materials

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FIG. 26.2 WOVEN-ROVING REINFORCING GLASS

direction and four in the horizontal direction. The woven-roving

Filament-Wound Lamina The following brief description of

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26.2.1.1 Notation for Laminate Sequences As stated previously,

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26.2.1.1 Notation for Laminate Sequences As stated previously,

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FIG. 26.4 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A CHOPPER GUN

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FIG. 26.5 FILAMENT WINDING

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high enough speed for the centrifugal force to press the

26.3.5 Joining Vessel Parts

FIG. 26.7 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

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FIG. 26.8 RTP-1–STYLE BUTT JOINT

FIG. 26.9 BELL-AND-SPIGOT JOINT

lay to be wide enough to provide adequate shear strength to carry

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FIG. 26.13 NORMAL STRESS IN LOAD DIRECTION FOR EXTENSIONAL STRAIN

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FIG. 26.15 NORMAL STRESS FROM BENDING LOAD IN BENDING DIRECTION

FIG. 26.16 NORMAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN DIRECTION PERPENDICULAR TO BENDING

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smi sfi 1 R2d sxsy sy 2

This criterion is scientifically better than the others in the two

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FIG. 26.17 INTERNAL PRESSURE SCOPE FOR SECTION X VESSELS

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TABLE 26.9b SECTION X, CLASS III QUALIFICATION TESTS

Qualification Test Criteria

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Finally an acoustic emission examination is performed during

26.6.4 Design Qualifications of RTP-1 Vessels

26.6.5 Design Qualification Overview

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Table 1-1 User’s Basic Requirements Specification (UBRS)

RTP Edition No. 2011

UBSR Revision No. 0

User firm name Universal Chemical, Inc.

User’s Agent firm name Thermoset Consulting

Title of equipment Process Vessel

User’s designation no. Equipment Number 1-075

Installation location (name and address) Universal Chemical, Inc.

UBRS prepared by (User or User’s Agent):

Name P. J. Comstock Phone no. 314-999-0001 Date January 3, 2012

Address Thermoset Consulting

1. Equipment description (equipment sketch and nozzle schedule must be attached):

2. Additional Fabricator responsibilities:

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Where For this choice of values:

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E2  the tensile hoop modulus

E2 the tensile hoop modulus

ness as the minimum required for internal pressure, D0 120

R the inside shell radius