CHAPTER 6 : POLYNOMIALS

||||||||||2021/2022||||||||||||

CHAPTER 6:
LEARNING OUTCOMES
POLYNOMIALS
6.1 Polynomials At the end of this topic, students should be able to :
(a) perform addition, subtraction and multiplication of
polynomials.
(b) perform division of polynomials.
6.2 Remainder At the end of this topic, students should be able to :
Theorem, Factor (a) apply the remainder and factor theorems to solve problems.
Theorem and Zeroes (b) find the roots of the equations and the zeroes of a
of Polynomial polynomial.
6.3 Partial Fractions At the end of this topic, students should be able to :
(a) construct partial fractions decomposition when the
denominators are in the form of
i. a linear factor, ax  b ;
ii. a repeated linear factor, (ax  b) n ;

iii. a quadratic factor, ax 2  bx  c that cannot be factorized.

1
 6.1 POLYNOMIALS

6.1 (a) PERFORM ADDITION, SUBSTRACTION AND MULTIPLICATION OF

POLYNOMIALS

1. A polynomial in x is a sum of the form ax n  bx n1  cx n2  ...  dx  e

# a, b, c,… are real numbers and the power must be positive

integers.

2. More information about polynomials:

Example Degree Name

3 0 constant
3x 1 linear
3x 2  4 x 2 quadratic

3x 3  4 x 2  6 3 cubic

10 x 4  4 x 2  7 x  5 4 quartic

** The power of x in a polynomial must be a positive integer

3. The algebraic operations on polynomials (  ,  ,  and  )

Example 1:
Given M ( x)  5x  7 and N ( x)  2 x  1 , find
a. M ( x)  N ( x) b. N ( x)  M ( x) c. 2 N ( x)  3M ( x)
a. b.

c.

2
Example 2:
Given P( x)  x 2  2 x  1 and Q( x)  3x  2 .Find P( x)  Q( x) and simplify.

6.1 (b) PERFORM DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS

4. To perform division of polynomials

P(x) ………… Polynomial

D(x) ……….. Divisor
Q(x) ……….. Quotient
R(x) ………… Remainder

Prior knowledge:

7 3 ? 7 1 7 1
2  2
2 3 3 3 3
3 7
6
1

3
 7 1
 2
3 3
P( x) R( x)
 Q( x) 
D( x) D( x)

P( x) R( x)
 Q( x )  .........................(1)
D( x ) D( x )

P( x) R( x)
 D( x)  Q( x) D( x)  D( x) or
D( x) D( x)
We also can write:
P( x)  Q( x) D( x)  R( x)

7 1
2
3 3
7  2(3)  1
P( x)  Q( x) D( x)  R( x)

P( x)  Q( x) D( x)  R( x)..................................(2)

** In polynomial
division, the quotient
and the remainder can
be found by long
division.
4
Example 3:
Find the quotient and the remainder when (long division)
a. x 5
3
x26x3is divided by x  3
b. 6 x 3  2 x 2  7 x  5 is divided by x  1
c. 4 x3  12 x2  31x  37 is divided by 2 x  3
d. 7  6 x 2  2 x 4 is divided by x 2  5

Solution a. STEP 1

 x ( x  3)
2

x  2 x  12 2
 x 3  3x 2
x  3 x 3  5x 2  6 x  3
x 3  3x 2 STEP 2

2x 2  6x  2 x( x  3)
 2x 2  6x
2x  6x
2

 12 x  3 STEP 3

 12 x  36  12( x  3)
39  12 x  36

x 3  5x 2  6 x  3  39 
  x 2  2 x  12    OR
x3  x  3

 
x 3  5 x 2  6 x  3  x 2  2 x  12 x  3  39

5
Solution b. STEP 1
6 x 3  2 x 2  7 x  5 is divided by x  1

STEP 2

STEP 3

6
Solution c.
4 x3  12 x2  31x  37 is divided by 2 x  3

Solution d.
7  6 x 2  2 x 4 is divided by x 2  5

7
6.2 REMAINDER THEOREM, FACTOR THEOREM AND ZEROS OF POLYNOMIALS

6.2 (a) APPLY THE REMAINDER THEOREM TO SOLVE PROBLEM

5. We also can find the remainder by using the Remainder Theorem.

P( x)  Q( x) D( x)  R( x)..................................(2)
Example 4: Find the remainder when

a. 6 x 2  5x  1 is divided by x  1 .
b. 2 x 3  3x 2  4 x  1 is divided by x  4
c. x 3  3x 2  x  2 is divided by 2 x  3
d. 4 x 3  2 x 2  x  4 is divided by 2 x  1
Solution a. Solution b.

Solution c. Solution d.

8
Example 5:
When 4 x 2  3x  5 p is divided by x  2 , the remainder is 3. Find the value
of p .

Example 6:
The expression 4 x 2  px  7 leaves a remainder -2 when divided by
x  3 . Find the value of p .

9
Example 7:
Given that the expression 2 x 3  ax 2  bx  c leaves the same remainder
when divided by x  2 or by x  1 . Prove that a  b  6 .

10
 6.2 (a) APPLY THE FACTOR THEOREM TO SOLVE PROBLEMS

6. The factor theorem state that ( x  a) is a factor of the polynomial P( x)  P(a)  0 . It

means that

a. if ( x  a) is a factor of the polynomial P(x) then P(a)  0

b. if P(a)  0 then ( x  a) is a factor of the polynomial P(x) .

Example 8:

10  5  2

5
SO 2 10
10
0

What is the remainder when 10 is divided with 5?

Example 9: If P( x)  x 2  x  6

let say x  3

P(3)  (3) 2  (3)  6

0
Hence, ( x  3) is a factor of P(x)

In fact, P( x)  ( x  3) ( x  2)

11
So

P( x)  Q( x) D( x)  R( x).........(2) R( x)  0
P( x)  Q( x) D( x)  0
P( x)  Q( x) D( x)....................(3)

Example 10:
Given that  x  3 is a factor of 2 x3  9 x2  7 x  6. Hence, factorize
2 x3  9 x2  7 x  6. completely.

Example 11: Determine whether or not x  1 and x  3 is a factor of

P( x)  2 x 3  x 2  2 x  3 . Hence, factorise P(x) completely.

12
Example 12:
Given that  x  2  and  x  1 are both factors of the polynomial
P  x   2 x3  ax2  bx  5, find the values of the constants a and b .

Example 13: Write each polynomial below as a product of linear factors.

a) P  x   2 x3  x 2  7 x  6 b) P  x   x3  9 x2  24 x  16

a) b)

 2 x2  x  6   x  1   2 x  3 x  2  x  1

13
Example 14:
The polynomial 2 x 3  ax 2  bx  8 has a factor ( x  1) and gives a remainder
of 50 when divided by ( x  3) . Determine the values of a and b .

6.2 (b) FIND THE ROOTS OF THE EQUATIONS AND THE ZEROES OF A
POLYNOMIAL.

7. If P( x)  ( x  a)( x  b)( x  c) , then P(a)  0 , P(b)  0 and P(c)  0 . Therefore

a , b and c are zeroes of the polynomial.

8. The zeroes of the polynomial can be obtained when P(x) is completely factorised and
then solved for zero.

14
9. A polynomial function cannot have more real zeroes than its degree. If P( x)  x  3 ,
there is one zero which is 3. If P( x)  ( x  1)( x  3) , there are two zeroes which are 1
and -3. If P( x)  ( x  2)( x  2) , there is a repeated zero which is 2.

10. For the equation ( x  a)( x  b) ( x  c)  0 , x  a, x  b and x  c are called the roots of
the equation.

Example 15:
Given that P( x)  x 3  2 x 2  5x  6 , factorise the expression
completely and find the zeroes.

let x  1 P( x)  ( x  1) ( x 2  x  6)
P( x)  x 3  2 x 2  5 x  6  ( x  1) ( x  2) ( x  3)
P(1)  (1)  2(1)  5(1)  6
3 2

0 when P( x)  0
( x  1) is a factor ( x  1) ( x  2) ( x  3)  0
x  1, x  2 x  3

x2  x  6
x  1 x 3  2 x 2  5x  6 Zeroes:1,  2 , 3

x3  x2
 x 2  5x
 x2  x
Take Note:
 6x  6
x 1 x  2 x  3
 6x  6
are called the roots of the
equation P( x)  0

15
Example 16:
Find all the zeroes of P( x)  3x 3  11x 2  12 x  4 given that x  2 is
a root of 3x 3  11x 2  12 x  4  0 .

16
Example 17:
Factorise completely P( x)  2 x 3  9 x 2  3x  4 .

17
Example 18:
 
Given P( x)  x x 2  13  12 , express P(x) as a product of linear
factors. Hence solve the equation P( x)  0 .
Solution: By using long division:

By inspection:

18
 6.3 PARTIAL FRACTIONS

1 1 x2
is a proper fraction is a proper rational expression is …………..
2 x 1 x( x  1)
5 x x2  x 1
is an improper fraction is an improper rational expression is …………..
2 x 1 x( x 2  1)
x2 x2  x 1 x
is ………….. is ………….. is …………..
x2 x3 x( x  1)

P( x)
11. If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials, then the rational expression is proper when
Q( x)
the degree of P(x) is less than the degree of Q(x) .

3 2
12. The algebraic fraction  can be expressed as a single fraction.
x  1 2x  1

3 2 3 (2 x  1)  2( x  1)
 
x  1 2x  1 ( x  1) (2 x  1)

6x  3  2x  2

( x  1) (2 x  1)

8x  1

( x  1) (2 x  1)

8x  1
The reverse process is called expressing as partial fractions.
( x  1) (2 x  1)

13. Only a proper rational expression can be expressed as Partial fractions.

14. The procedure for finding the partial fraction decomposition of a rational expression
depends on the factorisation of the denominator of the rational expression. There are 3
cases to consider.

19
15. The denominator consists of……

c. non-repeated linear factor (NRLF)

d. repeated linear factor (RLF)

e. non-repeated quadratic factor that cannot be factorised (NRQF)

6.3.1 NON-REPEATED LINEAR FACTORS

16. If the linear factor is non-repeated in the denominator, then the form of the partial
fraction corresponding to this would be

P( x) A B
 
( x  1)( x  2) ( x  1) ( x  2)

Example 19:
x 1
Express as partial fractions
x  4x  3
2

Check List :

proper or not ……………proper

factorise the denominator ………….. ( x  1)( x  3)
repeat or not…………………………………..non-repeated

Solution:

x 1 A B
  
( x  1)( x  3) ( x  1) ( x  3)

x 1 A ( x  3)  B ( x  1)
 
( x  1)( x  3) ( x  1) ( x  3)

x  1  A ( x  3)  B ( x  1) ………………………………..(2 methods)

20
 Substituting suitable
Comparing the coefficient
values of x
x  1  A ( x  3)  B ( x  1) ……………………….* x  1  A ( x  3)  B ( x  1) ……………………….*
x  1  Ax  3 A  Bx  B
 ( A  B) x  3 A  B
when x  1
LHS RHS
 1  1  A (1  3)  B (1  1)
x 0 : 1 x : 3A  B
0

 2  2A
x1 : 1 x1 : A  B
A  1

when x  3 3 A  B  1.................(1)
 3  1  A (3  3)  B (3  1) A  B  1..................(2)
 4  2 B _____________________ (1)  (2)
B2 2 A  2
A  1...............in to (2)
A B  1
answer
1 B  1
x 1 1 2 B2
 
x  4x  3
2
x 1 x  3

answer

x 1 1 2
 
x  4x  3
2
x 1 x  3

21
Example 20:
x 1
Express as partial fractions.
 x  1 x  2 

22
 6.3.2 REPEATED LINEAR FACTORS

17. If the linear factor is repeated in the denominator, then the form of the partial
fractions corresponding to this would be

P( x) A B
 
( x  1) 2
( x  1) ( x  1) 2
1

P( x) A B C
  
( x  2) ( x  1) 2
( x  2) ( x  1) ( x  1) 2
1

Example 21:
x 1
Express as partial fractions
x  4x  4
2

Check List :

proper or not ……………proper

factorise the denominator ………….. ( x  2)( x  2)  ( x  2) 2
repeat or not…………………………………..repeated

23
Solution:
x 1 A B
  
( x  2) 2
( x  2) 1
( x  2) 2

x 1 A ( x  2)  B
 
( x  2) 2
( x  2) 2

x  1  A( x  2)  B ………………………………..(*)

Substituting suitable Comparing the coefficient

values of x
x  1  A( x  2)  B ……………………….* x  1  Ax  2 A  B ……………………….*

when x  2 LHS RHS

x 0 : 1 x : 2A  B
0

x1 : 1 x1 : A
 2  1  A (2  2)  B
3  B

when x  0 B  3 2 A  B  1.................(1)
A 1 ..................(2)
0  1  A (0  2)  3
1  2A  3 2 A  B  1
2  2A 2  B  1
A 1 B 3

answer
answer
x 1 1 3
x 1 1 3  
  x  4 x  4 ( x  2) ( x  2) 2
2
x  4 x  4 ( x  2) ( x  2) 2
2

24
Example 22:
2x  1
Express as partial fractions.
x ( x  3)
2

Solution:

25
 6.3.3 NON – REPEATED QUADRATIC FACTOR

18. If the quadratic factor that cannot be factorized is non-repeated in the denominator,
then the form of the partial fractions corresponding to this would be

P( x) A ( Bx  C )
  2
( x  3)( x  1) ( x  3) ( x  1)
2

Example 23:
x 1
Express as partial fractions
( x)( x 2  1)

Check List :

proper or not ……………proper

factorise the denominator …………..cannot factorise anymore
repeat or not…………………………………..non-repeated quadratic factor.

Solution:

x 1 A ( Bx  C )
  
x( x  1) ( x) ( x 2  1)
2

x 1 A( x 2  1)  ( Bx  C )( x)
 
( x)( x 2  1) ( x) ( x 2  1)

x  1  A x 2  A  Bx 2  Cx
………………………………..(*)
x  1  A x 2  Bx 2  Cx  A

A  1
Comparing the coefficient C 1
A B  0
x  1  A x 2  Bx 2  Cx  A
……………………….* B  A
 ( A  B) x 2  Cx  A
1

26
 answer
LHS RHS
x 0 : 1 x0 : A x 1 1 ( x  1)
  2
x1 : 1 x1 : C x( x  1)
2
( x) ( x  1)
x2 : 0 x2 : A  B

Example 24:
x2
Express as partial fractions.
( x  1)( x 2  x  1)
2

Solution:

27
Lecture Drill :
2 x2  5 A B C
1) Given that    , determine the
 x  1  x  1
2
 x  1  x  1 x  1
2

values of the constants A, B and C.

2) Write the following rational expression as partial fractions.
5
a)
x x
2

2
b)
x 8
3

3x
c)
 x  1  x  1
2

1) 2) a)

28
2) b) 2) c)

||||||| END OF CHAPTER 6 : 2021/2022 ||||||||

29