2.

1 Formation of the Federation of Malaya

Impact of war in Europe in Britain

Br colonial attitudes towards Malaya and post-war considerations

• Br felt Malaya not ready for independence

o Despite that Br commitment to grant self-determination to its colonies
o Locals’ lack of political experience
o Lack of unity among diff ethnic grps
• Post-war plans for Malaya
o Influenced by importance of Malaya’s tin and rubber industries to Br post-war economic
reconstruction
o Led to direct rule in Malaya under a centralised government after the war & prepare Malaya for self-
government in the long run

Impact of the Japanese Occupation on Malaya

Shattered the myth of Western superiority

• Rapid Japanese conquest

o Speed which Jpn defeated Br forces – destroyed myth of white superiority
o Due to:
▪ Inability of Br forces to put up a credible defence
▪ Malaya’s excellent road infrastructure – facilitated Japanese troop movement
• Br surrender of Malaya
o Raised doubt among people of Malaya of Br’s ability & commitment to protect them

Widened the rift between ethnic groups

• Different impacts on various groups – widened rift between them

o Malays & Indians treated more favourably
▪ Presented themselves as patrons to Malays
▪ Some Malays given govt administrative positions – gain support for Jpn rule of Malaya
▪ Created discontentment among Chi towards Malays
o Chinese brutally treated, many tortured
▪ Because overseas Chi provided aid to China’s war effort against Jpn during Sino-Japanese
War in late 1930s
▪ Formation of anti-Japanese resistance forces in Malaya like Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese
Army (MPAJA) – resulted in harsh treatment of Chinese

Encouraged development of nationalist groups

• JO
o Beginning: Jpn concentrated
▪ Malaya best contributing economically to Japan’s war effort
o 1943: Jpn change focus; started experiencing military defeats in SEA
▪ Encourage development of Malay nationalism – hoped to win hearts of Malays; continue to
support them & resist Allies
• Opportunities
o Jpn allowed meetings btwn Malayan & Indonesian nationalist leaders
o Malay youths sent for training in paramilitary organisations (e.g., Pembela Tanah Air (PETA))
o 1945: Jpn sponsored formation of Kekuatan Rakyat Indonesian Istimewa (KRIS) – AIM: achieve
independence of Malaya & form a union with Indonesia
▪ Released Ibrahim Yaacob from prison & put in charge of KRIS
• Few Malays supported union BUT after war – experience of JO provided Malays with political alternatives to
Br colonial rule
Re-establishment of Br rule in Malaya after WW2

Failure to establish a centralised government – The Malayan Union scheme, 1946

• Br Military Administration
o Set up after war – administer Malaya while Br prepared to introduce centralised govt under Malayan
Union scheme
o Br colonial office sent Sir Harold MacMichael to Malaya – secure signatures of sultans to agree to the
MUS; succeeded by pressuring most of them
• MUS – eventually announced by the Br govt in Jan 1946; implemented 1 April 1946
o All the Malay states & the settlements of Penang & Malacca come together under a centralised govt
o SG – separate state with its own governor
o Sultans transfer political authority to central govt; only retain authority over religious matters
o All non-Malays offered citizenship if born in MU/SG OR resided in MU/SG

Failure to establish a centralised government – Opposition against the Malayan Union

• Widespread protests from the Malays

o Constitutional changes proposed – highly contentious
o Centralised government meant establishment of Br direct rule over Malaya; wrestling political
authority from sultans
o Offering citizenship to all non-Malays born & residing in Malaya in last 10 years – raised fear among
Malays
▪ Feared losing special position & privileges
▪ Feared rise of Chinese influence
• Dato Onn bin Jaafar
o Started Peninsula Malay Movement to defend Malay rights – Jan 1946
o Convened All-Malaya Congress held in Kuala Lumpur – Mar 1946
▪ United Malays National Organisations (UMNO) formed – lead nationwide Malay protests
against Malayan Union
▪ Dato Onn – first president of UMNO
• UMNO
o Slogan – Hidup Melayu, Hidup Bangsa Melayu
o Only accepted Malays as members
o Attracted members from all strata of Malay community
o Significant to Malaya’s political development – marked beginning of united Malay political front that
opposed Br

Establishment of the Federation of Malaya – Federation of Malaya proposals

• Strong opposition to MUS

o Br agree to replace & propose formation of a federation
• Federations – able to satisfy demands of UMNO leaders
o Restore governing powers to sultans
▪ Sultans rule with advice of Br colonial govt
▪ Br colonial govt have complete control over defence & foreign affairs
o Recognise Malays as indigenous people of Malaya & Br High Commissioner given responsibility to
ensure special position
o Malays given auto citizenship; non-Malays – more stringent qualifications for citizenship application
o Elections promised to Malaya
Establishment of the Federation of Malaya – Opposition against the Federation of Malaya

• FOM drew strong opposition from non-Malays

o Chi unhappy
▪ New citizenship requirements meant that only small percentage of Chi granted citizenship
• All-Malaya Council of Joint Action (AMCJA) – fight for rights of non-Malays
o Dec 1946 – Tun Tan Cheng Lock organised AMCJA
▪ Included Malayan Indian Congress (MIC) & Malayan Communist Party (MCP)
• Few Malays unhappy – Malay Pusat Tenaga Rakyat (PUTERA) joining AMCJA
o Too much compromise with Br
o Disappointed that not granted immediate self-govt
• PUTERA-AMCJA coalition
o Launched strike, All-Malaya Hartal – 20 Oct 1947
▪ Call for supporters throughout Malaya to participate
▪ Over 140,000 workers joined – stopped by Br
o Failed to stop implementation of FOM BUT showed possibility of inter-communal cooperation

Establishment of the Federation of Malaya – Establishment of the Federation of Malaya, 1948

▪ Br declared formation of the Federation of Malaya – 1 Feb 1948

o Constitutional framework established in FOM became basis for future construction of Malayan
‘nation’
o Replacement of MUS signalled compromise by Br govt with majority of Malay population & eased
some fears
▪ Also increased resentment among sections of Malay & non-Malay population against each
other
▪ Widening rift among local population would pose a challenge to the achievement of
independence

2.2 To what extent was the Alliance the main reason that secured Malaya’s independence in 1957?

The role of the communist movement

The Malayan Emergency – The aims of the Malayan Communist Party

• Malayan Communist Party (MCP)

o Formed in 1930
▪ Aims: End Br rule & set up a communist republic
o JO: MCP formed MPAJA to cooperate with Br against Jpn
▪ MPAJA disbanded after war; MCP recognised by Br as a legitimate political party
• Due to contributions in fighting against Jpn
▪ Br promised MCP – able to participate in politics of post-war Malaya
o MCP leaders decided against seizing power immediately after Jpn surrendered
• Aware of small numbers & poorly equipped
• Decided not to use violent means – took to organising strikes & propaganda
o 1945-1947: MCP focused – work with trade unions to organise strikes; able to force concessions
from the govt & employers – Increase in communist propaganda
o 1947: MCP began attacking Euro mining & estate personnel
▪ Three Euro estate managers murdered – 16 June 1948; govt took action against MCP
▪ 18 June – State of Emergency declared, July – MCP declared illegal
▪ Emergency Law of 1948 – powers to police & soldiers to arrest & detain people suspected to
be supporters or members of the MCP for 2 years without trial
▪ Communist fled to jungles, carried out guerrilla attacks on Br
• Obtain info & surviving on food given by poor Chi workers in squatter settlements
• Communist insurgency lasted 12 years
The Malayan Emergency – Br response to the communist insurgency

• First 3 months of Emergency

o Force of 24000 police officers enrolled, trained & guarded estates, towns & remote villages
o Strict measures – curfews & roadblocks – enforced to restrict movement of communists
• Briggs Plan – 1950
o Objective: isolate people from communists – communists not able to hide amongst them or obtain
info & food from them
o Chi squatters near jungles settled into New Villages surrounded by barbed wire & police posts
o Basic necessities & amenities provided (E.g., water, electricity, medical services & schools)
o Towards end of 1951
▪ 400,000 people resettled in 500 New Villages
• Br strategy of ‘winning the hearts and minds of the people’
o General Sir Gerald Templer arrived in Malaya – Feb 1952 – announced approach of capturing the
‘hearts and minds’ of the people
▪ Set up more New Villages
▪ Offered rewards to those who captured or killed communists
o Planes used to drop leaflets in jungle – urging communist to surrender & promised amnesty for
deserters
o Strategies successful: made it attractive for both villagers & communists to be on Br govt’s side

The Malayan Emergency – Encouraging local participation in politics

• Templer publicly announced Br plans to establish independent united Malaya

o Introduced local elections & extended citizenship to over half of Chi population
o Tables turned on MCP – cannot fight under banner of liberating Malaya from Br anymore
• Br steps to involve locals
o April 1951 – Br introduced Member System to Federal Legislative Council; big step towards self-govt
▪ Gave leaders in Malaya opportunity to be involved in local administration & lead large govt
dept
▪ Nine of the nominated members of Federal Legislative Council – appointed as ministers
responsible to Br High Commissioner
• Trained to eventually take charge of govt dept
• Gave local leaders the opportunity to gain necessary political experience of
administering & governing their country, laid foundation for greater local
participation in politics
o April 1954 – Templer announced elections at Federal level held in 1955
▪ Important indication from Br that Malaya edging closer towards independence

The Malayan Emergency – Impact of The Malayan Emergency on Malaya’s road to independence

• Malaya’s independence
o Did not directly lead
o Made Br govt rethink timeline for Malaya’s decolonisation
• MCP – Presented themselves as nationalists leading Malaya in anti-colonial struggle for national
independence
o Arguing that Br not committed to gratning Malaya independence
• Counter inf of MCP
o Br saw need to speed up timeline for independence – gain support of people of Malaya
o Br introduce elections & start transfer of power to elected Malayan govt
▪ Br insisted on a condition before transfer of power
• Need for cooperation & unity among the ethnic groups – ensure independent
Malaya politically stable
• Created impetus for formation of UMNO-MCA-MIC alliance aka the Alliance
Formation of the Alliance – Inter-communal cooperation

• UMNO, MCA, MIC

o Formed to represent & fight for interest of respective ethnic groups
▪ Aims of groups conflicted
o Need to convince Br administration of Malaya’s readiness for independence
▪ Brought diff communal parties together
▪ Cooperation essential to assure senior Br officials – independence could be seriously
considered
• First partnership
o 1952 during KL municipal elections – Both Selangor branches of UMNO & MCA decided to contest as
united front
▪ Won 9/12 municipal council seats
▪ Victory significant – partnership btwn UMNO & MCA extended to other municipal & town
elections btwn 1952-1954
• By end 1954 – UMNO-MCA Alliance won 226/268 municipal & town council seats
o Election results – convinced UMNO & MCA that both parties can cooperate & overcome communal
barriers
▪ Alliance further strengthened with inclusion of MIC in 1954
• Alliance – represented unity of diff ethnic grps
o Contributed to convincing Br colonial rulers that people were ready for independence
• Federal elections 1955
o Alliance had overwhelming victory – won 81% of total votes, 51/52 contested seats
o Success of Alliance – enabled them to claim they have received mandate from people to lead Malaya
to independence
o Leaders of Alliance negotiatied with Br towards merdeka in next 2 years

Establishment of an independent Malaya – Merdeka Mission, 1956

• Jan-Feb 1956
o Tunku Abdul Rahman led four Malay sultans & four representatives from the Alliance on Merdeka
Mission to London
o Aim: persuade Br govt to grant independence to Malaya
o By end of talks: Br govt agree to make concessions (e.g., withdrawing the Br advisers to the Malay
sultans in each state, appointing Constitutional Commision to draft constitution for full self-govt &
grant Malaya independence by Aug 1957)

Establishment of an independent Malaya – Reid Commission, 1956

• New constitution
o Drawn up to lay foundations for united & democratic Malaya
o Drawn up to preserve rights & special privileges of the Malays & sultans as the bumiputra
▪ Led to setting up of Constitutional Commission chaired by Lord William Reid in 1956
o Five-member commission consisted of representatives nominated by Indian, Pakistani, Australian &
Br govt
▪ No representative from Malaya – Commission consulted Alliance & other political parties,
commercial grps & individuals in Malaya
▪ Commission began works June 1956, submitted report to Br govt in Feb 1957
• Commission’s main report
o Addressed special position of Malays
o Addressed issues regarding language & citizenship
o Alliance did not fully agree with recommendations in report
▪ Tunku Abdul Rahman led another delegation to London to contest
• For example: Malaya to be a secular state to Malaya to be a secular state but Islam
recognised as official religion
 ▪ Recommendations by Alliance delegation incorporated into final constitution framework
• Became known as Merdeka Constitution

Establishment of an independent Malaya – Merdeka, 1957

• 31 Aug 1957 – Malaya achieved independence

o Merdeka proclamation – by Tunku Abdul Rahman, first PM of Malaya – at Merdeka stadium in KL
o Sultan of Negri Sembelian – Tuanku Abdul Rahman – proclaimed as first Yang-di Pertuan Agong of
independent Malaya