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Q1) Discuss different methods of educational psychology.
Ans) One of the things that educational psychology addresses are how people learn. Some of
the topics that this field might cover include individual learning differences, instructional
processes, learning outcomes, learning disabilities, and gifted learners.
Although this psychology branch often focuses on children and adolescents, these
psychologists study cognitive, social, and processes in all age groups. Some of the other
disciplines that also play a role include cognitive, behavioral, and developmental psychology.
How Long Has This Field in Psychology Been Around?
Education-related psychology has seen a large amount of growth, despite its relative
newness as a distinct subfield. Because psychology only achieved status as a separate science
in the late 1800s, most psychology work was related to education.
Some of these early figures include:
 John Locke – Locke was a philosopher who lived between 1632 and 1704 who
promoted the theory of the mind being a blank slate that develops through learning
and experience, with beliefs strongly influenced by Enlightenment ideas
 Johann Herbart – Herbart was a philosopher and early psychologist who lived
between 1776 and 1841 emphasized teachers providing instruction according to
students’ interests, as well as prior knowledge when determining an instruction type
 William James – James lived from 1842 to 1910 and was the psychologist most well-
known for lectures that addressed how teachers could help students learn most
effectively, as well as the first to teach a psychology class
 Alfred Binet – Binet, who was born in 1857 and died in 1911, was the inventor of what
we now know as intelligence tests, which helped identify possible developmental
delays
 John Dewey – Dewey, who lived from 1859 to 1952, was both an educational reformer
and psychologist who emphasized learning through doing and progressive education
 Jean Piaget – Piaget, who was born in 1892 and died in 1980, was the psychologist
best known for promoting cognitive development theory
 B.F. Skinner – Skinner, who lived between 1904 and 1990, was the behaviorist most
responsible for promoting the theory of operant conditioning
  Benjamin Bloom – Bloom, who was born in 1913 and died in 1999, was the developer
of the taxonomy that describes and categorizes the three primary educational
objectives, which are affective, cognitive, and psychomotor.
What Are the Main Subjects That This Subset Focuses On?
Educational psychologists work closely with students, teachers, and administration staff to
learn more about the most effective learning methods. According to The Bureau of Labor
Statistics, educational settings represent one of the biggest markets for jobs in psychology.
A few of the responsibilities might include identifying students having difficulty and
developing programs to help them overcome their struggles. New learning methods may
come about as a result of this type of work.
Some of the important career focuses include:
 Educational technology
 Instructional design
 Organizational learning
 Curriculum development
 Special education
 Gifted students
The Role of Education Technology
Educational technology is one field that can help maximize how technology allows students
to learn more effectively. Both hardware and software, as well as theoretical concepts, play
crucial roles in education technology. The use of technology is of vital importance in
providing the education that students need in today’s learning environment. A background
in psychology helps fill in where technology cannot work in its own right. Psychology helps
educators understand the impact that certain forms of technology have on the learning
process.
What Instructional Design Does
Another field is instructional design, which relates to learning materials development.
Education-related psychology gives educators the background they need to develop the
proper materials for student needs. Both public and private schools have begun to appreciate
the value of adapting learning materials to their students’ needs. One of the things that has
come about from schools and educators being more responsive to the needs of students is
better learning outcomes, making this focus of great importance for psychology students.
The Impact of Organizational Learning
Many psychologists with an educational background study the organizational learning
process, as well as curriculum development. The organizational learning process is one of
the most critical areas of study in education-focused psychology. One of the most essential
functions that organizational learning serves is helping educators and psychologists learn
more about learning processes in a group setting, which differ somewhat from individual
methods and are worthy of their own study.
Curriculum Development and Its Importance
Developing an effective curriculum is a vital part of ensuring that students get the most out
of the learning process. The backgrounds that psychologists who have studied education
have provided them with better knowledge in the ways that students might process
information. A more thorough understanding of how students learn helps educators design
the curriculum in more effective ways.
The Role of Psychologists in Special Education
Another setting that many educational psychologists work in is helping students with special
or gifted needs. Special education-focused psychologists help students who need specialized
instruction due to developmental or physical disabilities. An understanding of psychology
helps educators tailor the learning experience to the unique needs of special education
students. These students often require learning techniques structured towards their
different abilities.
How Psychologists Help Gifted Students
Psychologists who specialize in education may also help identify gifted students, who are
also likely to have needs that a standard curriculum might not meet. In many cases, these
students are at risk of not reaching their potential if their typical academic program fails to
hold their interest. Regardless of the circumstances, these psychologists will help students
try to reach their full potential.
What Are Some of the Major Perspectives in This Field?
All branches of psychology feature different approaches or perspectives that might be used
for problem-solving, and the education-related subfield is no exception. These different
perspectives include:
 Behavioral
 Developmental
 Cognitive
 Constructivist
Each of these perspectives brings a new way of looking at psychology in education to key
decision-makers. Although most psychologists who work in an educational setting will not
be likely to use all of these approaches, an understanding of all of them is important. The
more educational psychologists understand the processes, the more they will know how to
address these needs in the future.
About the Behavioral Approach
The behavioral approach to psychology has its basis in the idea that all behaviors are learned
through the conditioning process. This approach relies heavily on Skinner’s theories of
operant conditioning. One example of this approach is the use of rewards. However, critics
feel that those approach does not address intrinsic motivations, cognitions, or attitudes. The
behavioral perspective continues to be a topic of much discussion in spite of its long-standing
acceptance in the world of psychology.
The Developmental Perspective
The developmental perspective draws on Piaget’s cognitive development stages. Knowledge
and skills that children adopt as they grow play an essential role in understanding children’s’
capabilities at different stages. One of the things that is most helpful for educators about this
perspective is that they can adapt both their materials and methods to suit the needs of
different age groups. Some educators feel that this approach is one of the most helpful for
adopting a curriculum that adapts to students’ changing educational needs.
The Cognitive Approach
The cognitive approach involves understanding more about thinking, learning,
remembering, and processing information. This perspective has become much more popular
in recent years. Some of the things that educators working through this approach do is
understand what motivates learning in children or adolescents, how they remember the
information received, and their problem-solving. A better understanding of all these
concepts makes it easier for educators to know how to create materials with the most
significant impact.
The Constructivist Perspective
The constructivist perspective in educational psychology is relatively newer, with a focus on
children’s active construction of their world knowledge. This approach treats cultural and
social influences as having a significant impact. Lev Vygotsky was the psychologist who
played the most considerable role in advancing this perspective, and the approach continues
to draw a lot of attention today.
Although this psychology subset is relatively new, it has a growing following. A better
understanding of how people learn, instead of only what they learn, is going to keep playing
more of a role in teaching on education. With psychology either being an elective or a
requirement in many degree programs, it is likely that interest will continue to grow in the
coming years.
Choosing a career in education-related psychology can be a wise choice for students
interested in the development of curriculum and teaching methods. Career prospects for this
field are promising, especially as educators continually look for ways to refine their
techniques for different student groups.

Q2) Discuss the general characteristics of physical and motor development.

Ans) Physical development:
During the growth period, all major body systems also mature. The major changes occur in
the following systems:
 Skeletal system. At birth, there is very little bone mass in the infant body, the bones are
softer (cartilaginous) and much more flexible than in the adult. The adult skeleton
consists of 206 bones joined to ligaments and tendons. It provides support for the
attached muscles and the soft tissues of the body. Babies are born with 270 soft bones
that eventually fuse together by the age of 20 into the 206 hard, adult bones.
 Lymphatic System. The lymphatic system has several functions. It acts as the
body's defense mechanism by producing white blood cells and specialized cells
 (antibodies) that destroy foreign organisms that cause disease. It grows at a constant and
rapid rate throughout childhood, reaching maturity just before puberty. The amount of
lymphatic tissue then decreases so that an adult has approximately 50% less than a child.
 Central nervous system (CNS). The CNS consists of the brain, the cranial nerves, and
the spinal cord . It develops mostly during the first years of life. Although brain cell
formation is almost complete before birth, brain maturation continues after birth. The
brain of the newborn is not yet fully developed. It contains about 100 billion brain cells
that have yet to be connected into functioning networks. But brain development up to
age one is more rapid and extensive than was previously realized. At birth, the brain of
the infant is 25% of the adult size. At the age of one year, the brain has grown to 75% of
its adult size and to 80% by age three, reaching 90% by age seven. The influence of the
early environment on brain development is crucial. Infants exposed to good nutrition,
toys, and playmates have better brain function at age 12 than those raised in a less
stimulating environment.
During the first year of life, a baby goes through a series of crucial stages to develop physical
coordination. This development usually proceeds cephalocaudally, that is from head to toe.
For example, the visual system reaches maturity earlier than do the legs. First, the infant
develops control of the head, then of the trunk (sitting up), then of the body (standing), and,
finally, of the legs (walking). Development also proceeds proximodistally, that is from the
center of the body outward. For example, the head and trunk of the body develop before the
arms and legs, and infants learn to control their neck muscles before they learn to direct their
limbs. This development of physical coordination is also referred to as motor development
and it occurs together with cognitive development, meaning the development of processes
such as knowing, learning, thinking, and judging.
The stages of motor development in children are as follows:
 First year. The baby develops good head balance and can see objects directly in his line
of vision. He learns how to reach for objects and how to transfer them from one hand to
the other. Sitting occurs at six months of age. Between nine and 10 months, the infant is
able to pull himself to standing and takes his first steps. By the age of eight to 24 months,
the baby can perform a variety of tasks such as opening a small box, making marks with
 a pencil, and correctly inserting squares and circles in a form board. He is able to seat
himself in small chair, he can point at objects of interest, and can feed himself with a
spoon.
 Second year. At 24-36 months, the child can turn the pages of a book, scribble with a
pencil, build towers with blocks up to a height of about seven layers, and complete a form
board with pieces that are more complex than circles or squares. He can kick a ball, and
walks and runs fairly well, with a good sense of balance. Toilet training can be started.
 Third year. The child can now draw circles, squares, and crosses. He can build 10-block
towers and imitate the building of trains and bridges. He is also achieving toilet
independence. Hand movements are well coordinated and he can stand on one foot.
 Four years. At that age, a child can stand heel to toe for a good 15 seconds with his eyes
closed. He can perform the finger-to-nose test very well, also with eyes closed. He can
jump in place on both feet.
 Five years. The child can balance on tiptoe for a 10-second period, he can hop on one foot,
and can part his lips and clench his teeth.
 Six years. The child can balance on one foot for a 10-second period, he can hit a target
with a ball from 5 ft (1.5 m), and jumps over a rope 8 in (20 cm) high.
 Seven years. He can now balance on tiptoes for a 10-second period, bend at the hips
sideways, and walk a straight line, heel-to-toe for a distance of 6 ft (1.8 m).
 Eight years. The child can maintain a crouched position on tiptoes for a 10-second period,
with arms extended and eyes closed. He is able to touch the fingertips of one hand with
his thumb, starting with the little finger and repeating in reverse order.
 The development of motor skills in the child goes hand in hand with the development of
cognitive skills, a process called cognitive development. Cognitive development can be
divided into four stages:
 Sensorimotor stage. At this stage, infants discover their environment using a combination
of sensory impressions (sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch) and motor activities.
 Preoperational stage. At this stage, children are not able to use information in rational
and logical ways, rather they use images and symbols. They learn how to associate cause
and effect and to represent something with something else. Speech development begins.
  Concrete operational stage. At this stage, children understand elementary logical
principles that apply to concrete external objects. They learn to sort things into
categories, reverse the direction of their thinking, and think about two concepts (such as
length and width) simultaneously.
 Formal operational stage. This stage is reached at adolescence. The individual can think
in the abstract and speculate about probabilities and possibilities as well as reflect on
their own thinking activities.
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT:

Motor development means the physical growth and strengthening of a child’s bones,
muscles and ability to move and touch his/her surroundings. A child’s motor development
falls into two categories: fine motor and gross motor.

Fine motor skills refer to small movements in the hands, wrists, fingers, feet, toes, lips and
tongue. Gross motor skills involve motor development of muscles that enable babies to
hold up their heads, sit and crawl, and eventually walk, run, jump and skip.

Typical motor skill development follows a predictable sequence. It starts from the inner
body, including the head, neck, arms and legs, and then moves to the outer body such as
hands, feet, fingers and toes. Motor development is important throughout a child’s early
life, because physical development is tied to other development areas. For example, if a
child is able to crawl or walk (gross motor skills), he/she can more easily explore their
physical environment, which affects cognitive development. Social and emotional
development progresses when a child can speak, eat and drink (fine motor skills).

Parents and caregivers can help develop a child’s motor skills at all ages. Some activities
include:

 Placing your baby on his/her tummy, and helping him/her reach for a toy.
 Putting a toy on the couch for your child to stretch toward when a he/she starts to stand.
 Encouraging walking with a stroller your little one can push.
 Visiting playgrounds, where your child can climb, swing and slide.
Q3) Discuss the adolescent development. Also describe the possible result if special
care is not taken during this period.
Ans) Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Erikson
referred to the task of the adolescent as one of identity versus role confusion. Thus, in
Erikson’s view, an adolescent’s main questions are “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?”
Some adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents expect for them. Other teens
develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This is
common as peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents’ lives.
As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer
group becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, & Crouter, 2007). Despite
spending less time with their parents, most teens report positive feelings toward them
(Moore, Guzman, Hair, Lippman, & Garrett, 2004). Warm and healthy parent-child
relationships have been associated with positive child outcomes, such as better grades and
fewer school behavior problems, in the United States as well as in other countries (Hair et
al., 2005).
It appears that most teens don’t experience adolescent storm and stress to the degree once
famously suggested by G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in the study of adolescent development.
Only small numbers of teens have major conflicts with their parents (Steinberg & Morris,
2001), and most disagreements are minor. For example, in a study of over 1,800 parents of
adolescents from various cultural and ethnic groups, Barber (1994) found that conflicts
occurred over day-to-day issues such as homework, money, curfews, clothing, chores, and
friends. These types of arguments tend to decrease as teens develop (Galambos & Almeida,
1992).
Social Changes
Parents. Although peers take on greater importance during adolescence, family relationships
remain important too. One of the key changes during adolescence involves a renegotiation
of parent–child relationships. As adolescents strive for more independence and autonomy
during this time, different aspects of parenting become more salient. For example, parents’
distal supervision and monitoring become more important as adolescents spend more time
away from parents and in the presence of peers. Parental monitoring encompasses a wide
range of behaviors such as parents’ attempts to set rules and know their adolescents’ friends,
activities, and whereabouts, in addition to adolescents’ willingness to disclose information
to their parents (Stattin & Kerr, 2000). Psychological control, which involves manipulation
and intrusion into adolescents’ emotional and cognitive world through invalidating
adolescents’ feelings and pressuring them to think in particular ways (Barber, 1996), is
another aspect of parenting that becomes more salient during adolescence and is related to
more problematic adolescent adjustment.
Peers
As children become adolescents, they usually begin spending more time with their peers and
less time with their families, and these peer interactions are increasingly unsupervised by
adults. Children’s notions of friendship often focus on shared activities, whereas adolescents’
notions of friendship increasingly focus on intimate exchanges of thoughts and feelings.
During adolescence, peer groups evolve from primarily single-sex to mixed-sex. Adolescents
within a peer group tend to be similar to one another in behavior and attitudes, which has
been explained as being a function of homophily (adolescents who are similar to one another
choose to spend time together in a “birds of a feather flock together” way) and influence
(adolescents who spend time together shape each other’s behavior and attitudes). One of the
most widely studied aspects of adolescent peer influence is known as deviant peer
contagion (Dishion & Tipsord, 2011), which is the process by which peers reinforce problem
behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of
future problem behavior.
Peers can serve both positive and negative functions during adolescence. Negative peer
pressure can lead adolescents to make riskier decisions or engage in more problematic
behavior than they would alone or in the presence of their family. For example, adolescents
are much more likely to drink alcohol, use drugs, and commit crimes when they are with
their friends than when they are alone or with their family. However, peers also serve as an
important source of social support and companionship during adolescence, and adolescents
with positive peer relationships are happier and better adjusted than those who are socially
isolated or have conflictual peer relationships.
Crowds are an emerging level of peer relationships in adolescence. In contrast to friendships
(which are reciprocal dyadic relationships) and cliques (which refer to groups of individuals
who interact frequently), crowds are characterized more by shared reputations or images
than actual interactions (Brown & Larson, 2009). These crowds reflect different prototypic
identities (such as jocks or brains) and are often linked with adolescents’ social status and
peers’ perceptions of their values or behaviors.
Romantic relationships
Adolescence is the developmental period during which romantic relationships typically first
emerge. Initially, same-sex peer groups that were common during childhood expand into
mixed-sex peer groups that are more characteristic of adolescence. Romantic relationships
often form in the context of these mixed-sex peer groups (Connolly, Furman, & Konarski,
2000). Although romantic relationships during adolescence are often short-lived rather than
long-term committed partnerships, their importance should not be minimized. Adolescents
spend a great deal of time focused on romantic relationships, and their positive and negative
emotions are more tied to romantic relationships (or lack thereof) than to friendships, family
relationships, or school (Furman & Shaffer, 2003). Romantic relationships contribute to
adolescents’ identity formation, changes in family and peer relationships, and adolescents’
emotional and behavioral adjustment.
Furthermore, romantic relationships are centrally connected to adolescents’ emerging
sexuality. Parents, policymakers, and researchers have devoted a great deal of attention to
adolescents’ sexuality, in large part because of concerns related to sexual intercourse,
contraception, and preventing teen pregnancies. However, sexuality involves more than this
narrow focus. For example, adolescence is often when individuals who are lesbian, gay,
bisexual, or transgender come to perceive themselves as such (Russell, Clarke, & Clary,
2009). Thus, romantic relationships are a domain in which adolescents experiment with new
behaviors and identities.

Behavioral And Psychological Adjustment

Identity formation
Theories of adolescent development often focus on identity formation as a central issue. For
example, in Erikson’s (1968) classic theory of developmental stages, identity formation was
highlighted as the primary indicator of successful development during adolescence (in
contrast to role confusion, which would be an indicator of not successfully meeting the task
of adolescence). Marcia (1966) described identify formation during adolescence as involving
both decision points and commitments with respect to ideologies (e.g., religion, politics) and
occupations. He described four identity statuses: foreclosure, identity diffusion, moratorium,
and identity achievement. Foreclosure occurs when an individual commit to an identity
without exploring options. Identity diffusion occurs when adolescents neither explore nor
commit to any identities. Moratorium is a state in which adolescents are actively exploring
options but have not yet made commitments. Identity achievement occurs when individuals
have explored different options and then made identity commitments. Building on this work,
other researchers have investigated more specific aspects of identity. For example, Phinney
(1989) proposed a model of ethnic identity development that included stages of unexplored
ethnic identity, ethnic identity search, and achieved ethnic identity.
Aggression and antisocial behavior
Several major theories of the development of antisocial behavior treat adolescence as an
important period. Patterson’s (1982) early versus late starter model of the development of
aggressive and antisocial behavior distinguishes youths whose antisocial behavior begins
during childhood (early starters) versus adolescence (late starters). According to the theory,
early starters are at greater risk for long-term antisocial behavior that extends into
adulthood than are late starters. Late starters who become antisocial during adolescence are
theorized to experience poor parental monitoring and supervision, aspects of parenting that
become more salient during adolescence. Poor monitoring and lack of supervision
contribute to increasing involvement with deviant peers, which in turn promotes
adolescents own antisocial behavior. Late starters desist from antisocial behavior when
changes in the environment make other options more appealing. Similarly, Moffitt’s (1993)
life-course persistent versus adolescent-limited model distinguishes between antisocial
behavior that begins in childhood versus adolescence. Moffitt regards adolescent-limited
antisocial behavior as resulting from a “maturity gap” between adolescents’ dependence on
and control by adults and their desire to demonstrate their freedom from adult constraint.
However, as they continue to develop, and legitimate adult roles and privileges become
available to them, there are fewer incentives to engage in antisocial behavior, leading to
desistance in these antisocial behaviors.
Anxiety and depression
Developmental models of anxiety and depression also treat adolescence as an important
period, especially in terms of the emergence of gender differences in prevalence rates that
persist through adulthood (Rudolph, 2009). Starting in early adolescence, compared with
males, females have rates of anxiety that are about twice as high and rates of depression that
are 1.5 to 3 times as high (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Although the rates vary
across specific anxiety and depression diagnoses, rates for some disorders are markedly
higher in adolescence than in childhood or adulthood. For example, prevalence rates for
specific phobias are about 5% in children and 3%–5% in adults but 16% in adolescents.
Anxiety and depression are particularly concerning because suicide is one of the leading
causes of death during adolescence. Developmental models focus on interpersonal contexts
in both childhood and adolescence that foster depression and anxiety (e.g., Rudolph, 2009).
Family adversity, such as abuse and parental psychopathology, during childhood sets the
stage for social and behavioral problems during adolescence. Adolescents with such
problems generate stress in their relationships (e.g., by resolving conflict poorly and
excessively seeking reassurance) and select into more maladaptive social contexts (e.g.,
“misery loves company” scenarios in which depressed youths select other depressed youths
as friends and then frequently co-ruminate as they discuss their problems, exacerbating
negative affect and stress). These processes are intensified for girls compared with boys
because girls have more relationship-oriented goals related to intimacy and social approval,
leaving them more vulnerable to disruption in these relationships. Anxiety and depression
then exacerbate problems in social relationships, which in turn contribute to the stability of
anxiety and depression over time.
Academic achievement
Adolescents spend more waking time in school than in any other context (Eccles & Roeser,
2011[). Academic achievement during adolescence is predicted by interpersonal (e.g.,
parental engagement in adolescents’ education), intrapersonal (e.g., intrinsic motivation),
and institutional (e.g., school quality) factors. Academic achievement is important in its own
right as a marker of positive adjustment during adolescence but also because academic
achievement sets the stage for future educational and occupational opportunities. The most
serious consequence of school failure, particularly dropping out of school, is the high risk of
unemployment or underemployment in adulthood that follows. High achievement can set
the stage for college or future vocational training and opportunities.
Diversity
Adolescent development does not necessarily follow the same pathway for all individuals.
Certain features of adolescence, particularly with respect to biological changes associated
with puberty and cognitive changes associated with brain development, are relatively
universal. But other features of adolescence depend largely on circumstances that are more
environmentally variable. For example, adolescents growing up in one country might have
different opportunities for risk taking than adolescents in a different country, and supports
and sanctions for different behaviors in adolescence depend on laws and values that might
be specific to where adolescents live. Likewise, different cultural norms regarding family and
peer relationships shape adolescents’ experiences in these domains. For example, in some
countries, adolescents’ parents are expected to retain control over major decisions, whereas
in other countries, adolescents are expected to begin sharing in or taking control of decision
making.
Even within the same country, adolescents’ gender, ethnicity, immigrant status, religion,
sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and personality can shape both how adolescents
behave and how others respond to them, creating diverse developmental contexts for
different adolescents. For example, early puberty (that occurs before most other peers have
experienced puberty) appears to be associated with worse outcomes for girls than boys,
likely in part because girls who enter puberty early tend to associate with older boys, which
in turn is associated with early sexual behavior and substance use. For adolescents who are
ethnic or sexual minorities, discrimination sometimes presents a set of challenges that non
minorities do not face.
Finally, genetic variations contribute an additional source of diversity in adolescence.
Current approaches emphasize gene X environment interactions, which often follow
a differential susceptibility model (Belsky & Pluess, 2009). That is, particular genetic
variations are considered riskier than others, but genetic variations also can make
adolescents more or less susceptible to environmental factors. For example, the association
between the CHRM2genotype and adolescent externalizing behavior (aggression and
delinquency) has been found in adolescents whose parents are low in monitoring behaviors
(Dick et al., 2011). Thus, it is important to bear in mind that individual differences play an
important role in adolescent development.

Q4) Emotion involves a combination of feelings and impulses physical and

psychological reactions. Discuss the statement.
Ans) As we move through our daily lives, we experience a variety of emotions. An emotion is
a subjective state of being that we often describe as our feelings. The words emotion and
mood are sometimes used interchangeably, but psychologists use these words to refer to
two different things. Typically, the word emotion indicates a subjective, affective state that
is relatively intense and that occurs in response to something we experience. Emotions are
often thought to be consciously experienced and intentional. Mood, on the other hand, refers
to a prolonged, less intense, affective state that does not occur in response to something we
experience. Mood states may not be consciously recognized and do not carry the
intentionality that is associated with emotion (Beedie, Terry, Lane, & Devonport, 2011). Here
we will focus on emotion, and you will learn more about mood in the chapter that covers
psychological disorders.
We can be at the heights of joy or in the depths of despair or. We might feel angry when we
are betrayed, fear when we are threatened, and surprised when something unexpected
happens. This section will outline some of the most well-known theories explaining our
emotional experience and provide insight into the biological bases of emotion. This section
closes with a discussion of the ubiquitous nature of facial expressions of emotion and our
abilities to recognize those expressions in others.
 Theories of emotions:

Our emotional states are combinations of physiological arousal, psychological appraisal,

and subjective experiences. Together, these are known as the components of emotion.
These appraisals are informed by our experiences, backgrounds, and cultures. Therefore,
different people may have different emotional experiences even when faced with similar
circumstances. Over time, several different theories of emotion, shown in, have been
proposed to explain how the various components of emotion interact with one another.

The James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotions arise from physiological arousal.
Recall what you have learned about the sympathetic nervous system and our fight or flight
response when threatened. If you were to encounter some threat in your environment, like
a venomous snake in your backyard, your sympathetic nervous system would initiate
significant physiological arousal, which would make your heart race and increase your
respiration rate. According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, you would only
experience a feeling of fear after this physiological arousal had taken place. Furthermore,
different arousal patterns would be associated with different feelings.

Other theorists, however, doubted that the physiological arousal that occurs with different
types of emotions is distinct enough to result in the wide variety of emotions that we
experience. Thus, the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion was developed. According to this
view, physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously, yet
independently (Lang, 1994). So, when you see the venomous snake, you feel fear at exactly
the same time that your body mounts its fight or flight response. This emotional reaction
would be separate and independent of the physiological arousal, even though they co-
occur.

The James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories have each garnered some empirical support in
various research paradigms. For instance, Chwalisz, Diener, and Gallagher (1988)
conducted a study of the emotional experiences of people who had spinal cord injuries.
They reported that individuals who were incapable of receiving autonomic feedback
because of their injuries still experienced emotion; however, there was a tendency for
people with less awareness of autonomic arousal to experience less intense emotions. More
recently, research investigating the facial feedback hypothesis suggested that suppression
of facial expression of emotion lowered the intensity of some emotions experienced by
participants (Davis, Senghas, & Ochsner, 2009). In both of these examples, neither theory is
fully supported because physiological arousal does not seem to be necessary for the
emotional experience, but this arousal does appear to be involved in enhancing the
intensity of the emotional experience.

The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion is another variation on theories of

emotions that takes into account both physiological arousal and the emotional experience.
According to this theory, emotions are composed of two factors: physiological and
cognitive. In other words, physiological arousal is interpreted in context to produce the
emotional experience. In revisiting our example involving the venomous snake in your
backyard, the two-factor theory maintains that the snake elicits sympathetic nervous
system activation that is labeled as fear given the context, and our experience is that of fear.

It is important to point out that Schachter and Singer believed that physiological arousal is
very similar across the different types of emotions that we experience, and therefore, the
cognitive appraisal of the situation is critical to the actual emotion experienced. In fact, it
might be possible to misattribute arousal to an emotional experience if the circumstances
were right (Schachter & Singer, 1962).

To test their idea, Schachter and Singer performed a clever experiment. Male participants
were randomly assigned to one of several groups. Some of the participants received
injections of epinephrine that caused bodily changes that mimicked the fight-or-flight
response of the sympathetic nervous system; however, only some of these men were told
to expect these reactions as side effects of the injection. The other men that received
injections of epinephrine were told either that the injection would have no side effects or
that it would result in a side effect unrelated to a sympathetic response, such as itching feet
or headache. After receiving these injections, participants waited in a room with someone
else they thought was another subject in the research project. In reality, the other person
was a confederate of the researcher. The confederate engaged in scripted displays of
euphoric or angry behavior (Schachter & Singer, 1962).

When those subjects who were told that they should expect to feel symptoms of
physiological arousal were asked about any emotional changes that they had experienced
related to either euphoria or anger (depending on how their confederate behaved), they
reported none. However, the men who weren’t expecting physiological arousal as a
function of the injection were more likely to report that they experienced euphoria or
anger as a function of their assigned confederate’s behavior. While everyone that received
an injection of epinephrine experienced the same physiological arousal, only those who
were not expecting the arousal used context to interpret the arousal as a change in
emotional state (Schachter & Singer, 1962)

Strong emotional responses are associated with strong physiological arousal. This has led
some to suggest that the signs of physiological arousal, which include increased heart rate,
respiration rate, and sweating, might serve as a tool to determine whether someone is
telling the truth or not. The assumption is that most of us would show signs of physiological
arousal if we were being dishonest with someone. A polygraph, or lie detector test,
measures the physiological arousal of an individual responding to a series of questions.
Someone trained in reading these tests would look for answers to questions that are
associated with increased levels of arousal as potential signs that the respondent may have
been dishonest on those answers. While polygraphs are still commonly used, their validity
and accuracy are highly questionable because there is no evidence that lying is associated
with any particular pattern of physiological arousal (Saxe & Ben-Shakhar, 1999).

The relationship between our experiencing of emotions and our cognitive processing of
them, and the order in which these occur, remains a topic of research and debate. Lazarus
(1991) developed the cognitive-mediational theory that asserts our emotions are
determined by our appraisal of the stimulus. This appraisal mediates between the stimulus
and the emotional response, and it is immediate and often unconscious. In contrast to the
Schachter-Singer model, the appraisal precedes a cognitive label. You will learn more about
Lazarus’s appraisal concept when you study stress, health, and lifestyle.
Two other prominent views arise from the work of Robert Zajonc and Joseph LeDoux.
Zajonc asserted that some emotions occur separately from or prior to our cognitive
interpretation of them, such as feeling fear in response to an unexpected loud sound
(Zajonc, 1998). He also believed in what we might casually refer to as a gut feeling—that
we can experience an instantaneous and unexplainable like or dislike for someone or
something (Zajonc, 1980). LeDoux also views some emotions as requiring no cognition:
some emotions completely bypass contextual interpretation. His research into the
neuroscience of emotion has demonstrated the amygdala’s primary role in fear (Cunha,
Monfils, & LeDoux, 2010; LeDoux 1996, 2002). A fear stimulus is processed by the brain
through one of two paths: from the thalamus (where it is perceived) directly to the
amygdala or from the thalamus through the cortex and then to the amygdala. The first path
is quick, while the second enables more processing about details of the stimulus. In the
following section, we will look more closely at the neuroscience of emotional response.

Q5) State the significance of personality.

Ans) Personality is an important thing in the life of a person that determines not only his
professional success but also his overall behaviour and attitude in life. Personality as a whole
means a combination of characteristics and appearance of an individual that includes the
pattern of thought, feelings, attitude, his behaviour, communication ability and physical
features. It has been believed that a child inherits a lot of personality traits from its parents.
Every individual is different from the other and possesses a personality of his own that is
unique from the others in every form. You must have noticed that there are people who have
a lot of friends in a school, college or office and there are also people in the same place who
don’t socialize much and have very few friends, this is difference is mainly due to the
difference in thinking, characteristics and most importantly the difference in the personality
of the people.

Our friends, surroundings, choices are determined to a great extent by our individual
personality and the way we behave. Personality Development is a tool through which you
bring out your capabilities and your strengths in making yourself aware of your inner self
and become more confident to face the outside world. It has been believed that the
personality of a person takes its basic formation in the beginning period of childhood.

Childhood experiences in the family and the society are very crucial that helps an individual
to develop certain traits and characteristics. Friends, teachers and the environment of the
school have its own positive or negative impact. This personality is later moulded, based on
the impact of various positive and negative factors in life. However, the significance of this
understanding is that you can always keep improving your personality. Adults need to be
very careful while rearing a child because of deep scars on the psychology of a child may
have permanent marks. To develop positive thinking in the child parents must relate to each
other in a positive way.

Personality development is something that was not given much importance a few years back,
but from the past few years’ personality developments has become very important from the
career point of view. There are a lot of people that still underestimate the importance of
having a pleasing personality and thinks that it just means being born good-looking, that
there isn’t anything much that an individual can do about it, which is simply not true. The
reality is that the good looking is just a part of good personality and not everything. For a
good personality, you need a lot of other characteristics like communication skills,
politeness, good listening skills, vocabulary, the art of engaging communication, neatness
and attitude. These all combine together to make up a good personality.

 Personality development:

Personality development has become an important tool today for developing overall skills
within a person that help him to develop professionally as well as personally. A great
personality includes knowing how to dress well, social graces, grooming, speech and
interpersonal skills. Whatever your career, these are vital skills that will promote your
objectives and also helps you in your day to day life. Everyone likes to interact with a person
having an attractive personality. A lot of people have a misconception that these personality
skills are inborn and cannot be developed, no matter how hard an individual may try to,
which is totally baseless. With the help of good training a child or an adult can learn
communication skills, different subjects, driving, improve vocabulary, pronunciation or
computer operating that plays an important part in personality development. Similarly, a
proper training in personality development enhances the general as well as unique traits or
characteristics of a person. These days’ basic personality features like confidence, spoken
skills as well as language skills are very important for making a mark professionally. A
teacher of personality development helps a person to get a positive thought pattern, gain
confidence, improve behavior, learn better communication and develop a healthy physique.

 Importance:

A great overall personality is very important in the life of an individual. Everyone is

influenced by an attractive personality. Whether it is an interview for a job or having a
conversation within your friend circle, there are certain traits and characteristics that you
must possess to make your mark and have an impressive conversation. Without influencing
others you can’t get success in today’s competitive world. It is difficult to achieve a job
without influencing the interviewers with your personal as well as professional skills, also if
you are business you need to influence your clients and make them believe in you. Therefore
the importance of personality development has risen very much. These days every good
public school is careful about the personality development of its students.

A few years ago the concept of personality development was not very common and parents
rarely gave any importance to the personality development of their children. In fact,
personality was just confined to having a good look and wearing good clothes. Emphasis was
given only on physical appearance and expertise in work-related skills. Earlier no one paid
much attention to develop interpersonal skills. The interview also at those time were
concentrated much towards the work efficiency of the person and not much importance was
given to the personality. But now the time has changed. It is an age of competition and
economic revolution. Although opportunities for progress are everywhere yet a student has
to work very hard to climb the stairs of a brilliant career. The person having a good
personality can move through the difficulties with more confidence. However, the
importance of personality development includes:

 Gives Confidence: A great personality tends to give a boost to your confidence. When
you know you are appropriately attired and groomed, this makes you less anxious
when meeting a person. Knowing the right things to say and how to conduct yourself
will increase your confidence. If you are in full confidence and well in command of the
situation then it becomes really easy for you to give out your best performance.
Confidence out of your personality gives you a boost that leads to a situation of
easiness for you and you are able to control all your anxiety and fears and perform
fearlessly. Also, your confidence enables you to have a hassle free conversation or if
you are going to give a speech it is very important for you to be confident to engage
your listeners.
 Improves Communication Skills: A lot of emphases is given to improving
communication skills during personality development. Possessing good
communication skills is very important both for personal and professional life. People
are more receptive to what you say if they are impressed with your personality.
Verbal communication skills are also part of personality development; improving
your speech will strengthen the impact of your message. Also along with your
speaking and language skills, a lot of emphases is laid on improving pronunciation
and vocabulary. At the same time, effective communication also includes being a good
listener.
 Helps to develop Positive Attitude: Positive attitude is really important for one to
progress in life. A person with a positive attitude always looks at the brighter side and
is always on a developmental path. An individual with a negative attitude finds a
problem in every situation. Rather than cribbing and criticizing people around,
analyze the whole situation and try to find an appropriate solution for the same.
Remember, if there is a problem, there has to be a solution as well. Never lose your
cool. It would make the situation worse. Developing a positive attitude even in a
hopeless situation is the part of personality developmental program.
 Makes you Credible: It is very important to have a proper dressing sense and picking
up right dress for you. Despite the saying that you don’t judge a book by its cover,
people do tend to judge people by their clothing and how it is worn. Also, your dress
plays a great deal of role in your overall looks and your confidence as well. This does
not mean buying expensive clothes will do the whole job. You need to be very careful
while picking up clothes for yourself. We all know people who look shabby in
expensive clothes. There are also people who look great even if their attire is
inexpensive. Because of this, you must know what to wear and you must be aware of
other aspects of enhancing your physical features.
 Improving Personality: Competition is increasing day by day and there is no less of
talented individuals possessing high academic results and willing to work hard to
achieve their goals. You cannot win by talent and hard work alone these days apart
from these two there is a strong need of good personality too. Personality
development is a crucial ingredient for success that you must obtain to be successful
in your life. Most of the people you see as models of great personality have taken a lot
of effort in developing their natural features. Personality development helps you
develop an impressive personality and makes you stand apart from the rest. As
discussed earlier personality development also plays an essential role in improving
one’s communication skills and focus to be a good listener as well. Individuals ought
to master the art of expressing their thoughts and feelings in the most desired way
through personality development. Personality development makes you a confident
individual who is appreciated and respected wherever he goes. However, few tips to
improve personality include:
o Gain Knowledge: As the saying goes, knowledge is power. It is very true that
knowledge is power, and is very important in today’s competitive world.
Nobody is impressed with a person who doesn't have the knowledge about his
work as well as surroundings and doesn’t even know what is happening
around the world. These days if you are not informed, then you are considered
to be a fool whom no wise man or woman would like to befriend or follow.
Therefore, it becomes necessary for an individual to enrich their general
knowledge, and to master the field in which they are working. It is very
important to keep yourself updated with the knowledge of events around the
world, you can enhance your knowledge by reading a newspaper, watch
informative programmes on television, news-channels, reading books and
magazines and being part of active conversations within your friend circles.
o A Healthy Body: An important part of personality is your appearance and your
physical health. It is very important to maintain a good physical health for a
good personality as well as for a healthy life. A body burdened with a
disease may get pity for others but it is very difficult for that person to
maintain an attractive personality. It is very important to work out regularly
and maintain a healthy physique. A healthy and smart look is absolutely
essential to create an impact. And if you work on it you can easily attain it. Take
exercise regularly, play games or go for a morning walk whatever suits your
body and psychology. Eat a balanced diet with fresh fruits and vegetables.
o Dress Smartly: As told earlier, physical appearance plays an important role in
your personality. A smartly dressed person is admired everywhere. It is not
always that only expensive clothes are the best. You should pay a great deal of
attention while choosing the right clothing for you ones that suits your
physique and you are comfortable in wearing also. By observing successful
people in any field, you will come to the conclusion that most of the successful
people in almost every field have a keen taste for good dresses. At the same
time it is also important that you should not try to copy someone else, instead,
make a style statement of your own and choose the clothing that you feel
comfortable with. Good dresses also prove a stimulus for the wearer, the
person feels more confident and relaxed.
o Speaking Style: To have an engaging conversation, it is very important that you
maintain a good speaking style and expressions as well. Most of the successful
persons maintain a unique style of speaking. They speak clearly and forcefully.
Be careful that you have a good command of the language you speak. Don't
make grammatical mistakes else you may become a laughing stock. If
necessary, take training from a good teacher. Give extra care to your
pronunciation. Speaking power is an essential trait of any good person. Give
others also a chance to speak.

THE END.