Republic of the Philippines

Bicol University
COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy Department
Daraga, Albay
ISO 9001:2015
TUV Rheinland ID 910863351

ETHICS:
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

PREPARED BY

MARK M. GATUS, LPT

MARCK ZALDY O. CAMBA, LPT
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ETHICS:
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

Introduction

Ethics is about systematizing and recommending notions of what is right and

wrong behavior. It is about what is acceptable and unacceptable in human behavior
which may involve obligations that we are expected to fulfill, prohibitions that we are
required to respect, and ideals that we are encouraged to meet. Thus, in general,
ethics is all about the systematic study of notions related to morality as well as it digs
into the moral issues that we encounter in our everyday life. Nonetheless, before we
proceed in tackling the practical moral question. It is important for us to first clarify the
fundamental concepts of ethics. In this module, the basic concepts of ethics and vital
issues will be discussed. Ultimately, the topics discussed here will serve as your
groundwork for the next lesson.

What Will You Learn?

After completing the module, you will be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of ethics, morality and the general subject areas
2. Explain and assess moral dilemmas, and distinguish moral standards from
non-moral standards

Activities

Let’s try this!

Before you read on, try and answer the question below. Write your answer on the
space provided.

Prepared by:
Mark M. Gatus & Marck Zaldy O. Camba
Faculty Members, Philosophy Department
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1. Should there be a proper study of morality? Why or why not?

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2. Are all acts be subjected to ethical analysis? Why?

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Let’s Read!

Topic 1: Ethics and Morality

The field of ethics (or moral philosophy) involves systematizing, defending, and
recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior (Fieser, 2020). It is also
understood by individuals in different ways. The word ethics is confused with morality
which is often used synonymously. The term morality has Latin roots, whereas the
term ethics stems from classical Greek, but both words originally referred to
respectable behavior in a given society. However, these concepts have gradually
become labels for different phenomena, that is why clarifications must be given.

Morality can be used either descriptively or normatively. Morality in its

descriptive sense refers to certain codes of conduct put forward by a society or a group
such as a religion. However, in its normative sense it refers to a code of conduct that
would be put forward by all rational persons given in specified conditions. In other
words, if we use “morality” in its descriptive sense we will almost certainly deny that
there is a universal morality that applies to all human person since standards of
societies may vary. However, if we use “morality” in its normative sense, we will all

Prepared by:
Mark M. Gatus & Marck Zaldy O. Camba
Faculty Members, Philosophy Department
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hold that morality refers to a code of conduct that applies to all who can understand it
and can govern our behavior by it (Gert 2016).

Ethics on the other hand, “refers to the discipline that examines the moral
standards of an individual or society. Therefore, ethics is the study of morality”
(Evangelista and Mabaquiao 2020, p. 2). As a philosophical discipline, ethics is
systematic in its approach. By systematic it means that it follows a certain process to
understand, analyze, recommend and defend matters of right and wrong as they relate
to the welfare of individuals, their relationships with one another including the
environment. Its analysis is based on sound and logical reasons based on facts and
ethical theories. Moreover, as we have distinguished normative and descriptive
morality earlier, we also need to distinguish between descriptive and normative study
of ethics.

A descriptive study of ethics reports how people, particularly groups, think about
right and wrong, acceptable or not acceptable, how they behave, or how they reason
about ethics. This kind of study is often the work of the social-scientist such as
historians, sociologists, anthropologists. Emphasis must be made that this kind of
study of ethics is not an area of moral philosophy. On the other hand, the normative
study of ethics is often done in philosophy. It is concerned with the moral standards to
determine right from wrong conduct. It involves the formulation of moral norms that
can serve as a basis of the kinds of actions, institutions, and ways of life we should
pursue (Evangelista and Mabaquiao, 2020)

Consequently, it quite clear that individuals learn morality and ethics in different
ways. Moral beliefs and convictions are usually adopted through social interaction,
whereas ethics is an academic discipline that is learned academically. There are ethics
courses and exams, but there are no equivalent activities for morality; there are only
moral tests, both in everyday life and in more
extraordinary situations. An individual’s actions on
these tests determine whether that person is living
under his or her moral convictions (Knalves 2020). “ ethics is the
The significance of ethics is it will guide the individuals
to assess and to justify their morals by the aid of study of morality ”
sound ethical frameworks.

General Subject Areas of Ethics

Philosophers usually divide ethical
theories into three general subject areas: METAETHICS
metaethics, normative ethics, and applied NORMATIVE ETHICS
ethics. Metaethics investigates where our APPLIED ETHICS
ethical principles come from, and what they
mean. Are they merely social inventions? Do
they involve more than expressions of our
emotions? Metaethical answers to these
questions focus on the issues of universal truths, the will of God, the role of reason in
ethical judgments, and the meaning of ethical terms themselves. Normative

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Mark M. Gatus & Marck Zaldy O. Camba
Faculty Members, Philosophy Department
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ethics takes on a more practical task, which is to arrive at moral standards that regulate
right and wrong conduct. This may involve articulating the good habits that we should
acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior on
others. Lastly, applied ethics involves examining specific controversial issues, such
as abortion, infanticide, animal rights, environmental concerns, homosexuality, capital
punishment, or nuclear war (Fieser, 2020).

Furthermore, by using the theoretical tools of metaethics and normative ethics,

discussions in applied ethics try to resolve these controversial issues. The lines of
distinction between metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics are often blurry.
For example, the issue of abortion is an applied ethical topic since it involves a specific
type of controversial behavior. But it also depends on more general normative
principles, such as the right of self-rule and the right to life, which are litmus tests for
determining the morality of that procedure. The issue also rests on metaethical issues
such as, “where do rights come from?” and “what kind of beings have rights?” (Fieser,
2020).

For further discussion, read, “Ethics” by James Fieser in The Internet

Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Available online: https://www.iep.utm.edu/ethics/
Watch! Metaethics by Crash Course Philosophy. Available online:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FOoffXFpAlU&t=1s

Let’s Think About This

 What if there is no systematic study of morality? Can all acts be

justified? Write your answer on the space provided.

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Mark M. Gatus & Marck Zaldy O. Camba
Faculty Members, Philosophy Department
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Let’s Read!

Topic 2: Moral Standards and Non-Moral Standards

Moral standards involve the rules people have about the kinds of actions they
believe are morally right and wrong, as well as the values they place on the kinds of
objects they believe are morally good and morally bad. Some ethicists equate moral
standards with moral values and moral principles (Mañebog 2016). The best way to
describe what moral standards is its characteristics as seen in the table below as
discussed by Mañebog (2016).

Characteristics of moral standards further distinguish it from non-moral

standards (Mañebog 2016):
a. Moral standards involve serious
wrongs or significant benefits.
b. Moral standards ought to be
preferred to other values.
c. Moral standards are not
established by authority figures.
Moral standards deal with matters
which can seriously impact, that
is, to injure or benefit individuals.
Unlike the case with many non-
moral standards, for example,
following or violating some
basketball rules may matter in
basketball games but does not
necessarily affect one’s life or
wellbeing. Thus, moral standards
are only concerned with serious
actions or significant benefits that
involve an individual’s life or
wellbeing.
Moral standards have an
overriding importance. If a moral
standard states that a person has
the moral obligation to do
something, then he/she is
supposed to do that even if it
conflicts with other non-moral
standards, and even with self-
interest.
Moral standards are not invented
or made by authoritative
individuals such as legislative
bodies, although, these moral
standards ought to be considered
in the process of making laws.
However, moral standards cannot

Prepared by:
Mark M. Gatus & Marck Zaldy O. Camba
Faculty Members, Philosophy Department
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be changed nor nullified by the

d. Moral standards have the trait of
universalizability.
decisions of a particular
authoritative body. Nonetheless,
one thing about these standards,
is that its validity lies in the
soundness or adequacy of the
reasons that are considered to
support and justify them.
This means that everyone should
live up to moral standards.
However, this entails that moral
principles must apply to all who
are in the relevantly similar in
situation. This characteristic is
exemplified in the Gold Rule, “Do
unto others what you would them
do unto you”

Non-moral standards, on the other hand, refer to rules that are unrelated to
moral or ethical considerations. These standards are either not necessarily linked to
or by nature lack ethical sense. Basic examples of non-moral standards include rules
of etiquette, fashion standards and house rules or in games. In other words, non-moral
standards refer to those standards which we judge as good or bad in a non-moral way.

Let’s Read!

Topic 3: Moral Dilemma

A dilemma is a situation that requires a choice
between two options that are equally undesirable or
unsatisfactory. There are non-moral dilemmas in a moral dilemma is a
which the choice is between options that are situation in which the
undesirable or unsatisfactory for some reasons other decision-maker has to give
than morality. For example, if a person wants to buy priority to one moral value
over another.
both a book and a shirt but can only afford to purchase
one of them, choosing one over the other will inevitably
lead to disappointment, in that it will fulfill only one of
the two desires. There need not be any moral
dimension to this decision for it to be a dilemma.
Nonetheless, in terms of morality, a moral dilemma is a situation in which the decision-
maker has to give priority to one moral value over another. Such dilemmas arise when
an individual is faced with a difficult situation such as two or more values which are
conflicting, or when an individual is assessing another’s moral choice. The individual
who faces a dilemma must decide which moral duty to prioritize (Kvalnes 2019).
Consider the moral dilemma by Knalves (2019) below:

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Mark M. Gatus & Marck Zaldy O. Camba
Faculty Members, Philosophy Department
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Anne is the project manager for a large industrial project (run by a Nordic company) in
a developing country. On a crucial day during the project, the entire plant’s electricity suddenly
went out. Large quantities of cement were beginning to congeal in their mixers, and it was
crucial to quickly reactivate them. More than one thousand employees were unable to do their
work. Anne contacted the local authorities to solve the problem. A bureaucrat turned up at the
plant and explained that he could turn the electricity back on very quickly—on the condition
that he be allowed to bring ten of the company’s PCs back to the town hall, which had a
desperate shortage of PCs that was preventing the bureaucrat and his colleagues from
providing adequate service to the local community. Thus, he suggested a trade-off: PCs for
electricity. In this manner, Anne and her company had the option to make a significant
contribution to the local community.

Time was of the essence, and Anne had little time to dwell on the alternatives. There
was no time to contact her supervisors in the firm’s home country for advice or instructions.
She had to figure the situation out by herself. If the cement were to congeal, that would mean
a considerable delay in the project, and several operations would have to be redone, at a high
cost. That cost would be much higher than that of losing ten PCs, which could be easily
replaced. Anne also had sympathy for the local bureaucrats and (the population they serve),
who she believed would probably make very good use of the PCs. On the other hand, the
demand was blackmail, and if she gave in this time, then it may happen again at other crucial
stages of the project. Anne faced a difficult choice. What should she do?

Anne wanted to honor not just the moral value of finishing the project on time and within
budget but also that of not giving in to blackmail and corruption. One of these values had to
give way. There was no way in which Anne could act in a completely moral manner.

Take note that, moral dilemmas such as Anne’s can be encountered not just in
working life but also in student life. It may also happen in both public and private
sectors and organizations, homes, communities, societies, or even on a personal
level. In busy situations, we sometimes don’t notice that we are already having a moral
dilemma, therefore failing to see the moral dimensions of our choices. Understanding
the nature of moral dilemmas is an important prerequisite to identifying them and
finding ways in which to deal with them responsibly (Kvalnes 2019).

 Have you already encountered a moral dilemma? How did you respond
to it?

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Mark M. Gatus & Marck Zaldy O. Camba
Faculty Members, Philosophy Department
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How Much Have You Learned?

To find out more how much you have learned from this lesson, try
and answer the question below. Write your answer on the space
provided.

1. What do we mean by the term ethics? Is it different from the term morality?

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2. Are all acts be subjected to ethical analysis? Why?

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Mark M. Gatus & Marck Zaldy O. Camba
Faculty Members, Philosophy Department
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3. What are moral dilemmas? Have you already encountered a moral dilemma? How
did you respond to it?

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LEARNING OUTPUT

 Note: Please accomplish this with your assigned group. You can use platforms
such as Google Meet or Facebook Messenger to facilitate your discussion. (2)
Each member should submit the same group answer/paper individually. Please
follow this format:

Group Members:

i. GM1: Full name, Course & Block

ii. GM2: Full name, Course & Block
iii. GM3: Full name, Course & Block

(O1) Essay Paper.

 Look for a news article from a newspaper, online or tv/radio broadcast that
tackles an ethical issue. Brainstorm with your groupmates and compose an
answer for the following questions. What is the case about? What makes it a
matter of ethics? Is it considered a moral dilemma? What is your ethical
analysis of the case?
 Please answer this item in exactly one (1) paragraph with at least fifteen (15)
sentences.

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Mark M. Gatus & Marck Zaldy O. Camba
Faculty Members, Philosophy Department
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References

Bulaong, O. G., Calano, M. J., Lagliva, A. M., Mariano, M. N., & Principe, J. D.
(2018). Ethics: Foundations of moral valuation. Quezon City, Philippines: Rex
Book Store.

Mabaquiao, N., Jr., & Evangelista, F. (2020). Ethics: Theories and Applications.
Manila: Anvil Publishing.

Evason, N. (2016) Filipino Culture - Core Concepts. Retrieved July 06, 2020, from
https://culturalatlas.sbs.com.au/filipino-culture/filipino-culture-core-concepts

Fieser, J. (2020). Ethics. Retrieved July 02, 2020, from

https://www.iep.utm.edu/ethics/

Gensler, H. J. (2011). Ethics: A contemporary introduction. London: Routledge.

Gert, B., & Gert, J. (2020, September 08). The Definition of Morality. Retrieved July
11, 2020, from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/morality-definition/

Kvalnes, Ø. (2019). Moral Reasoning at Work. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-15191-1

Mañebog, J. (2013). Moral Standards vs. Non-Moral Standards. Retrieved July 15,
2020, from https://ourhappyschool.com/node/824

Prepared by:
Mark M. Gatus & Marck Zaldy O. Camba
Faculty Members, Philosophy Department