Anaphy Finals Reviewer

The
Digestive
System
Identify the overall function of the digestive system as digestion
and absorption of foodstuffs and describe the general activities
of each digestive system organ.
Name the organs of the alimentary and accessory digestive
organs, describing the general function of each
Explain how the accessory organs contribute to the
digestive processes.
Describe how foodstuffs in the digestive tract are mixed and

moved along the tract
UNIT Expected
Outcomes
OVERVIEW OF THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS
Ingestion
Digestion
Absorption
(Marieb & Keller, 2018) Defecation
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS
Ingestion
Digestion
Absorption
Defecation
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
FUNCTIONS
Ingestion
placing of food
into the mouth
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
FUNCTIONS Propulsion
✓ movement of foods from one
region of the digestive system
to another
Peristalsis
—alternating waves of contraction
and relaxation that squeeze food
along the GI tract
Segmentation
—movement of materials back and
forth to foster mixing in the small
intestine
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
FUNCTIONS Digestion
§ Digestion occurs when
enzymes chemically break
down large molecules into their
building blocks.
§ Each major food group

uses different enzymes
§ Carbohydrates are broken

down to .
§ Proteins are broken down

to
§ Fats are broken down to

.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
FUNCTIONS Absorption
§ End products
of digestion are
absorbed in the
blood or Lymph
§ Food must
enter mucosal
cells and then
move into blood
or
lymph capillaries
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
FUNCTIONS Defecation
§ Elimination of indigestible
substances from the GI tract in the
form of feces
TWO MAIN GROUPS OF ORGANS
1. Alimentary Canal
§ gastrointestinal, or GI, tract
§ continuous, coiled, hollow tube
§ These organs ingest,
digest, absorb, defecate
§ Mouth
§ Pharynx
§ Esophagus
§ Stomach
§ Small intestine
§ Large intestine
§ Anus
2. Accessory
Digestive Organs
§ Include teeth, tongue, and
several large digestive organs
§ Assist digestion in various ways
Gastrointestinal
System
1. ALIMENTARY CANAL
§ Mastication (chewing) of food
1a. Mouth §
§
§
Tongue mixes masticated food with saliva
Tongue initiates swallowing
Taste buds on the tongue allow for taste
1. ALIMENTARY CANAL
2a. Pharynx
✓ Serves as a
passageway for foods,
fluids, and air
✓ Food is propelled to
the esophagus by two
skeletal muscle layers
in the pharynx
✓ Alternating
contractions of the
muscle layers
(peristalsis) propel the
food
1. ALIMENTARY CANAL
3a. Esophagus
Anatomy
§ About 10 inches long
§ Runs from pharynx to
stomach through the diaphragm
Physiology
§ Conducts food by peristalsis
(slow rhythmic squeezing) to
the stomach
§ Passageway for food

only (respiratory system
branches off
after the pharynx)
1. ALIMENTARY CANAL
4a. Stomach
cardioesophageal
sphincter
Layers of Tissue in the Alimentary Canal Organs
1. ALIMENTARY CANAL
4a. Stomach (parts)
1. ALIMENTARY CANAL
4a. Stomach
1. ALIMENTARY CANAL
4a. Functions (Stomach)
1. ALIMENTARY CANAL
5a. Small Intestine
Anatomy of the Small Intestine
✓ The body’s major digestive organ
✓ Longest portion of the alimentary tube

(2–4 m, or 7–13 feet, in a living person
✓ Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
✓ Muscular tube extending from the pyloric

sphincter to the ileocecal valve
✓ Suspended from the posterior abdominal

wall by the mesentery
Subdivision
✓ Duodenum
✓ Jejunum
✓ Ileum
1. ALIMENTARY CANAL
5a. Small Intestine
a. Duodenum
✓ 1st 9-10 in.
✓ Digestive enzymes & Bile
✓ C,P,L Digestion
✓ Absorb nutrients
b. Jejunum
✓ 8 ft. long
✓ Finalize food digestion
c. Ileum
✓ 12 ft. long
✓ Absorptive fnx.
✓ Connects with Large intestine
1. ALIMENTARY CANAL
5a. Small Intestine Chemical digestion
begins in the small
intestine
✓ Enzymes produced
by intestinal cells
and pancreas are
carried to the
duodenum by
pancreatic ducts
✓ Bile, formed by
the liver, enters
the duodenum via
the bile duct
1. ALIMENTARY CANAL
6a. Large Intestine
✓ Larger in
diameter, but
shorter in length at
1.5 m, than the
small intestine
✓ Extends from the
ileocecal valve to
the anus
Subdivisions
✓ Cecum
✓ Appendix
✓ Colon
✓ Rectum
✓ Anal canal
1. ALIMENTARY CANAL 6a. Large Intestine
Cecum—saclike first part of the

large intestine
§ Appendix
§ Hangs from the cecum
§ Accumulation of lymphoid
tissue that sometimes
becomes inflamed (appendicitis)
Colon
§ Ascending—travels up right
side of abdomen and makes a
turn at the right colic (hepatic)
flexure
§ Transverse—travels across
the abdominal cavity and turns at
the left colic (splenic) flexure
§ Descending—travels down
the left side
§ Sigmoid—S-shaped region;
enters the pelvis
7a. Anal canal
• Anal canal
– Terminal segment of the large
intestine, between the rectum
and anus, located below the
level of the pelvic diaphragm.
– It is located within the anal
triangle of the perineum,
between the right and left
ischioanal fossa.
– The anus is the aperture at the
terminal portion of the anal
canal.
2. ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS
2a. Teeth
✓ Teeth masticate (chew) food into smaller fragments
Humans have two sets of teeth during a lifetime
✓ Deciduous (baby or milk)

teeth
§ A baby has 20 teeth by age 2
§ First teeth to appear are the
lower central incisors
✓ Permanent teeth
§ Replace deciduous teeth
between ages 6 and 12
§ A full set is 32 teeth (with the
wisdom teeth)
Two major regions of a tooth
2a. Teeth
Teeth are classified
according to shape and
function
2b. Salivary Gland Three pairs of salivary glands empty
secretions into the mouth
✓ Parotid glands
§ Found anterior to the ears
§ Mumps affect these salivary glands
✓ Submandibular glands
✓ Sublingual glands
§ Both submandibular and sublingual glands
empty saliva into the floor of the mouth
through small ducts
Saliva
§ Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
§ Helps to moisten and bind food together
into a mass called a bolus
Contains:
Salivary amylase—begins starch digestion
Lysozymes and antibodies —inhibit bacteria
§ Dissolve's chemicals so they can be tasted

2c. Pancreas
✓ Soft, triangular gland
✓ Extends across the

abdomen from spleen to
duodenum
✓ Produces a wide spectrum

of digestive enzymes that
break down all categories
of food
✓ Alkaline fluid introduced

with enzymes neutralizes
acidic chyme coming from
stomach
✓ Hormones produced by the

pancreas: Insulin &
Glucagon
2d. Liver
✓ Largest gland in the body
✓ Located on the right side of the
body under the diaphragm
✓ Digestive role is to produce bile

– Bile leaves the liver through
the common hepatic duct and
enters duodenum through the
bile duct
– Bile is yellow-green, watery
solution containing:
– Bile salts and bile pigments
(mostly bilirubin from the
breakdown of hemoglobin)
– Cholesterol, phospholipids, and
electrolytes.
• Bile emulsifies (breaks down) fats

2e. Gallbladder
✓ Green sac found in a
shallow fossa in the inferior
surface of the liver
✓ When no digestion is
occurring, bile backs up
the cystic duct for
storage in the gallbladder
✓ While in the gallbladder,

bile is concentrated by the
removal of water
✓ When fatty food enters the

duodenum, the gallbladder
spurts out stored bile
1. ALIMENTARY CANAL
How does our liver

receive and filter blood,
poisonous substances
(Alcohol and Drugs?)
Identify the overall function of the digestive system as digestion
and absorption of foodstuffs and describe the general activities
of each digestive system organ.
Name the organs of the alimentary and accessory digestive
organs, describing the general function of each
Explain how the accessory organs contribute to the
digestive processes.
Describe how foodstuffs in the digestive tract are mixed and

moved along the tract
UNIT Expected
Outcomes
The
Digestive
System
The end
Anatomy & Physiology (ANPH111)
The
Urinary
System
CAS- Natural Sciences Department
OLFU-Pampanga Campus
•List the major structure and functions of
the urinary system.
• Describe the structure of the kidneys

together with nephron and the location of
the parts of the nephron in the kidney.
• Identify the principal factors that influence

filtration pressure, and explain how they
affect the rate of filtrate production.
• Elaborate the processes of how urine is
being formed and excreted
UNIT Expected Outcomes

1.1. URINARY SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW
FUNCTION
Kidneys dispose of waste products in urine
§ Nitrogenous wastes
§ Toxins
§ Drugs
§ Excess ions
Kidneys’ regulatory functions include:

§ Production of renin to maintain blood pressure
§ Production of erythropoietin to stimulate red blood cell
production
§ Conversion of vitamin D to its active form
What are the
ORGANS
involved in
URINARY
SYSTEM?
1.1. URINARY SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW
ORGANS
1.1.1 URINARY SYSTEM: ORGANS
KIDNEY
Location
• The kidneys are situated against
the dorsal body wall in a
retroperitoneal position (behind the
parietal peritoneum)
• The kidneys are situated at the

level of the T12 to L3 vertebrae
• The right kidney is slightly lower

than the left
(because of position of the liver)
KIDNEY Structure
KIDNEY
Structure
KIDNEY
Structure
Three regions revealed in a
longitudinal section
•Renal cortex—outer region
•Renal medulla—deeper region
•Renal (medullary) pyramids—

triangular regions of tissue in the
medulla
•Renal columns—extensions of
cortex like material that separate
the pyramids
•Renal pelvis—medial region that

is a flat, funnel-shaped tube
1.1.1 URINARY SYSTEM: ORGANS Structure
Summary of the pathway of renal blood vessels

1.1.2. URINARY SYSTEM: ORGANS
NEPHRON
§ Structural and functional

units of the kidneys
§ Each kidney contains over

a million nephrons
§ Each nephron consists of Figure 11.3 Structure of the Nephron

Photo and content taken from Essentials of
two main structures Human Anatomy & Physiology by Marieb &
Keller (2018) (a) Wedge- shaped section of
1.Renal corpuscle kidney tissue indicating the position of
nephrons in the kidney.
2. Renal tubule
ANYQUESTIONS?
Structure
Function
1.1.2. URINARY SYSTEM:
URINE FORMATION & CHARACTERISTICS
Urine formation is the result of

three processes:
1. Glomerular filtration
2. Tubular reabsorption
3. Tubular secretion
URINE FORMATION & CHARACTERISTICS
Urine formation is the result of

three processes:
1. Glomerular filtration
2. Tubular reabsorption
3. Tubular secretion
1.1.2. URINARY SYSTEM: URINE FORMATION & CHARACTERISTICS
I. Glomerular filtration
§ The glomerulus is a filter
• Proteins and blood cells are normally too large to pass through
the filtration membrane
• Once in the capsule, fluid is called filtrate
• Filtrate leaves via the renal tubule
II. Tubular reabsorption

§ The peritubular capillaries reabsorb useful substances from the renal tubule
cells, such as:
§ Water § Ions
§ Glucose § Some reabsorption is passive; most is active (ATP)
§ Amino acids § Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted
tubule
III. Tubular secretion
§ Reabsorption in reverse
§ Some materials move from the blood of the peritubular capillaries into the
renal tubules to be eliminated in filtrate
§ Secretion is important for:
§ Getting rid of substances not already in the filtrate
§ Removing drugs and excess ions
§ Maintaining acid-base balance of blood
§ Materials left in the renal tubule move toward

the ureter
§ Nitrogenous wastes
§ Nitrogenous waste products are
poorly reabsorbed, if at all
§ Tend to remain in the filtrate and are
excreted from the body
in the urine
§ Urea—end product of protein breakdown
§ Uric acid—results from nucleic acid metabolism
§ Creatinine—associated with creatine
metabolism in muscles
§ In 24 hours, about 1.0 to 1.8 liters of urine are
produced
FILTRATE
vs
URINE
Urine and filtrate are different
§ Filtrate contains
everything that
blood plasma does
(except proteins)
§ Urine is what
remains after the filtrate
has lost most of its
water, nutrients, and
necessary ions through
reabsorption
URINE CHARACTERISTICS
§ Clear and pale to deep yellow in color
§ Yellow color is normal and due to the pigment

urochrome (from the destruction of hemoglobin) and
solutes
§ Dilute urine is a pale, straw color
§ Sterile at the time of formation
§ Slightly aromatic, but smells like

ammonia with time
§ Slightly acidic (pH of 6)
§ Specific gravity of 1.001 to 1.035

Organ
NEXT to
KIDNEY?
URETERS
§ Slender tubes 25–30 cm
(10–12 inches) attaching the
kidney to the urinary
bladder
o Continuous with the renal

pelvis
o Enter the posterior
aspect of the urinary
bladder
§ Peristalsis aids gravity

in urine transport
Organ
NEXT to
URETER?
URINARY BLADDER
§ Smooth, collapsible, muscular
§ Stores urine temporarily
Organ
NEXT to
UB?
URETHRA
§ Thin-walled tube that carries urine
from the urinary bladder to the outside of
the body by peristalsis
Function
o Females—carries only urine
o Males—carries urine and sperm
Release of urine is controlled by two

sphincters
1. Internal urethral sphincter

Involuntary and made of smooth muscle
2. External urethral sphincter

Voluntary and made of skeletal muscle
URETHRA
§ Length
o In females: 3 to 4 cm (1.5 inches) long)
o In males: 20 cm (8 inches long)
ANY
QUESTIONS?
1.2 URINARY SYSTEM: MICTURITION
• internal urethral sphincter § When contractions become stronger, urine is forced

• external urethral sphincter past the involuntary internal sphincter into the upper
urethra
§ Urge to void is felt
§ The external sphincter is voluntarily controlled, so micturition can usually be delayed
ANY
QUESTIONS?
•List the major structure and functions of
the urinary system.
• Describe the structure of the kidneys

together with nephron and the location of
the parts of the nephron in the kidney.
• Identify the principal factors that influence

filtration pressure, and explain how they
affect the rate of filtrate production.
• Elaborate the processes of how urine is

being formed and excreted
UNIT Expected Outcomes

Anatomy & Physiology
The
Reproductive
System
List the functions of the male and female
reproductive systems.
Name the organs of the female reproductive system

and describe their structure.
Describe the scrotum and its role in regulating the
temperature of the testes.
Describe the structure of the uterine tubes, uterus,
vagina, external genitalia, and mammary glands.
UNIT Expected
Outcomes
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
▪ Composed of organs grouped
together for 1 common function –
to produce or multiply species of
the same kind.
▪ The purpose is to ensurethe
“survival of the species”
2
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
▪ Both male and female reproductive
organshave internal and external
structures.
▪ Reproductive organs are considered to
be either primary or secondary organs.
▪ The primary reproductive organs are
the gonads (ovaries and testes), which
are responsible for gamete (sperm and
egg cell) and hormone production.
Functions of Reproductive
System:
1. to produce egg and sperm cell s

(gametes)
2. to transport and sustain these cell s
3. To nurture a developing offspring
4. to produce sex hormones
Gametes – are the basic units of sexual

reproduction
4
1.1. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW
GONADS (pro)
1.2. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: ANATOMY
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Ejaculatory duct
Figure 1.1 Male Reproductive Organs

Photo and content taken from Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology by
Marieb & Keller (2018) (b) frontal view, posterior aspect
1.2. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: ANATOMY MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1.2.1. Testes
Each testis is connected to the trunk via the
spermatic cord, which houses:
§ Blood vessels
§ Nerves
§ Ductus/vas deferens
Coverings of the testes

§ Tunica albuginea—capsule that surrounds
each testis
§ Septa—extensions of the capsule that extend
into the testis and divide it into lobules
Each lobule contains one to four seminiferous

tubules
§ Tightly coiled structures
§ Function as sperm-forming factories
§ Empty sperm into the rete testis
Sperm travels from the rete testis to the

epididymis
Figure 1.2 Sagittal section of the testis and Associated Epididymis Interstitial cells in the seminiferous tubules
*Photo and content taken from Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology produce androgens such as testosterone
by Marieb & Keller (2018)
Structures of the gonads:
Septae – a partition formed inside the testes
Lobules – compartments formed by the septae
Seminiferous tubules – actual site of
spermatogenesis; formed by two types of cell.
a. spermatogenic cells –includes
spermatids, spermatogonia, spermatocytes
b. sustentacular (sertoli) cells– provide
nourishment for thegerminal sperm
Interstitial cell of leydig – secretes male sex
hormone- “testosterone”
23
1.2.2 Duct System

1.2.2 Duct System
ANY
QUESTIONS?
1.2.3 Accessory Organs and Semen

1.2.3.1 Seminal Glands (Vesicles)
1.2.3.2 Prostate
1.2.3.3 Bulbourethral Gland
1.2.3.4 Semen
1.2.4 External Genitalia
1.2.4.1 Scrotum
§ Divided sac of skin outside the
abdomen that houses the testes
§ Viable sperm cannot be produced at
normal body temperature (3°C)
1.2.4.2 Penis
§ Male organ of copulation that
delivers sperm into the female rt
§ Internally there are three areas of

spongy erectile tissue
around the urethra
§ Erections occur when this erectile
tissue fills with blood during sexual
excitement
Parts of the Male reproductive organ:
a.Scrotum – a sac or pouch
like structure that hangs from
the root of the penis,
composed of loosed skin,
superficial fascia, and
muscles.
Vertical septum divides the
scrotum into two sacs,
containing a single testis
function to support and
protect the testes and
maintain the temperature of
the testes at about 35°C
17
b. Penis – is the main
copulatory organ
of the male
reproductive
system.
• composed of 3
cylindrical columns
of erectile tissue:
corpora
cavern
osa (2), corpora
spongiosa (1)
17
Parts o f the Penis
1. Root of the penis –
attached portion to the
abdominal wall
2. Bodyof the penis –
composed of erectile
tissue
3. Glans penis –cone-
shaped terminal
portion of the penis,
consists of the
following structure:
corona, external
urethral meatus,
prepuce(foreskin),
frenulum 18
ANY
QUESTIONS?
Chief roles of the male in the reproductive

process
§ Produce sperm
§ Produce a hormone, testosterone
1.3.1 Spermatogenesis
1.3.2 Testosterone Production
1.3. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: FUNCTIONS OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1.3.1 Spermatogenesis
Sperm production
§ Begins at puberty and continues throughout life
§ Millions of sperm are made every day
§ Sperm are formed in the seminiferous tubules of the testis
§ Spermatogonia (primitive stem cells) begin the process by dividing rapidly
§ During puberty, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted in
increasing amounts
1.3. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: FUNCTIONS OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1.3.2 Testosterone Production

During puberty:
§ Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
- begins prodding seminiferous tubules to produce sperm
§ Luteinizing hormone (LH)

- begins activating the interstitial cells to produce testosterone
Testosterone
§ Most important hormonal product of the testes
§ Stimulates reproductive organ development
§ Underlies sex drive
§ Causes secondary sex characteristics
§ Increased hair growth
§ Enlargement of skeletal muscles
§ Increased bone growth and density
Figure 14.6 Hormonal Control of testosterone release and
Sperm Production
*Photo and content taken from Essentials of Human Anatomy &
Physiology by Marieb & Keller (2018)
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
▪ Composed of organs grouped together for 1 common
function – to produce or multiply species of the same
kind.
▪ The purpose is to ensure the “survival of the species”
▪ Production of gametes (ova, or eggs)
▪ Preparation for support of developing embryo during
pregnancy
▪ Cyclic changes: menstrual cycle
▪ Averages 28 days
▪ Complex interplay between hormones and organs: at level of
brain, ovaries and uterus
2
3
1.4. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: ANATOMY
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
§ Ovaries
§ Duct system: Uterine (fallopian) tubes; Uterus; Vagina
§ External genitalia
Figure 14.7 The Human Female Reproductive Organs

*Photo and content taken from Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology by Marieb & Keller (2018)
(a) Sagittal section. (The plurals of labium minus and majus are labia minora and majora, respectively.) (b) Posterior view. The posterior
organ walls have been removed on the right side to reveal the shape of the lumen of the uterine tube, uterus, and vagina.
1.4. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: ANATOMY FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1.4.1 Ovaries
§ Produce eggs (ova)
and hormones
(estrogen and
progesterone)
§ Each ovary houses

ovarian follicles
consisting of:
§ Oocyte (immature
egg)
§ Follicle cells—layers
of different cells that
surround the oocyte
Figure 14.8 Sagittal Section of a Human Ovary Showing the Developmental Stages of An Ovarian Follicle
1.4.2 Duct System

1.4.2.1 Uterine (Fallopian) tubes
1.4.2.2 Uterus
1.4.2.3 Vagina
11.4.2 Duct System
11.4.2.1 Uterine (Fallopian) tubes

§ Form the initial part of the duct system
§ Receive the ovulated oocyte from the ovaries
§ Provide a site for fertilization
§ Empty into the uterus
§ Little or no contact between ovaries and uterine
tubes
§ Supported and enclosed by the broad ligament
Uterine (fallopian) tube structure

Infundibulum: Distal, funnel-shaped end
Fimbriae: Fingerlike projections of the infundibulum
Ampulla – widest section of the uterine tubes.
Fertilization usually occurs here.
§ Receive the oocyte from the ovary

§ Cilia located inside the uterine tube transport the
oocyte
11.4.2 Duct System

11.4.2.2 Uterus
§ Situated between the urinary bladder and rectum
§ Receives, retains, nourishes a fertilized egg
Layers of the uterus
§ Endometrium
§ Inner layer (mucosa)
§ Site of implantation of a fertilized egg
§ Sloughs off if no pregnancy occurs
(menstruation or menses)
§ Myometrium
• is the middle layer of smooth muscle that
contracts during labor
§ Perimetrium (visceral peritoneum)
• is the outermost serous layer of the uterus
11.5.3 Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle
§ Cyclic changes of the endometrium, about 28 days in length
§ Regulated by cyclic production of estrogens and progesterone by the ovaries
§ FSH and LH, from the anterior pituitary, regulate the production of estrogens and
progesterone by the ovaries
§ Ovulation typically occurs about midway through cycle, on day 14
§ Stages of the menstrual cycle
§ Menstrual phase
§ Proliferative stage
§ Secretory stage
The four phases of the
menstrual cycle
• are the follicular phase,

ovulation and the luteal
phase, and menstruation.
• Common menstrual
problems include heavy or
painful periods and
premenstrual syndrome
(PMS).
11.4.2 Duct System

11.4.2.3 Vagina
§ Passageway that extends from cervix to exterior of body and is located
between urinary bladder and rectum
§ Serves as the canal that allows a baby or menstrual flow to leave the body
§ Female organ of copulation
§ Receives the penis during sexual intercourse
§ Hymen—partially closes the vagina until it is ruptured
11.4.3 External Genitalia
§ The female
external genitalia,
or vulva, includes:
§ Mons pubis
§ Labia
§ Clitoris
§ Urethral orifice
§ Vaginal orifice
§ Greater
vestibular glands
Figure 14.9 External Genitalia of the Human Female

11.4.3.1 Mons Pubis 11.4.3 External Genitalia

§ Fatty area overlying the pubic symphysis
§ Covered with pubic hair after puberty § The female external
genitalia, or vulva, includes:
11.4.3.2 External Genitalia and Perineum § Mons pubis
§ Labia
11.4.3.2.1 Labia – skin folds § Clitoris
§ Urethral orifice
§ Labia majora § Vaginal orifice
§ Hair-covered skin folds § Greater vestibular glands
§ Enclose the labia minora
§ Also encloses the vestibule
§ Labia minora—delicate, hair-free folds of skin
§ Vestibule
§ Enclosed by labia majora
§ Contains external openings of the urethra
and vagina
§ Greater vestibular glands

§ One is found on each side of the vagina
§ Secretions lubricate vagina during
intercourse
11.4.3.2.2 Clitoris 11.4.3 External Genitalia

§ Contains erectile tissue
§ Corresponds to the male penis § The female external
genitalia, or vulva, includes:
§ The clitoris is similar to the penis in that it § Mons pubis
is: § Labia
§ Hooded by a prepuce § Clitoris
§ Composed of sensitive erectile tissue § Urethral orifice
§ Swollen with blood during sexual § Vaginal orifice
excitement § Greater vestibular glands
§ The clitoris lacks a reproductive duct
11.4.3.2.3 Perineum
§ Diamond-shaped region between the anterior
ends of the labial folds, anus posteriorly, and
vischial tuberosities laterally
Structures that support the urogenital and

gastrointestinal systems – and it therefore plays an
important role in functions as such micturition,
defecation, sexual intercourse and childbirth.
ANY
QUESTIONS?
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS AND

CYCLES
§ The total supply of eggs is determined by the time a
female is born
§ Ability to release eggs begins at puberty with the onset
of the menstrual cycle
§ Reproductive ability ends at menopause (in female’s
fifties)
11.5.1 Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle

11.5.2 Hormone Production by the Ovaries
11.5.3 Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle
11.5.4 Mammary Glands
1.5. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS AND CYCLES

11.5.1 Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle
11.5.2 Hormone Production by the Ovaries
§ Estrogens are produced by follicle cells

§ Cause secondary sex characteristics
§ Enlargement of accessory organs of the female reproductive
system
§ Development of breasts
§ Appearance of axillary and pubic hair
§ Increase in fat beneath the skin, particularly in hips and breasts
§ Widening and lightening of the pelvis
§ Onset of menses (menstrual cycle)
Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum

§ Production continues until LH diminishes in the blood
§ Does not contribute to the appearance of secondary sex
characteristics
§ Other major effects
§ Helps maintain pregnancy
§ Prepares the breasts for milk production
List the functions of the male and female
reproductive systems.
Name the organs of the female reproductive system

and describe their structure.
Describe the scrotum and its role in regulating the
temperature of the testes.
Describe the structure of the uterine tubes, uterus,
vagina, external genitalia, and mammary glands.
UNIT Expected
Outcomes
The
Endocrine
System
• Describe the classes of chemical messengers and
the regulatory functions of the endocrine system
• Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands

with the main patterns of hormone secretion.
• List and describe the stimulatory and inhibitory

influences on hormone secretion and give examples
of each.
• Describe the major mechanisms that maintain blood
hormone levels.
UNIT Expected
Outcomes
1.1. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW
Homeostasis
Regulation
of
what?
Glands & Hormones
1.2 Hormones and Endocrine Gland
✔Chemical messengers
✔Travel everywhere blood goes
✔May affect very distant organs or cells
✔Affect only target cells, cells with receptors
✔ENDOCRINOLOGISTS!
1.3. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: FUNCTIONS
Composed of:
1. Endocrine glands: secrete their product directly into blood
stream
2. Chemical signal: molecules that are released from one location,
move to another location, and produce a response
1. Controls homeostasis
2. Maintains water balance
3. Controls uterine contractions
4. Controls milk production
5. Regulates ions (calcium, sodium, potassium)
6. Regulates metabolism and growth

7. Regulates heart rate and blood pressure
8. Monitor's blood glucose levels
9. Aids the immune system
10. Reproductive functions
ENDOCRINE vs
NERVOUS
SYSTEM?
1.4. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: TYPES OF CHEMICAL SIGNALS
Intracellular: Intercellular:
produce in one of part a cell
and move to another part of released from one cell and
same cell bind to receptors on
another cell
Types of Intracellular Signals
Autocrine: 🡪 Cell Signaling 🡪 Eicosanoids (released in response to inflammation)
Paracrine: 🡪 other cell types in proximity 🡪 Somatostatin (inhibits insulin secretion)
Pheromones: 🡪 secreted into environment and modify behavior and physiology of

other individual in same species e.g. Women and menstrual cycles
Hormones and neurohormones: secreted into blood and bind to receptor sites
Ex. Epinephrine and insulin
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: TYPES OF CHEMICAL SIGNALS
Intracellular: Intercellular:
produce in one of part a cell
and move to another part of released from one cell and
same cell bind to receptors on
another cell
Types of Intracellular Signals
Autocrine: 🡪 Cell Signaling 🡪 Eicosanoids (released in response to inflammation)
Paracrine: 🡪 other cell types in proximity 🡪 Somatostatin (inhibits insulin secretion)
Pheromones: 🡪 secreted into environment and modify behavior and physiology of

other individual in same species e.g. Women and menstrual cycles
Hormones and neurohormones: secreted into blood and bind to receptor sites
Ex. Epinephrine and insulin
1.5 ENDOCRINE PHYSIOLOGY: HORMONE STRUCTURE
three groups based on structure
Steroid
§ Lipids synthesized from cholesterol
§ Share structure
§ four organic rings with varied side groups
§ E.g., testosterone and estradiol
Monoamines
§ Small molecules
§ Synthesized from amino acids
tyrosine and tryptophan
§ E.g., thyroxine and epinephrine
Peptide
Hormones
§ Chains from 3 to more than
200 amino acids
§ Considered proteins if > 50
amino acids
§ Oxytocin, small peptide
hormone
§ Insulin, a protein
1.6 TYPES
OF
HORMONE
Water soluble:
- includes proteins, peptides, amino
acids
- most common
- Ex. Growth hormone, antidiuretic,
prolactin, etc.
Lipid hormones:
- includes steroids and eicosanoids
- Ex. LH, FSH, androgens
1.7 COMPONENTS OF HORMONE
• Receptor site: location on a cell where hormone binds (lock)
• Target tissues: group of cells that respond to specific hormones
• specificity: specific hormones bind to specific receptor sites
1.8. ENDOCRINE vs EXOCRINE
• ductless, release into blood
• other organs not usually considered release secretions to tissue
endocrine glands by ducts
• e.g., brain and heart, releasing sweat, salivary, mammary,
important substances ceruminous, sebaceous, prostate
and mucous.
ANY
QUESTIONS?
1.9. ENDOCRINE GLANDS & THEIR HORMONES
1.9. ENDOCRINE GLANDS &
THEIR HORMONES
Pituitary Gland
§ Small gland in brain
§ Controlled by hypothalamus
§ Divided into 2 regions: anterior and posterior
§ Secretes at least 6 hormones
THEIR HORMONES
Anterior Pituitary Gland

Growth Hormone:
- Target tissues: most organs
- Functions: stimulates growth of bones, muscles, and organs
Abnormalities:
§ Too much GH causes 🡪 GIANTISM
§ Too little GH causes pituitary 🡪 DWARFISM
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH):

- Target tissues: thyroid gland
- Functions: regulates thyroid gland secretions
- Abnormalities:
§ Too much TSH, thyroid gland enlarges

§ Too little TSH, thyroid gland shrinks
THEIR HORMONES
Posterior Pituitary Gland

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH):
- Target tissues: kidneys
- Functions: conserve water
- Abnormalities:
Diabetes insipidus:
- low ADH
- kidneys to produce large amounts of dilute (watery) urine
- can lead to dehydration and thirst
Oxytocin:
- Target tissues: uterus
- Functions: increases uterine contractions during labor
THEIR HORMONES
Thyroid Gland
§ One of largest glands
§ Requires iodine to function
§ Thyroid hormones:
- Target tissues: most
- Functions: regulates metabolic rates and is needed for growth
§ Abnormalities of Thyroid Gland
§ Hyperthyroidism:
Hypothyroidism:
§ Increased metabolism
§ Decreased metabolism
§ Weight loss, increased appetite,
§ Weight gain, reduced appetite, fatigue
nervousness
§ Low temp. and pulse
§ Higher temp. and pulse
§ Dry, cold skin
§ Warm, flushed skin
§ Myxedema in adults
§ Graves’ disease (leads to goiter)
§ Cretinism in infants
§ Calcitonin:
- Target tissues: bones
- Functions: secreted when blood Ca2+ levels are high
THEIR HORMONES
Parathyroid Gland
Parathyroid hormone
(PTH):
- Target tissues: bones and kidneys
- Functions: regulates blood Ca2+
levels (more than calcitonin)
ü If Ca 2+ is low then osteoclasts break

down bone matrix and less Ca 2+ is
lost in urine.
ü If Ca 2+ is high then osteoclasts

don’t break down bone matrix and
more Ca 2+ is lost in urine.
THEIR HORMONES
Adrenal Glands
§ On kidneys
§ 2 regions medulla and cortex
§ Adrenal Medulla (inner portion):
Epinephrine/Norepinephrine:
- Target tissues: heart, blood vessels, liver, fat cells
Functions: released as part of fight or flight response
§ Adrenal Cortex (outer portion):

§ Aldosterone:
§ Cortisol:
§ Androgens:
THEIR HORMONES
Adrenal Glands
§ Adrenal Cortex (outer portion):

§ Aldosterone:
- Type of mineralocorticoids
- Target tissues: kidneys
- Functions: causes Na+ and H2O to be retained and K+ to be secreted,
indirectly involved with blood pressure and blood volume
§ Cortisol:
- Type of glucocorticoids
- Functions: increases breakdown of fat and protein for energy uses,
reduces inflammatory and immune responses
§ Androgens:
- Functions:
Males: secondary sexual characteristics
Females: sex drive
THEIR HORMONES
Pancreas
§ Organ in abdomen
§ Insulin:
- Target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue
- Functions:
- regulates blood glucose levels
§ Glucagon:
- Target tissues: liver
- Function:
- regulates blood glucose levels
- between meals glucose levels drop and glucagon is
secreted
- glucagon allows glycogen to be broken down into glucose
- obese peoplecan be treated with diet but can turn into type
I
Testes
§ Testosterone:
- Functions: aids in sperm and reproductive organ
development and function
Ovaries
§ Estrogen/Progesterone:
- Functions: involved in uterine and mammary gland
development and menstrual cycle
Thymus Gland
§ Thymosin:
- Target tissues: immune system tissues
- Functions: promotes immune system development
and function
Pineal Body
§ Melatonin:
- Target tissues: hypothalamus
- Functions: plays a role in onset of puberty and controls
circadian rhythms. Light affects its function.
• Describe the classes of chemical messengers and
the regulatory functions of the endocrine system
• Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands

with the main patterns of hormone secretion.
• List and describe the stimulatory and inhibitory

influences on hormone secretion and give examples
of each.
• Describe the major mechanisms that maintain blood
hormone levels.
UNIT Expected
Outcomes
Anatomy & Physiology
(ANPH111)
BS Pharmacy
The
Lymphatic
System
• Explain how the lymphatic system is
functionally related to the cardiovascular
system and the immune defenses.
• Name the two major types of structures

composing the lymphatic system and
functions.
•Discuss the importance of Phagocytes and

several antimicrobial substances produced
by the body that act in innate body defense.
• Distinguish between active and passive

immunity.
Outcomes
UNIT Expected
1.1. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW
FUNCTION
§ Transports escaped fluids from
the cardiovascular system back to
the blood
§ Plays essential roles in body

defense and resistance to disease
1.1.1. LYMPHATIC VESSELS
§Lymph §Lymphatic vessels §Lymph capillaries
1.1.2. LYMPHATIC NODES
§ Lymph nodes filter lymph before it is returned to the blood
§ Harmful materials that are filtered (microorganisms)
§ Defense cells within lymph nodes

§ Macrophages—engulf and destroy bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances in lymph
§ Lymphocytes—respond to foreign substances in lymph
1.1.2. OTHER LYMPHOID VESSEL
ANY
QUESTIONS?
1.2. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM: BODY DEFENSES
Adaptive (specific) defense

Innate (nonspecific) defense system
system § Fight's invaders that get past the innate system
§ Specific defense is required for each type of
§ Mechanisms protect against a variety of invaders
§ Responds immediately to protect body from foreign invader
§ The highly specific resistance to disease is
materials
immunity
1.2. BODY DEFENSES: INNATE
Innate body defenses are mechanical barriers to pathogens (harmful or
disease-causing microorganisms) and include:
§ Body surface coverings
§ Intact skin
§ Mucous membranes
§ Specialized human cells
§ Chemicals produced by the body
1.2.2 INTERNAL CELL & CHEMICALS: 2nd LINE
Cells and chemicals provide a
second line of defense
• Natural killer cells
and phagocytes
• Inflammatory
response
• Chemicals that kill
pathogens
• Fever
Natural killer (NK) cells

• Lyse (burst) and
kill cancer cells,
virus-infected cell
• Release chemicals
called perforin and
granzymes to
degrade target cell
contents
1.2.3 ADAPTIVE SPECIFIC: 3rd LINE
Adaptive body defenses are the body’s specific defense system, or

the third line of defense
§ Immune response is the immune system’s response to a threat
§ Antigens are targeted and destroyed by antibodies
Antigens, which are specific substances found in foreign microbes. Most antigens
are proteins that serve as the stimulus to produce an immune response.
Two arms of the adaptive defense system

1. Humoral immunity = antibody-mediated immunity
Provided by antibodies present in body fluids
2. Cellular immunity = cell-mediated immunity
Target's virus-infected cells, cancer cells, and cells of foreign grafts
activated when pathogens are able to
penetrate the first line of defense. It is non-
specific and does not have memory.
• COMPONENTS OF THE SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE:

❖Transferrin
❖Fever
❖Interferons
❖Inflammation
❖Phagocytosis
❖Chemotaxis
❖Transferrin
Transferrin is a
glycoprotein
synthesized in the liver.
It stores and delivers
iron to host cells
thereby depriving
pathogens of iron

❖Fever
Pyrogens are substances that stimulate
fever.
Pyrogens may come from outside the

body (pathogens) or inside the body
(interleukins).
These substances raise the hypothalamic

set point which triggers vasoconstriction
and shunting of blood from the periphery to
decrease heat loss.
FEVER
§ Abnormally high body
temperature is a systemic response
to invasion by
microorganisms
§ Hypothalamus regulates body
temperature at 37ºC (98.6ºF)
§ The hypothalamus thermostat can
be reset higher by pyrogens
(secreted
by white blood cells)
§ High temperatures inhibit the
release of iron and zinc (needed by
bacteria)
from the liver and spleen
§ Fever also increases the speed of
repair processes
Inflammatory
response
Process of the inflammatory
response
1. Neutrophils migrate to the
area of inflammation by
rolling along the vessel wall
(following the scent of
chemicals from
inflammation)
2. Neutrophils squeeze
through the capillary walls by
diapedesis to sites of
inflammation
3.Neutrophils gather in the

precise site of tissue injury
(positive chemotaxis) and
consume any foreign
material present

❖Interferons
Interferons are antiviral proteins produced by virus-
infected cells. They interfere with viral replication.

❖Phagocytosis
is a process by which particles, microbes or fragments of dead cells are
engulfed and internalized, usually by specific membrane receptors.
WANDERING MACROPHAGES
vs
FIXED MACROPHAGES
COMPONENTS OF THE
SECOND LINE OF
DEFENSE:
❖Chemotaxis
is migration of phagocytes
to the site of injury as a
result of release of chemical
attractants (chemotactic
agents).
Antigens molecules that triggers immune response
Self-antigens
§ The presence of our cells in another person’s body can trigger an immune
response because they are foreign
§ Restricts donors for transplants
ANY
QUESTIONS?
1.3. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM: CELLS OF THE ADAPTIVE
DEFENSE SYSTEM
Crucial cells of the adaptive system
Lymphocytes—respond to specific antigens

• B lymphocytes (B cells) produce antibodies and oversee humoral
immunity
• T lymphocytes (T cells) constitute the cell-mediated arm of the
adaptive defenses; do not make antibodies
Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)

- help the lymphocytes but do not respond to specific antigens
1.3.1. LYMPHOCYTES
Lymphocytes
§ Arise from hemocytoblasts of bone marrow
§ The capability to respond to a specific antigen by binding to it with
antigen-specific receptors that appear on the lymphocyte’s surface
T cells develop immunocompetence in the thymus and oversee cell mediated

immunity
§ Identify foreign antigens
§ Those that bind self-antigens are destroyed
§ Self-tolerance is important part of lymphocyte “education”
B cells develop immunocompetence in bone marrow and provide

humoral immunity
• Immunocompetent T and B lymphocytes migrate to the lymph nodes and spleen, where
encounters with antigens occur
• Differentiation from naïve cells into mature lymphocytes is complete when they bind with
recognized antigens
• Mature lymphocytes (especially T cells) circulate continuously throughout the body
1.4.1. ACTIVE IMMUNITY
§ Occurs when B cells encounter antigens and produce antibodies

§ Active immunity can be:
o Naturally acquired during bacterial and viral infections
o Artificially acquired from vaccines
1.4.2. PASSIVE IMMUNITY
§ Occurs when antibodies are obtained from someone else

§ Naturally acquired from a mother to her fetus or in the breast milk
§ Artificially acquired from immune serum or gamma globulin
(donated antibodies)
ANY
QUESTIONS?
• Explain how the lymphatic system is
functionally related to the cardiovascular
system and the immune defenses.
• Name the two major types of structures

composing the lymphatic system and
functions.
•Discuss the importance of Phagocytes and

several antimicrobial substances produced
by the body that act in innate body defense.
• Distinguish between active and passive

immunity.
Outcomes
UNIT Expected

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The

Describe how foodstuffs in the digestive tract are mixed and

§ Each major food group

§ Carbohydrates are broken

§ Proteins are broken down

§ Fats are broken down to

§ Passageway for food

✓ Longest portion of the alimentary tube

✓ Site of nutrient absorption into the blood

✓ Muscular tube extending from the pyloric

✓ Suspended from the posterior abdominal

Cecum—saclike first part of the

✓ Deciduous (baby or milk)

§ Dissolve's chemicals so they can be tasted

✓ Soft, triangular gland

✓ Extends across the

✓ Produces a wide spectrum

✓ Alkaline fluid introduced

✓ Hormones produced by the

✓ Digestive role is to produce bile

• Bile emulsifies (breaks down) fats

✓ While in the gallbladder,

✓ When fatty food enters the

How does our liver

Describe how foodstuffs in the digestive tract are mixed and

• Describe the structure of the kidneys

• Identify the principal factors that influence

UNIT Expected Outcomes

Kidneys’ regulatory functions include:

• The kidneys are situated at the

• The right kidney is slightly lower

•Renal medulla—deeper region

•Renal (medullary) pyramids—

•Renal pelvis—medial region that

Summary of the pathway of renal blood vessels

§ Structural and functional

§ Each kidney contains over

§ Each nephron consists of Figure 11.3 Structure of the Nephron

Urine formation is the result of

Urine formation is the result of

II. Tubular reabsorption

§ Materials left in the renal tubule move toward

§ Yellow color is normal and due to the pigment

§ Dilute urine is a pale, straw color

§ Sterile at the time of formation

§ Slightly aromatic, but smells like

§ Slightly acidic (pH of 6)

§ Specific gravity of 1.001 to 1.035

o Continuous with the renal

§ Peristalsis aids gravity

Release of urine is controlled by two

1. Internal urethral sphincter

2. External urethral sphincter

• internal urethral sphincter § When contractions become stronger, urine is forced

• Describe the structure of the kidneys

• Identify the principal factors that influence

• Elaborate the processes of how urine is

UNIT Expected Outcomes

Name the organs of the female reproductive system

1. to produce egg and sperm cell s

Gametes – are the basic units of sexual

Figure 1.1 Male Reproductive Organs

Coverings of the testes

Each lobule contains one to four seminiferous