DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Digestion

✓ Biochemical breakdown of
Primary Function structurally complex foodstuffs into
✓ Transfer nutrients, water, and smaller, absorbable units
electrocytes from ingested food into ✓ Accomplished by enzymatic hydrolysis.
body’s internal environment. ✓ Complex foodstuffs and their
✓ Macronutrients (Carbohydrates, absolute units.
Proteins, and Fats) ▪ Carbohydrates – monosaccharides
✓ Micronutrients (Vitamin A, B, C, E, Z. ▪ Proteins – amino acids
Sodium, Potassium, and Calcium) ▪ Fats – glycerol and fatty acids

Four Function Absorption

✓ Motility ✓ Small units resulting from digestion,
✓ Secretion along with water, vitamins, and
✓ Digestion electrocytes are transferred from
✓ Absorption digestive tract lumen into blood or
lymph.
Motility
✓ Muscular contractions that mix and Digestive Tract
move forward the contents of the ✓ Continuous from mouth to anus
digestive tract. ✓ Consist of
✓ Two types of digestive motility ▪ Mouth
▪ Propulsive Movements ▪ Pharynx
❖ Push contents forward ▪ Esophagus
through the digestive tract ▪ Stomach
▪ Mixing Movements ▪ Small Intestine
❖ Serve two functions. ❖ Duodenum
❖ Mixing food with digestive ❖ Jejunum
juices promotes digestion of ❖ Ileum
foods. ▪ Large Intestine
❖ Facilitates absorption by ❖ Cecum
exposing all parts of intestinal ❖ Appendix
contents to absorbing ❖ Colon
surfaces of digestive tract. ❖ Rectum
▪ Anus
Digestive Secretions ▪ Accessory Digestive Organs
✓ Consist of water, electrocytes, and ❖ Salivary Glands

specific organic constituents. ❖ Exocrine Pancreas

✓ Secretions are released into digestive ❖ Biliary System

tract lumen on appropriate neural or - Liver

hormonal stimulation. - Gallbladder

✓ Normally reabsorbed in one form or ✓ Wall has same general structure

throughout length from esophagus to
another back into blood after their
anus
participation in digestion.
✓ Four major tissue layers
▪ Mucosa – Innermost layer
▪ Submucosa
 ▪ Muscularis extern Summary of Pathways Controlling Digestive
▪ Serosa – Outer layer System Activities

Digestive System

Mouth (Oral Cavity)

• Lips
✓ Form opening
✓ Help procure, guide, and contain food in
the mouth.
✓ Important in speech
✓ Well-developed tactile sensation

Layers of Digestive Tract Wall • Palate

✓ Forms roof of oral cavity (separates
mouth from nasal passages)
✓ Uvula (seals off nasal passages during
swallowing)

• Tongue
✓ Forms floor of oral cavity
✓ Composed of skeletal muscle
✓ Movements aid in chewing and
swallowing
✓ Plays important role in speech.
✓ Taste buds
Digestive System Function
✓ Digestive motility and secretion are • Pharynx
regulated by. ✓ Cavity at rear of throat
▪ Autonomous smooth muscle ✓ Common passageway for digestive
function and respiratory systems
▪ Intrinsic nerve plexuses ✓ Tonsils
▪ Extrinsic nerves ▪ Within side walls of pharynx
▪ Gastrointestinal hormones ▪ Lymphoid tissue
 • Teeth Pharynx and Esophagus
✓ Responsible for chewing (mastication) ✓ Swallowing
✓ First step in digestive process ▪ Motility associated with pharynx
✓ Functions of chewing and esophagus.
▪ Grind and break food into smaller ▪ Sequentially programmed all-or-
pieces to make swallowing easier none reflex.
and increase food surface area on ▪ Initiated when bolus is voluntarily
which salivary enzymes can act. forced by tongue to rear of
▪ Mix food with saliva. mouth into pharynx.
▪ Stimulate taste buds. ▪ Most complex reflex in body
▪ Can be initiated voluntarily but
• Saliva cannot be stopped once it has
✓ Produced largely by three major pairs begun.
of salivary glands. ▪ Process divided into two stages.
✓ Composition ❖ Oropharyngeal stage
▪ 99.5% H2O ❖ Esophageal stage (moves
▪ 0.5% electrolytes and protein bolus from mouth through
(amylase, mucus, lysozyme) pharynx and into esophagus)
✓ Functions
▪ Salivary amylase begins digestion ✓ Esophagus
of carbohydrates. ▪ Fairly straight muscular tube
▪ Facilitates swallowing by ▪ Extends between pharynx and
moistening food. stomach.
▪ Mucus provides lubrication. ▪ Sphincters at each end
▪ Antibacterial action ❖ Pharyngoesophageal sphincter
❖ Lysozyme destroys bacteria. - Keeps entrance closed to
❖ Saliva rinses away material prevent large volumes of
that could serve as food air from entering
source for bacteria.
esophagus and stomach
▪ Solvent for molecules that during breathing.
stimulate taste buds. ❖ Gastroesophageal sphincter
▪ Aids speech by facilitating - Prevents reflux of gastric
movements of lips and tongue. contents
▪ Helps keep mouth and teeth clean. ▪ Peristaltic waves push food
▪ Rich in bicarbonate buffers through esophagus.
▪ Secretions(mucus)are entirely
Control of Salivary Secretion protective.

Peristalsis in the Esophagus

Stomach ▪ Storage
✓ J-shaped sac-like chamber lying ❖ Takes place in body of
between esophagus and small stomach.
intestine. ▪ Mixing
✓ Divided into three sections. ❖ Takes place in antrum of
▪ Fundus stomach.
▪ Body ▪ Emptying
▪ Antrum ❖ Largely controlled by factors
✓ Three main functions in duodenum
▪ Store ingested food until it can be
emptied into small intestine. Gastric Emptying and Mixing as a Result of
▪ Secretes hydrochloric acid (HCl) Peristaltic Contractions
and enzymes that begin protein
digestion.
▪ Mixing movements convert
pulverized food to chyme.
✓ Pyloric sphincter
▪ Serves as barrier between
stomach and upper part of small
intestine.

Gastric Emptying
✓ Factors in stomach
▪ Amount of chyme in stomach is
Gastric Motility main factor that influences
✓ Four aspects strength of contraction.
▪ Filling ▪ Factors in duodenum
❖ Involves receptive relaxation. ❖ Fat
- Enhances stomach’s ability - Fat digestion and
to accommodate the absorption takes place
extra volume of food with only within lumen of small
little rise in stomach intestine.
pressure. - When fat is already in
- Triggered by act of eating. duodenum, further gastric
- Mediated by vagus nerve. emptying of additional
fatty stomach contents
is prevented.
 ❖ Lines body and fundus
❖ Acid ▪ Pyloric gland area (PGA)
- Unneutralized acid in ❖ Lines the antrum
duodenum inhibits further ✓ Gastric pits at base of gastric glands
emptying of acidic gastric ✓ Three types of gastric exocrine
contents until secretory cells
neutralization can be ▪ Mucous cells
accomplished. ❖ Line gastric pits and
❖ Hypertonicity entrance of glands
- Gastric emptying is ❖ Secrete thin, watery
reflexly inhibited when mucus.
osmolarity of duodenal ▪ Chief cells
contents starts to rise. ❖ Secrete enzyme
❖ Distension precursor, pepsinogen.
- Too much chyme in ▪ Parietal (oxyntic) cells
duodenum inhibits ❖ Secrete HCl and
emptying of even more intrinsic factor HCl
gastric contents. Secretion.
✓ Factors trigger either.
▪ Neural response Phases of Gastric Secretion
❖ Mediated through both ✓ Cephalic phase
intrinsic nerve plexuses (short ▪ Refers to increased secretion
reflex) and autonomic nerves of HCl and pepsinogen that
(long reflex) occurs in response to stimuli
❖ Collectively called acting in the head before food
enterogastric reflex reaches stomach.
▪ Hormonal response ✓ Gastric phase
❖ Involves release of hormones ▪ Begins when food actually
from duodenal mucosa reaches the stomach.
collectively known as ▪ Presence of protein increases
enterogastrones gastric secretions.
- Secretin ✓ Intestinal phase
- Cholecystokinin (CCK) ▪ Inhibitory phase
✓ Additional factors that that influence ▪ Helps shut off flow of gastric
gastric motility. juices as chyme begins to
▪ Emotions empty into small intestine.
❖ Sadness and fear – tend to
decrease motility. Gastric Mucosal Barrier
❖ Anger and aggression – tend to ✓ Enables stomach to contain acid
increase motility. without injuring itself.
▪ Intense pain – tends to inhibit
motility.

Gastric Secretions
✓ Two distinct areas of gastric mucosa
that secrete gastric juice.
▪ Oxyntic mucosa
Pancreas Liver
✓ Mixture of exocrine and endocrine ✓ Largest and most important
tissue metabolic organ in the body
✓ Elongated gland located behind and ✓ Body’s major biochemical factory
below the stomach. ✓ Importance to digestive system–
✓ Endocrine function secretion of bile salts
▪ Islets of Langerhans ✓ Functions not related to digestion.
❖ Found throughout ▪ Metabolic processing of the
pancreas • Secrete major categories of nutrients
insulin and glucagon. ▪ Detoxifying or degrading body
✓ Exocrine function wastes and hormones, drugs,
▪ Secretes pancreatic juice and other foreign compounds
consisting of ▪ Synthesizes plasma proteins.
❖ Pancreatic enzymes ▪ Stores glycogen, fats, iron,
actively secreted by copper, and many vitamins
acinar cells that form ▪ Activates vitamin D.
the acini. ▪ Removes bacteria and worn-
❖ Aqueous alkaline out red blood cells.
solution actively ▪ Excretes cholesterol and
secreted by duct cells bilirubin.
that line pancreatic ✓ Bile
ducts. ▪ Actively secreted by liver and
Pancreatic Enzymes actively diverted to gallbladder
✓ Exocrine secretion is regulated by between meals.
▪ Secretin ▪ Stored and concentrated in
▪ CCK gallbladder.
✓ Proteolytic enzymes ▪ Consists of
▪ Digest protein ❖ Bile salts
❖ Trypsinogen - ❖ Cholesterol
converted to active ❖ Lecithin\
form trypsin. ❖ Bilirubin
❖ Chymotrypsinogen – ▪ After meal, bile enters duodenum.
converted to active ✓ Bile salts
form chymotrypsin. ▪ Derivatives of cholesterol
❖ Procarboxypeptidase – ▪ Convert large fat globules into a
converted to active liquid emulsion.
form ▪ After participation in fat digestion
carboxypeptidase. and absorption, most are.
✓ Pancreatic amylase ▪ reabsorbed into the blood.
▪ Converts polysaccharides into
the disaccharide amylase. Small Intestine
✓ Pancreatic lipase ✓ Site where most digestion and
▪ Only enzyme secreted absorption take place.
throughout entire digestive ✓ Three segments
system that can digest fat. ▪ Duodenum
▪ Jejunum
▪ Ileum
 ✓ Motility includes. ✓ Digestion
▪ Segmentation ▪ Pancreatic enzymes continue
▪ Migrating motility complex carbohydrate and protein.
✓ Segmentation ▪ Brush-border enzymes complete
▪ Primary method of motility in digestion of carbohydrates and
small intestine protein
▪ Consists of ringlike contractions ▪ Fat is digested entirely with in
along length of small intestine small intestine lumen by
▪ Within seconds, contracted pancreatic lipase.
segments relax and previously ✓ Absorption
relaxed areas contract. ▪ Absorbs almost everything
▪ Action mixes chyme throughout presented to it.
small intestine lumen ▪ Most occurs in duodenum and
jejunum.
Segmentation ▪ Adaptations that increase small
intestine’s surface area
❖ Inner surface has permanent
circular folds.
❖ Microscopic finger-like
projections called villi.
▪ Initiated by pacemaker cells in small ❖ Brush border (microvilli) arise
intestine which produce basic electrical from luminal surface of
rhythm (BER) epithelial cells.
▪ Circular smooth muscle ▪ Lining is replaced about every
responsiveness is influenced by three days.
distension of intestine, gastrin, and ▪ Products of fat digestion undergo
extrinsic nerve activity. transformations that enable
▪ Functions them to be passively absorbed.
❖ Mixing chyme with digestive juices ❖ Eventually enter lymph.
secreted into small intestine
lumen. Large Intestine
❖ Exposing all chyme to absorptive ✓ Primarily a drying and storage organ
surfaces of small intestine ✓ Consists of
mucosa ▪ Colon
✓ Migrating motility complex ▪ Cecum
▪ Sweeps intestines clean between ▪ Appendix
meals. ▪ Rectum
✓ Secretion ✓ Contents received from small
▪ Juice secreted by small intestine intestine consists of indigestible food
does not contain any digestive residues, unabsorbed biliary
enzymes. components, and remaining fluid.
▪ Synthesized enzymes act within ✓ Colon
brush-border membrane of ▪ Extracts more water and salt
epithelial cells. from contents.
❖ Enterokinase ▪ Feces - what remains to be
❖ Disaccharidases eliminated.
❖ Aminopeptidases
 Gastrointestinal Hormones
✓ Gastrin
▪ Release is stimulated by presence
of protein in stomach.
▪ Secretion inhibited by
accumulation of acid in stomach.
▪ Functions
❖ Acts in several ways to
increase secretion of HCl and
pepsinogen.
❖ Enhances gastric motility,
✓ Taeniae coli
stimulates ileal motility,
▪ Longitudinal bands of muscle
relaxes ileocecal sphincter,
✓ Haustra
induces mass movements in
▪ Pouches or sacs
colon.
▪ Actively change location as result
❖ Helps maintain well-developed,
of contraction of circular smooth
functionally viable digestive
muscle layer
tract lining.
✓ Haustral contractions
▪ Main motility
✓ Secretin
▪ Presence of acid in duodenum
▪ Initiated by autonomous
stimulates release.
rhythmicity of colonic smooth
muscle cells.
▪ Functions
❖ Inhibits gastric emptying in
✓ Mass movements
order to prevent further acid
▪ Massive contractions
from entering duodenum until
▪ Moves colonic contents into distal
acid already present is
part of large intestine.
neutralized.
✓ Gastrocolic reflex
❖ Inhibits gastric secretion to
▪ Mediated from stomach to colon
reduce amount of acid being
by gastrin and by autonomic
produced.
nerves.
❖ Stimulates pancreatic duct
▪ Most evident after first meal of
cells to produce large volume
the day
of aqueous NaHCO3 secretion.
▪ Often followed by urge to
❖ Stimulates liver to secrete
defecate.
NaCO3 rich bile which assists in
✓ Defecation reflex
neutralization process.
▪ Initiated when stretch receptors
❖ Along with CCK, is trophic to
in rectal wall are stimulated by
exocrine pancreas.
distension.
✓ CCK
▪ Causes internal anal sphincter to
▪ Functions
relax and rectum and sigmoid
❖ Inhibits gastric motility and
colon to contract more
secretion.
vigorously.
❖ Stimulates pancreatic acinar
▪ If external anal sphincter
cells to increase secretion of
(skeletal muscle under voluntary
pancreatic enzymes.
control) is also relaxed, defecation
occurs.
 ❖ Causes contraction of autotrophic (self-nourished) and animals being
gallbladder and relaxation of heterotrophic (dependent on others).
sphincter of Oddi
❖ Along with secretin, is trophic The vitamins and trace minerals used
to exocrine pancreas. in the body's enzymatic reactions are usually
❖ Implicated in long-term in the form of ions and molecules which the
adaptive changes in body cannot readily synthesize. Thus, they are
proportion. considered essential parts of the diet.
❖ of pancreatic enzymes in Vitamins are organic compounds that
response to prolonged diet function as co-enzymes and co-factors of
changes enzymes. There are two types of vitamins:
❖ Important regulator of food water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins.
intake Water-soluble vitamins such as vitamin C and
✓ GIP vitamin B are transported as free compounds
▪ Glucose dependent insulinotropic in the blood and serve as co-enzymes in
peptide metabolic reactions. Fat-soluble vitamins such
▪ Stimulates insulin release by as vitamins A, D, E, and K are transported in
pancreas. the blood as complexes that are linked to
lipids.
NUTRITION AND FOOD PROCESSING IN
ANIMALS Minerals are inorganic molecules that
provide ions essential for the functioning of
Nutrition is the process through which many enzymes or proteins. Recall that the
organisms take in food, absorb nutrients blood plasma contains many types of mineral
from the food, and use the nutrients for ions. Significant amounts of ions may be lost
growth and development, energy, and for by the body through sweating, defecating, and
generating body processes. Living organisms urinating and thus must be replenished. Your
require proper nutrition to obtain good health body needs at least 3 g of table salt per day.
and wellbeing. In this unit, you will study about Deficiencies in potassium, sodium, and chlorine
nutrition in animals and plants and the ions can disturb the osmotic balance of the
processes involved in nourishment. blood, body fluids, and the cells.

Food sustains life. As there are Digestion in Lower Forms of Animals

different food sources so, too, in the Animals cannot produce their own
methods of food procurement. Some food. They depend on other organisms for
organisms are herbivores, some are nourishment. A survey of how animals get and
carnivores, and still some others are digest their food will give you a wide range of
omnivores. Herbivores are organisms that variations. In less complex animals, digestion is
depend on plants and other photosynthetic simple due to the absence of a digestive tube
organisms for food. Carnivores depend on with accessory glands. In sponges, for
meat or flesh for their food, while omnivores example, each individual cell is responsible for
feed on both plants and animals. This chapter the procurement of food that is mixed with
discusses how nutrition between plants and water inside the spongocoel or the body
animals differ, including the ways by which cavity. Some cells do it through phagocytosis,
they procure and use food. Plants and animals while others use flagella to sweep the food
differ on food procurement, with plants being from the water. Once food is inside the cell,
digestion takes place through the help of
enzymes. This is called intracellular digestion.
In cnidarians, like hydras which have
gastrovascular cavity with specialized regions,
extracellular digestion occurs throughout the
cavity. The most primitive type of gut or
digestive tube is found in round worms or the
nematodes. They have a digestive tube that is
lined with epithelial membrane. The digestive
tube is specialized in different regions where a
part is involved in ingestion, storage, digestion,
and absorption. All the other vertebrates of
the animal kingdom show similar
specializations. In earthworms, the digestive
tube is complete. Earthworms have a mouth,
pharynx, crop, gizzard, intestine, and anus.
The Digestive System of an Earthworm
with the help of the teeth, then mixed with
a saliva, and pushed backward by the tongue.
Food is then swallowed and moved to the
pharynx, a common passageway for food and
air. The epiglottis closes the opening to the
lungs to prevent entrance of food and fluids
to the airways. A frog's tongue is attached
anteriorly, while the human tongue is attached
posteriorly.
From the oropharynx (the portion of
the pharynx situated behind the oral cavity),
the bolus of swallowed substances now enters
the esophagus and passes down the length of
the tube by alternating contraction and
relaxation of the muscles called peristalsis.
The opening into the stomach is guarded by
the cardiac sphincter which assists in
preventing regurgitation of acidic chyme from
the stomach.

The Human Digestive System

Digestion occurs to break down food

into their smallest subunits. In simpler
organisms, the products of cellular digestion
pass through the epithelial lining of the gut
into the blood, where they are distributed to
all parts of the body. The structures for
digestion in vertebrates are more complex.
The vertebrate digestive system includes
highly specialized parts adapted to the type
of food they eat.

The Human Digestive System

The human digestive system is very
similar to the frog digestive system. If you Food is then mixed and churned until it
have dissected a frog before, you probably is about 2 millimeters in diameter. The
have now an idea of how your digestive stomach serves as a temporary storage of
system looks like. Food is ingested through the food. It holds the food for about 3 to 4
mouth, chewed, and ground into smaller sizes hours and once empty, you feel hungry, and
you need to eat again. Chemical digestion of In the stomach, where the pH is
food takes place in the stomach. Then the maintained at a very acidic level (pH 1 to 2) by
food enters the small intestine which is a long hydrochloric acid (HCI) secretions of the
coiled tube where food undergoes final parietal cells, the enzyme pepsinogen is
digestion and absorption. The first segment of produced by the chief cells. It is then
the small intestine is the duodenum. Food transformed by HCI into the active form,
enters the duodenum from the stomach by pepsin. Protein degradation into smaller
the pyloric sphincter. In the duodenum, particles begins by the action of this enzyme.
various enzymes are released from the acinar At this point, the secretion of intrinsic factor
cells of the pancreas which assist in the by the parietal cells in the stomach is
breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and responsible for the absorption of vitamin B12
fats, and which are converted into glucose, in the terminal ileum.
amino acids, and fatty acids, respectively.
These molecules can now be absorbed In the duodenum of the small
effectively in the other segments of the intestine, pancreatic juices are secreted by
small intestine, the jejunum and ileum. the pancreas via the ampulla of vater, a duct
formed by the union of the pancreatic duct
From the small intestine, undigested and the common bile duct. These juices include
food is channeled into the large intestine. No trypsinogen (converted by enterokinase to its
more digestion takes place here. In this organ, active enzyme trypsin, which is responsible for
water and ions are reabsorbed and the bulk breaking down proteins into amino acids),
that remains is then stored for a while until chymotrypsinogen (once activated also
mass movements occur and defecation reflex breaks down proteins into their aromatic
is initiated. This involves the relaxation of the amino acids), pancreatic lipase (breaks down
internal and external anal sphincters. triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol),
nucleases, and pancreatic amylase (breaks
The simultaneous and coordinated down starch, glycogen, and most other
contraction of the muscles and the relaxation carbohydrates, except cellulose due to its
of the various sphincters are important in special hydrogen-bonding structure).
propelling the food through the entire length
of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Along the entire lining of the long small
intestine, there are various "brush border"
Function of Enzymes in Chemical Digestion enzymes that function to further cleave the
Chemical digestion cannot be now broken-down products of digestion into
completed without the participation of more readily absorbable particles. These
enzymes. Enzymes are organic catalysts that enzymes include sucrase, lactase (when
hasten chemical reactions. They play a big role deficient, results in lactose intolerance),
in breaking down food substances into forms maltase, and other disaccharides.
that the body can absorb, process, and utilize.
Enzymes are present in large amounts in The Accessory Glands of the Digestive
different parts of the digestive tract, System
beginning from the oral cavity where salivary
amylase (which initiates carbohydrate Liver
breakdown) and lingual lipase (which starts An accessory gland is one that
fat digestion) are found. contributes to making an organ of digestion
more versatile.
For instance, you have the liver as an common bile duct (CBD). The CBD and the duct
accessory organ to digestion. The liver is the from the pancreas called the pancreatic duct
largest gland of the body. It consists of four or the duct of wirsung then merge to form
lobes: the right lobe, left lobe, quadrate lobe, the ampulla of vater, which finally drains into
and caudate lobe. Its basic structural the duodenum. Bile flows from the liver
component is the hepatocyte. Blood circulates canaliculi to the hepatic ducts and then to the
through the liver by the portal vein and the common hepatic duct. It may flow into the
hepatic vein. All substances (nutrients, gall bladder via the cystic duct to be stored,
chemicals, drugs, and others) absorbed by the concentrated, and used at a later time, or go
intestines move into the bloodstream and directly into the CBD, to the ampulla of vater,
reach the liver through the portal vein. and then to the duodenum. It is through the
The liver then neutralizes and eliminates toxic cystic duct that bile enters and exits the gall
substances from the passing blood. It stores bladder.
vitamins, iron, and glucose. It synthesizes
proteins such as albumin and fibrinogen. It
also converts highly toxie ammonia
(accumulates in the body during protein
breakdown) into urea, a more tolerable form.
The liver produces bile, a fluid that contains
cholesterol, bile acids, and hilimhin which aid in
lipid digestion. It is stored and concentrated in
the gallbladder.

Pancreas
The pancreas is both an endocrine and
an exocrine gland. An endocrine gland empties
its secretions directly into the blood, while an
exocrine gland is a ductless gland. The islets of
Langerhans are responsible for the secretion
of insulin (in lowering blood glucose levels) and
glucagon (in raising blood glucose levels), which
is an endocrine function. For its exocrine
functions, acinar glands secrete digestive
enzymes such as trypsinogen,
chymotrypsinogen, and carboxypeptidase into
the duodenum by the pancreatic duct and the
ampulla of vater.

Gallbladder
To trace the pathway of bile, the
hepatobiliary tree needs to be examined.
Canaliculi from within the liver merge to form
bile ducts or intrahepatic ducts; the ducts
then drain into the right and left hepatic
ducts which then merge to form the common
hepatic duct. The gall bladder's duct is called
the cystic duct. The common hepatic duct and
the cystic duct join together to form the
NUTRITION AND FOOD PROCESSING IN phosphorus, and sulfur. The three most
PLANTS important components of organic compounds
are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Plants need various nutrients to stay
healthy. They acquire these nutrients from The micronutrients are chlorine, iron,
the soil and from the by-products of manganese, boron, zinc, molybdenum, and
photosynthetic activities. The soil, in addition copper. A deficiency in any one of these
to being a source of mineral nutrients, is micronutrients can generate severe effects
home to several bacteria and fungi that help on plant growth and development.
them get more nutrients in usable forms. A
great number of bacteria process the free Photosynthesis
nitrogen in the atmosphere into usable forms In Grade 11, you have learned how
for the plants during the nitrogen cycle. photosynthesis works. This is actually the
most significant food source for plants. The
What nutrients are obtained by plants bulk of organic compounds present on Earth
from the soil? Soil is a mixture of many are products of photosynthesis. The by-
ingredients which may include organic products of photosynthesis are used by
compost, minerals, water, air, and many plants themselves and by consumers.
organisms, particularly, microorganisms. Autotrophs like plants, make the lives of
heterotrophs possible on Earth. The energy
The mineral composition of the soil from sunlight that is captured by plants,
varies depending on the composition of the algae, and some bacteria is what drives the
rocks where it came from. There are about process of photosynthesis.
92 naturally occurring elements and most of
these elements are found in the form of The essential nutrients are
inorganic compounds called minerals. Rocks indispensable in the life of plants and in the
are composed of different minerals. The process of photosynthesis. Magnesium for
microorganisms found in the soil are very example is a microelement that serves as a
important in the recycling of organic component of chlorophyll pigment, which if
composts. A gram of soil is said to contain deficient may lead to chlorosis, the yellowing
around 50 million bacteria! The availability of of the leaf tissues. If not addressed, it may
water and minerals in the soil is determined by lead to the death of the plant.
the characteristics of the soil. Only minerals
that are dissolved in water found in the The general equation for
spaces between soil particles can be absorbed photosynthesis is shown as follows:
by the roots. Both the organic and mineral
particles of the soil have negative charges, so
they attract the positively charged ions and
molecules.

Plants require macronutrients and The equation shows that through the
micronutrients. Macronutrients are molecules synthesis of carbon dioxide and water and in
that plants need in relatively large amounts, the presence of light and chlorophyll, plants
while micronutrients are those required in can manufacture food. The food they
relatively small quantities. The essential produce is what they use to feed themselves
macronutrients are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and other organisms.
nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
The Light-Dependent Reaction presence of bacteria (Rhizobium) that are
The light-dependent reaction is the present in the nodules of roots, nitrogen is
first phase of photosynthesis. It occurs in converted to nitrates in the soil. Legumes are
the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast. noted for the presence of nodules in their
This phase cannot take place in the absence roots. They are formed from root hairs that
of light. Here, water is split into hydrogen ions are initially infected with Rhizobium. From
and oxygen. The oxygen given off by plants is here, bacteria move into the cortex of the
produced during this reaction. There are two root and take control of cell division in the
reaction centers in the chloroplast: cortex and pericycle cells. They change shape
photosystem II and photosystem I. When and are transformed into bacteroids.
chlorophyll absorbs a photon of light, one of Bacteroids produce nitrogenase enzymes and
its electrons is boosted to a higher energy fix atmospheric nitrogen into forms that the
level where it becomes very reactive or plants can use. On the other hand, plants
unstable. In this phase, light energy is support the carbohydrates that these
converted to ATP and an electron carrier bacteria need for their nourishment.
called NADPH. Each photosystem has only one
chlorophyll, a molecule, and hundreds of Plants also develop symbiotic
chlorophyll b and carotenoids that help collect relationships with other organisms aside from
light energy. bacteria. Mycorrhizal fungi are found in nearly
90 percent of vascular plants, living with them
The Light-Independent Reaction symbiotically. These fungi play an important
The products of the light-dependent role in the transfer of phosphorus and in the
reaction, which are ATP and NADPH molecules, uptake of some micronutrients. Functionally,
are used in the next phase, the light- they increase the surface area available for
independent reaction also known as the Calvin nutrient uptake in plants.
Cycle where light is no longer necessary. In
this phase, carbon dioxide is reduced to Other plants get their food
glucose through the oxidation-reduction supplements from insects or other animals.
reactions. These reactions occur in the They are called carnivorous plants that often
stroma, the fluid-filled part of a chloroplast, grow in acidic soil and bogs that lack nitrogen.
outside of the thylakoid membrane. By catching insects and small animals, they
obtain adequate supply of nitrogen and are
The process by which food produced in able to survive in hostile environments. They
photosynthesis is utilized by the plant cells is have attractive parts like leaves that are
similar to that in animals, that is, through modified for luring and capturing animals.
cellular respiration. Examples of these are the pitcher plant,
Venus flytrap, and sundew parasitic plant
Special Nutritional Strategies of Plants which exploit the nutrients of their animal

Other than photosynthesis, some victims. Many species of plants tap the

plants have other special sources of nutrition. resources of other plants by growing in close

Some bacteria live symbiotically with the affinity with the host plant. Parasitic plants

roots of plants. These bacteria help the try to siphon the nutrients through the plant

plants fix nitrogen and convert it into more sap of their host.

usable form. For example, plants need

nitrates and ammonia to build amino acids;
however, nitrogen in the atmosphere is in
gaseous form which plants cannot use. In the Daniela Mae P. Nuesca (12-STEM)