ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 10 The DS consists of 2 parts:

Chap 16- Digestive System

PART 1 § Digestive tract or Gastrointestinal tract
(GI)
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
§ The tract is ONE LONG TUBE from the
MOUTH TO THE ANUS
§ With the help of the circulatory system, digestive § Consists of:
system is like a gigantic “meals on wheels” serving 1. Oral cavity (mouth)
100 T customers the nutrients they need 2. Pharynx
§ Has its own quality control and waste disposal 3. Esophagus
methods 4. Stomach
5. Small intestines
Digestion 6. Large intestines
• Digestion is the BREAKDOWN of large organic 7. Rectum
molecules into smaller molecules that CAN BE 8. Anus
ABSORBED § Specific associated organs
• The DIGESTIVE SYSTEM performs the task of § Includes some associated organs
NOR DIRECTLY in the digestive
digestion
tract, but HAVE DUCTS that lead in
• Food is taken into the digestive system, where it the tract
is ENZYMATICALLY broken down into § These are:
smaller and smaller particles for absorption 1. Salivary glands
DS FUNCTIONS 2. Liver
3. Gallbladder
1. Ingestion of solids and liquids 4. Pancreas
2. Digestion of organic molecules
3. Absorption of nutrients
4. Elimination of waste
STRUCTURES

FOUR LAYERS OF THE TRACT WALL

1. Mucosa
§ INNERMOST layer
§ Consists of mucous
epithelium, lamina
propria (loose CT),
muscularis mucosae
(thin SM layer)
§ Secretes MUCUS
§ Resists abrasion (mouth, esophagus, and anus)
§ Absorbs and secretes (stomach & intestine)
2. Submucosa
§ ABOVE MUCOSA
§ Thick layer of loose CT
Contribution of Other Body System to the § consists of NERVES, BLOOD VESSELS, and
Digestive Tract SMALL GLANDS
§ Plexus – extensive network of nerve cell processes
(innervated by the autonomic nerves)
3. Muscularis
§ ABOBE SUBMUCOSA
§ longitudinal, circular, and oblique muscles
§ Enteric nervous system – composed of the nerve
plexuses of the submucosa and muscularis
§ controls movement and secretion within the tract
4. Serosa
§ OUTERMOST layer
§ Consists of the peritoneum (smooth epithelial layer
+ underlying CT)
§ Adventitia – connective tissue; regions of the DT not
covered by the peritoneum

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DIGESTIVE TRACT HISTOLOGY ORAL CAVITY
§ FIRST PART of digestive system
§ Contains stratified squamous epithelia
§ Bounded by the lips and cheeks and contains
the teeth and tongue
§ LIPS
§ muscular structures formed by the
orbicularis oris muscle
§ CHEEKS
§ buccinators muscles flatten the cheeks
against teeth
§ MASTIFICATION
§ begins the process of mechanical digestion
§ Breaks large food particles into many small
PERITONEUM ones
§ Increases the efficiency of digestion
§ Layer of SMOOTH EPITHELIAL TISSUE
§ TONGUE
§ plays a major role in the process of
1. Visceral Peritoneum / Serosa
swallowing
- serous membrane that COVERS THE
§ major sensory organ for taste
ORGANS
2. Parietal Peritoneum – serous § one of the major organs of speech
- membrane that covers the WALL OF THE § Frenulum – thin fold of tissue inferior to the
ABDOMINAL CAVITY tongue
3. Mesenteries
- CONNECTIVE TISSUE sheets that HOLD
the abdominal cavity organs in place
a. Lesser omentum –connects the lesser
curvature of the stomach to the liver and
diaphragm
b. Greater omentum – connects the greater
curvature of the stomach to the transverse
colon and posterior body wall
Omental bursa – a long, double fold of mesentery that extends
inferiorly from the stomach before looping back to the
transverse colon to create a cavity/pocket

Mesentery proper – attaches the small intestine to the

posterior abdominal wall
TEETH
Retroperitoneal – abdominal organs that have no
mesenteries; duodenum, pancreas, ascending + descending § 32 teeth in NORMAL ADULT mouth
colon, rectum, kidneys, adrenal glands, urinary bladder § Located in the MANDIBLE and MAXILLAE
1. Incisor – to cut
2. Canine – to tear
3. Premolars
4. Molars
5. Wisdom teeth – third molars
§ Permanent teeth – secondary teeth
§ 20 Primary teeth – deciduous teeth; milk or
baby teeth
§ Parts of each tooth
a. Crown
b. Cusps
c. Neck
d. Root
§ PULP CAVITY
§ CENTER of the tooth
§ Contains blood vessels nerves and pulp
(connective tissue)
§ DENTIN
§ BONELIKE tissue that surrounds the pulp
cavity
§ ENAMEL
§ extremely HARD AND ACELLULAR
SUBSTANCES that COVERS THE
DENTIN of the tooth crown

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§ CEMENTUM
§ covers the surface of the dentin in the root
§ anchors the tooth in the jaw
§ ALVEOLI (along the alveolar process of
mandible x maxillae)
§ where the teeth are rooted
§ GINGIVA
§ dense fibrous connective tissues and most
stratified squamous epithelium that covers
the alveolar processes
§ PERIDONTAL LIGAMENTS
§ Connective tissue fibers that extend from the
alveolar walls that hold the teeth in place
§ DENTAL CARIES/TOOTH DECAY
§ result of the breakdown of enamel by acids
produced by bacteria on tooth surface
§ PERIDONTAL DISEASE
§ inflammation x degeneration of the SALIVARY GLANDS
periodontal ligaments, gingiva, alveolar
bone
§ Molar Tooth in Place in the Alveolar
Bone
PALATE
§ ROOF of the oral cavity
§ prevents food from passing into the nasal cavity
during chewing and swallowing
1. HARD PALATE
§ ANTERIOR part that contains BONE
2. SOFT PALATE
§ POSTERIOR part that consists of skeletal
muscle
§ UVULA
§ grape-like; posterior extension of the soft
palate
§ TONSILS
§ protect against pathogens from entering the
nose and mouth
§ Produce saliva (serous + mucous fluids)
§ 3 Pairs of SG
1. Parotid glands – largest; serous glands located
anterior to each ear
2. Submandibular glands - produce more serous
than mucous secretions
3. Sublingual glands – smallest; produce
primarily mucous secretions
§ MUMPS
§ inflammation of the parotid gland caused by
viral infection
§ SALIVA
§ Helps keep the oral cavity moist
§ Contains enzymes that begin the process of
digestion
§ Salivary amylase – a digestive enzyme that
breaks the covalent bonds bet. Glucose
molecules (starch) and other
polysaccharides; enhances the sweet taste of
food
§ Lysozyme – enzyme that has weak
antibacterial action

PHAR

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Functions of the digestive secretions
PARYNX
§ Throat
§ Connects the mouth with the esophagus
§ It has three parts:
1. NASOPHARYNX
2. OROPHARYX
Transmit food
3. LARYNGOPHARYNX

ESOPHAGUS
§ Muscular tube that transports food from the
pharynx to the stomach
§ Esophageal sphincters – regulate the
movement of food into and out of the PERITALSIS
esophagus
§ Cardiac sphincter – lower ES § wave-like contractions move food
§ Heartburn: through digestive tract
§ Occurs when gastric juices REGURGITATE
into esophagus
§ Caused by caffeine, smoking or eating in
excess

STOMACH
§ located in ABDOMEN
§ functions primarily as a STORAGE and MIXING
chamber for ingested food
§ can hold up to 2L of food
§ Produces mucus, hydrochloric acid, protein
SWALLOWING/DEGLUTITION digesting enzymes
1. VOLUNTARY § Bolus (mass of § Contains a thick mucus layer that lubricates and
PHASE food) is pushed protects epithelial cells on stomach wall form
by the tongue acidic pH (3)
forcing in into § GASTROESOPHAGEAL OPENING
the oropharynx § Opening from the esophagus into the
2. PHARYNGEAL § swallowing stomach
PHASE reflex initiated § CARDIAC REGION
when bolus § region of the around the gastroesophageal
stimulates opening; near the heart
receptors in
§ FUNDUS
oropharynx
§ most superior part of the stomach
3. ESOPHAGEAL § moves food
PHASE from pharynx to § BODY-largest part of the stomach
stomach § Greater curvature
§ Lesser curvature

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 § PYLORIC OPENING
§ opening from the stomach into the small
intestine
§ PYLORIC SPHINCTER
§ thick ring of smooth muscle around pyloric
opening
§ PYLORIC REGION
§ region near the pyloric opening
§ 3 MUSCULAR LAYERS TO PRODUCE
CHURNING ACTION:
1. Outer longitudinal
2. Middle circular
3. Inner oblique
§ RUGAE
§ large folds where the submucosa and
mucosa are thrown into when the
stomach is empty
§ allows stomach to stretch
§ GASTRIC PITS
§ openings for the gastric glands
§ formed by simple columnar epithelium
§ HUNGER PANGS

EPITHELIAL CELLS OF THE

STOMACH
1. Surface mucous cells – inner surface of
stomach & lining the gastric pits; coats and
protects the stomach lining
2. Mucous neck cells –produce mucus
3. Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric acid & REGULATION OF STOMACH
intrinsic factor
SECRETIONS
4. Endocrine cells – produce regulatory
chemicals § Parasympathetic stimulation, gastrin,
5. Chief cells – produce pepsinogen (precursor
of the protein digesting enzyme pepsin)
histamine increase stomach
secretions
SECRETIONS OF THE STOMACH
§ Chyme
§ semifluid mixture (food + stomach
secretions)
§ paste-like substance that forms
when food begins to be broken
down

1. Hydrochloric acid kills microorganisms

and activates pepsin
2. Pepsin breaks covalent bond of proteins to
form smaller peptide chains.
3. Mucus lubricates and protects epithelial
cells from the damaging effect of acidic
chime pepsin
4. Intrinsic factor binds with vit. B12 (DNA
synthesis and RBC prod.) and makes it more
readily absorbed in the small intestine
1st phase- § stomach secretions are initiated by the
cephalic phase sight, smell, taste, or thought of food
2nd phase- § partially digested proteins and distention
gastric phase of the stomach promote secretion
*gastrin- hormone that enters the circulation and
is carried back to the stomach
3rd phase- § acidic chime in the duodenum stimulates
intestinal phase neuronal reflexes and the secretion of
hormones that inhibit gastric secretions
by negative feedback loops
* Secretin – hormone that inhibits gastric
secretions; released from the
duodenum in response to low Ph
*Cholecystokinin – major inhibitor of gastric
motility; released from the
duodenum initiated by fatty acids and
peptides 5

MOVEMENT IN STOMACH
Increased motility = increases emptying
Distention of stomach = increases gastric
motility
1. Mixing waves – thoroughly mix
ingested food with stomach secretions
to form chime
§ Fluid part of chime – pushed toward
the pyloric sphincter
§ Solid center – moves back toward the
body of the stomach
2. Peristaltic waves – force the chime
toward and through the pyloric
sphincter
SMALL INTESTINES
• Major site of DIGESTION and ABSORPTION
of food
• Major function is the ABSORPTION OF
NUTRIENTS
• Major ABSORPTIVE organ
• Measures 6 meters in length
• Chyme takes 3 to 5 hours to pass through
• Contains enzymes to further breakdown food
• Contains secretions for protection against the
acidity of chyme
• PARTS OF SMALL INTESTINES:
1. DUODENUM
§ first part
§ 25 cm long
§ contains absorptive cells, goblet
cells, granular cells, endocrine
cells
§ contains microvilli and many
fields
§ contains bile and pancreatic
ducts
2. JEJUNUM
§ second part
§ 2,5 meters long and absorbs
nutrients
3. ILEUM
§ third part
§ 3.5 meters long
• Common bile duct (liver) and pancreatic duct
(pancreas) – join and empty into the duodenum
• Increased surface area
1. Circular folds – formed by mucosa and
submucosa that run perpendicular to the
long axis of the digestive tract
2. Villi – formed by tiny, fingerlike
projections of the mucosa
3. Microvilli – numerous cytoplasmic
extensions on the surface of the villi
• Lacteal – lymphatic capillary
• MUCOSA of the small intestines (a simple
columnar epithelium with 4 major cell types):
1. Absorptive cells – have microvilli,
produce digestive enzymes, absorb
digested food
2. Goblet cells – produce a protective
mucus
3. Granular cells – help protect the
intestinal epithelium from bacteria
4. Endocrine cells – produce regulatory
hormones
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• The epithelial cells are located within tubular glands MOVEMENT IN THE SMALL
of the mucosa, called intestinal glands or crypts of INTESTINE
Lieberkühn, at the base of the villi.
• Granular and endocrine cells are located in the • MIXING and PROPULSION of chyme are the
bottom of the glands primary mechanical events that occur in the small
• The submucosa of the duodenum contains mucous intestine
glands, called duodenal glands, which open into the
Peristaltic contractions proceed along the length of
base of the intestinal glands.
the intestine for VARIABLE DISTANCES and
• The epithelial cells in the walls of the small intestine
have ENZYMES bound to their FREE SURFACES
cause the chyme TO MOVE along the small
• Peptidases enzymatically breakdown proteins into
intestine.
AMINO ACIDS for absorption Segmental contractions are propagated for only
• Disaccharidases enzymatically breakdown SHORT DISTANCES and MIX intestinal contents.
disaccharides into monosaccharides for absorption
• The ileocecal sphincter at the juncture of the
break peptide bonds ileum and the large intestine remains MILDLY
PEPTIDASES in proteins to form CONTRACTED most of the time
amino acids • Peristaltic contractions reaching the ileocecal
break down sphincter from the small intestine cause the
DISACCHARIDASES disaccharides sphincter to RELAX and allow chyme to move
(maltose) into from the small intestine into the cecum
monosaccharides • The ileocecal valve prevents movement from
(glucose)
the large intestine back into the ileum
• Intestinal glands
§ epithelial cells produced within tubular
glands of mucosa
• Duodenal glands
§ Mucous glands in the submucosa of the
duodenum
• Peyer patches
§ clusters of lymphatic nodules along the
digestive tract
• Ileocecal junction
§ where the ileum connects to the large
intestine
• Ileocecal sphincter LIVER
§ ring of smooth muscle • Weights about 3 lbs.
• Ileocecal valve • Located in the right upper quadrant of the
§ Allow intestinal contents to move from the abdomen under the diaphragm
ileum to the large intestine, but not in LIVER ANATOMY
opposite direction
• 2 Major Lobes
1. Right lobe
2. Left lobe
• Falciform ligament
§ Connective tissue septum that separates the
right and left lobe of the liver
• 2 Smaller lobes
1. Caudate lobe
2. Quadrate lobe
• Porta
§ GATE where blood vessels, ducts, and
nerves ENTER & EXIT the liver
• Sources of Blood in the Liver
1. Hepatic artery – takes oxygen-rich
blood to the liver ; supplies liver with
oxygen
2. Hepatic portal vein – oxygen- poor
blood but rich in nutrients
Hepatic veins – where blood exits the liver and
empty into the inferior vena cava
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• Lobules
§ DIVISIONS of liver with portal triads at
corners
• Portal Triads
1. Hepatic artery
2. Hepatic portal vein
3. Hepatic duct
• Hepatic cords
§ located between the center and margins of
each lobule
Hepatic sinusoids - blood channels that
separates the hepatic cords from one another
• Hepatocytes
§ platelike groups that form the hepatic cords
• Central vein BILE AND PANCREATIC SECRETIONS
§ center of each lobule
§ where mixed blood flows towards
§ forms hepatic veins
• Bile canaliculus
§ a cleft-like lumen bet. the cells of each
hepatic cord
LIVER DUCTS
• Hepatic duct
§ transport bile out of liver
• Common hepatic duct
§ formed from left and right hepatic duct FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER
• Cystic duct
§ joins common hepatic duct 1. Digestion
§ from gallbladder 2. Excretion
• Common bile duct 3. Nutrient storage
§ Common hepatic duct + cystic duct 4. Nutrient conversion
• Gallbladder 5. Detoxification of harmful chemicals
§ stores and concentrates bile 6. Synthesis of new molecules
• Duodenal papilla 7. Secretes 700milliliters of bile each day
§ where the common bile duct joins the • Bile
pancreatic duct and opens into the § dilutes and neutralize stomach acid
duodenum § dramatically increases the efficiency of fat
digestion and absorption
§ stimulated by secretin
• Bile salts
§ emulsify fats
• Bilirubin
§ bile pigment that results from the
breakdown of hemoglobin

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PANCREAS LARGE INTESTINES
ANATOMY

ANATOMY • Cecum
§ Proximal end of the large intestine
• Located posterior to stomach in inferior part of left
upper quadrant • Appendix
1. Head – near the midline of the body § 9 cm tube attached to the cecum
2. Tail – extends to the left • Colon
• Pancreatic islet / Islets of Langerhans 1. Ascending colon
§ endocrine part 2. Transverse colon
§ produce INSULIN and GLUCAGON 3. Descending colon
• Compound acinar gland – exocrine part 4. Sigmoid colon
• Acini – produce digestive enzymes • Crypts
• Pancreatic duct – formed by larger ducts from § straight, tubular glands in the mucosal
clusters of acini lining of the colon
FUNCTIONS OF THE PANCREAS • Teniae coli – three bands
• Rectum
• Major Proteolytic enzymes – continue protein
§ Straight, muscular tube that begins at the
digestion that began in the stomach
1. Trypsin termination of sigmoid colon & ends at
2. Chymotrypsin the anal canal
3. Carboxypeptidase • Anal Canal
• Pancreatic amylase – continues polysaccharide § Begins at the inferior end of the rectum
digestion that began in the oral cavity and ends at the anus (external digestive
• Lipase – lipid-digesting enzyme tract opening)
• Nucleases – enzymes that degrade DNA and RNA • Internal anal sphincter
to their component nucleotides § smooth muscle layer at superior end
DUODENUM and PANCREAS • External anal sphincter
§ skeletal muscle at inferior end
• Hemorrhoids
§ enlarged or inflamed rectal or
hemorrhoidal veins that supply the anal
canal
§ may cause pain, itching, bleeding around
anus
FUNCTIONS OF LARGE INTESTINES
1. Feces production
2. Water absorption
• Feces – converted chyme
• Defecation – elimination of feces from the
colon
Control of Pancreatic Secretions • Mass movements – strong contractions in the
large parts of the colon; propel the colon
contents a considerable distance towards the
anus
• Defecation reflex – local (weak contractions) +
parasympathetic (strong contractions) reflexes

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 DIGESTIVE PROCESS
breakdown of food to
molecules that are small enough to
be absorbed into the circulation
a. Mechanical digestion –
DIGESTIVE breaks large food particles
into smaller ones
b. Chemical digestion –
breaking of covalent
chemical bonds in organic
molecules by digestive LIPIDS
enzymes
PROPULSION moves food through digestive tract • Molecules which are INSOLUBLE or
includes swallowing and peristalsis SLIGHTLY soluble in water
begins in stomach but primarily in • Triglycerides - most common type of lipid: 3
duodenum and jejunum of small fatty acids bound to glycerol
ABSORPTION intestine; lipid-soluble molecules
diffuse through the stomach • Saturated-fatty acids have only single bonds
epithelium into the circulation • Unsaturated-fatty acids have one or more
DEFECATION elimination of waste in the form of double bonds
feces • Emulsification - large lipid droplets are
transformed into much smaller droplets
• Lipase - secreted by pancreas that digests lipid
molecules
• Micelles - aggregated bile salts around small
droplets of digested lipids
• Chylomicrons - packaged lipid protein
complexes (lipoproteins)
• Chyle - lymph containing late amounts of
absorbed lipid
• LIPID DIGESTION:
Lipase breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and
monoglycerides
Bile salts surround fatty acids and monoglycerides to
form micelles
Micelles attach to the plasma membranes of
intestinal epithelial cells, and the fatty acids and
monoglycerides pass by simple diffusion into the
intestinal epithelial cells.
Within the intestinal epithelial cell, the fatty acids and
monoglycerides are converted to triglycerides
CARBOHYDRATES
Proteins coat the triglycerides to form chylomicrons,
• Consist primarily of starches, cellulose, sucrose
which move out of the intestinal epithelial cells by
(table sugar), small amounts of fructose (fruit
exocytosis.
sugar), and lactose (milk sugar)
• Polysaccharides – large carbohydrates that The chylomicrons enter the lacteals of the intestinal
consist of many sugars linked by chemical villi and are carried through the lymphatic system to the
bonds blood.
• Salivary amylase – begins the digestion of
carbohydrates in the mouth
• Pancreatic amylase – continues digestion of
carbohydrates
• Disaccharides – two sugars; broken down
polysaccharide
• Disaccharidase – group of enzymes that break
the disaccharides to monosaccharides
• Monosaccharides – single sugars; glucose,
galactose, and fructose

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LIPOPROTEINS
• Lipids are packaged into lipoproteins to allow
transport in the lymph and blood
• Lipoproteins are molecules that are part water
soluble and part lipid soluble.
• Since lymph and blood contain water and lipids
are not water soluble, lipoproteins are necessary
for transport.
• Lipoproteins include chylomicrons, low-density
lipoproteins (LDL), and high-density
lipoproteins (HDL)
WATER AND MINERALS
• Approximately 9 L of water enters the
digestive tract
• Approximately 2 L from food & drink &
remaining 7 liters is from digestive
secretions
• Water can move across the intestinal wall
in either direction
• The movement depends on osmotic
pressures
• 99% of water entering intestine is
absorbed
• Minerals are actively transported across
wall of small intestine

PROTEINS
• Chains of amino acids
• Pepsin – enzyme secreted by stomach that
breaks down proteins
• Polypeptides – shorter amino acid chains
• Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Carboxypeptidase
§ enzymes produced by pancreas that
continue the digestive process OTHER INFO:
§ Pancreas secretes these into small
intestine in an INACTIVE state
§ In the small intestines, these enzymes
are ACTIVATED
• Peptidases – in the small intestines. This
enzyme bound to the microvilli of the intestinal
epithelium to further break down small peptides
into tripeptides
• Absorption of tripeptides, dipeptides, or
individual amino acids occurs through the
intestinal epithelial cells by various cotransport
mechanisms

END v
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REFERENCES:
SEELEY'S ESSENTIALS OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, 9th
and 10th Edition
NO COPYRIGHT INTENDED
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