11/29/21

DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM

HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

CHARMAINE MAAÑO, PTRP

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• The digestive system breaks down the food you eat into nutrients needed for metabolic
processes, such as making ATP, and rids the body of materials that cannot be used, such
as fiber.

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ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

• Organs of the Alimentary Canal
• Accessory Organs

ALIMENTARY
CANAL

• The alimentary canal, also called the gastrointestinal

(GI) tract or gut, is a continuous, coiled, hollow
muscular tube that winds through the ventral body
cavity from the mouth to anus.

• It is approximately 9 meters (about 30 feet) long, but in

a living person, it is considerably shorter because of its
muscle tone.

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ORGANS OF THE
ALIMENTARY Mouth
Pharynx

CANAL Esophagus

1. Mouth

2. Pharynx Stomach

3. Esophagus

4. Stomach Large Intestine

Small Intestine
5. Small Intestine

6. Large Intestine

MOUTH
• Food enters the digestive tract through the mouth,
or oral cavity, a mucous membrane–lined cavity.
• The lips, or labia, protect its anterior opening; the Uvula
Palatine
cheeks form its lateral walls; the hard palate forms Oropharynx
tonsils
its anterior roof; and the soft palate forms its
posterior roof.
• The uvula is a fleshy fingerlike projection of the soft
palate, which dangles from the posterior edge of
the soft palate.
• The space between the lips and cheeks externally
and the teeth and gums internally is the vestibule.

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MOUTH
Lingual
• The muscular tongue occupies the floor of frenulum

the mouth. The tongue has several bony Tongue

attachments— two of these are to the hyoid

bone and the styloid processes of the skull. Hyoid bone

• Lingual frenulum – a fold of mucous

membrane, secures the tongue to the
floor of the mouth and limits its
posterior movements

MOUTH
Lingual
• The muscular tongue occupies the floor of frenulum

the mouth. The tongue has several bony Tongue

attachments— two of these are to the hyoid

bone and the styloid processes of the skull. Hyoid bone

• Lingual frenulum – a fold of mucous

membrane, secures the tongue to the
floor of the mouth and limits its
posterior movements

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TONSILS
• Tonsils are masses of lymphatic tissue
which are part of the body’s defense
system. They become inflamed and
enlarge, they partially block the entrance
into the throat (pharynx), making
swallowing difficult and painful.
• Palatine tonsils
• Lingual tonsils

PHARYNX
• Food passes posteriorly into the oropharynx and
laryngopharynx, both of which are common
passageways for food, fluids, and air.

• The walls of the pharynx contain two skeletal muscle

layers:
• Longitudinal muscles
• Circular muscles ( or the constrictor muscles)
• Alternating contractions of these two muscle layers propel
food through the pharynx inferiorly into the esophagus.

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ESOPHAGUS
• Also known as the “gullet”, runs from the
pharynx through the diaphragm to the
stomach (approx. 25 meters or 10 inches
long)

• It is an essential passageway that conducts

food (by peristalsis) to the stomach
• Esophageal sphincter – valve preventing
backflow of food to esophagus

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• The walls of the alimentary canal organs

ALIMENTARY from the esophagus to the large intestine
are made up of the same four tissue

CANAL layers, or tunics:

1. Mucosa – innermost layer; moist mucous
membrane lining the hollow cavities of the
organ
2. Submucosa – soft connective tissue
containing blood vessels, nerve endings,
and lymphatic vessels
3. Muscularis externa – muscle layer (circular
and longitudinal smooth muscles)
4. Serosa – outermost layer

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SEROSA
1. Visceral peritoneum – organs
2. Parietal peritoneum – interior wall of
the abdominal cavity
3. Mesentery – fold of membrane that
attaches the intestine to the abdominal wall
and holds it in place

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ALIMENTARY
Myenteric nerve plexus

Submucosal nerve plexus

CANAL

The alimentary canal wall contains two important intrinsic

nerve plexuses:
1. Submucosal nerve plexus
2. Myenteric (“intestinal muscle”) nerve plexus.
• These networks of nerve fibers are actual parts
of the autonomic nervous system. They help
regulate the mobility and secretory activity of GI
tract organs.

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OMENTUM
1. Lesser Omentum – double layer of
peritoneum from the liver to the lesser
curvature of the stomach
2. Greater Omentum – another extension of
the peritoneum which covers the
abdominal organs; contains
macrophages and defensive cells

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Fundus

Esophagus

STOMACH Cardia
Body

• C-shaped and is located on the left side of the Pylorus

abdominal cavity, nearly hidden by the liver and
diaphragm.

• Regions:
• Cardial region or cardia – food enters from the
esophagus
• Fundus – expanded part of the stomach
• Body – midportion of the stomach
• Pyloric antrum
• Pylorus – terminal part continuous with the small
intestine Pyloric antrum

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Cardioesophageal sphincter

STOMACH
• Pyloric sphincter or pyloric valve – controls the
outflow of gastric contents into the duodenum
Pyloric sphincter
• The stomach varies from 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10
inches) in length, but its diameter and volume
depend on how much food it contains
• Rugae – series of ridges produced by folding of the
walls of the stomach

Rugae

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• It is a digestive disorder that occurs when

acidic stomach juices, or food and fluids
back up from the stomach into the
esophagus due to weakness or unusual
relaxation of the esophageal sphincter
• The main symptom of GERD is acid reflux
which can cause an uncomfortable burning
feeling in your chest often known
GASTROESOPHAGEAL as heartburn.

REFLUX DISEASE
(GERD)

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STOMACH
• Storage, mixing and breakdown of food (chemical breakdown of proteins)
• Gastric juice – variable mixture of water, hydrochloric acid, electrolytes (sodium,
potassium, calcium, phosphate, sulfate, and bicarbonate), and organic substances
(mucus, pepsins, and protein)
• Gastric pits – openings leading to gastric glands that secrete gastric juice
• Gastrin – hormone produced by ‘G’ cells in the lining of the stomach; stimulates secretion
of gastric juice

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• It is a a condition that inflames the

stomach lining (the mucosa),
causing belly pain, indigestion

GASTRITIS (dyspepsia), bloating and nausea

• It is often caused by bacterial
infection (Helicobacter pylori),
excessive drinking or smoking,
unhealthy, spicy, fried or acidic food,
nutrient deficiencies, prolonged use
of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory
Drugs (NSAIDs)
• Drug Treatment: Antacids,
antibiotics, proton pump inhibitors

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Pyloric sphincter

SMALL Duodenum

INTESTINE Jejunum

• The body’s major digestive organ

• Longest section of the alimentary canal; It is a
muscular tube hanging in sausage-like coils
extending from the pyloric sphincter to the
large intestine
• Three subdivisions:
1. Duodenum
2. Jejunum Ileum
3. Ileum
Ileocecal junction/valve

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SMALL
INTESTINE – LIVER
Digestion
GALL BLADDER

• Chyme – semifluid mass of partly digested food

expelled by the stomach into the duodenum
• Pancreatic Juice – contains digestive enzymes PANCREAS
• Pancreatic ducts – openings at the duodenum that
lead into the pancreas
• Bile – fluid that breaks down fats into fatty acids
• Bile duct – opening at the duodenum leading into
the liver

DUODENUM

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SMALL
INTESTINE –
Absorption
• Nearly all nutrient absorption occurs in the
small intestine (water and electrolytes) Villi
Circular
• Three structures absorption: Folds
• Villi – rich capillary bed
• Microvilli – enzymes that complete
digestion of proteins and carbohydrates
• Circular Folds – deep folds on the
mucosa

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SMALL INTESTINE – Peyer’s Patches

• Peyer’s Patches – collections of lymphatic tissue in the submucosa
• Important part of the immune system by monitoring intestinal bacteria populations and
preventing the growth of pathogenic bacteria in the intestines

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Transverse colon

Ascending colon

LARGE
INTESTINE Ileocecal valve
Ileum
• Also known as the “large bowel” – largest
part of the digestive system
Descending
• Water absorption, elimination of residues Colon

• Three subdivisions:
1. Cecum
Cecum
2. Colon Rectum
3. Rectum Anal canal
Sigmoid
Colon

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LARGE
INTESTINE
1. CECUM – first part of the large
intestine
• Appendix – narrow, finger-shaped
pouch that projects out from the cecum
• It has no known function
• It is an ideal location for bacteria to
accumulate and multiply (Appendicitis)

Appendix

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Transverse colon

Ascending colon

LARGE
INTESTINE Ileocecal valve
Ileum
• Anal Canal – has two valves
• External anal sphincter – voluntary
Descending
skeletal muscle Colon

• Internal anal sphincter – involuntary

smooth muscle
• Open and closes the anus Cecum
Rectum
Sigmoid
Anal canal Colon

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ACESSORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS

• Teeth
• Salivary Glands
• Pancreas
• Liver and Gall Bladder

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Mastication – chewing by opening and

closing of jaws and moving from side to side
while using our tongue and cheek muscles to
keep food in between
• Deciduous teeth (baby or milk teeth) begin
to erupt around 6mos until a baby has a full
set (20 teeth) by the age of 2 years
• Permanent teeth develops between the
ages of 6-12 years old
• Third molars (wisdom teeth) usually erupt
between 17-25 years
• Overall, there are 32 permanent full set of
teeth but there are times that wisdom teeth

TEETH fail to erupt or sometimes completely

absent

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Enamel

TEETH Dentin

Pulp cavity
• Enamel – thick ceramic-like substance; hardest
substance in the body which bears the force of
chewing
• Dentin – bone-like material underlies the enamel Root canal
and forms the bulk of the tooth
• Pulp Cavity – contains pulp (connective tissue,
blood vessels, and nerve fibers)
• Root/RootCanal – extension of the pulp cavity
which provides a route for blood vessels, nerves
and other pulp structures

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THREE PAIRS OF SALIVARY GLANDS:

1. Parotid glands
2. Submandibular glands
3. Sublingual glands

• Saliva – mixture of mucus and serous fluids

which moistens and helps to bind food
together into a mass called a bolus.
• Salivary amylase – enzyme that begins the
process of starch digestion in the mouth

SALIVARY • Lysozyme and IgA antibodies that inhibit

bacteria

GLANDS
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PANCREAS
• Soft, pink, triangular gland that extends
across the abdomen from the spleen to the
duodenum

• Only the pancreas produces enzymes that

break down all categories of digestible
food
• Pancreatic juice – neutralizes the acidic
chyme coming in from the stomach Pancreatic
ducts

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LIVER
• Largest gland in the body
• Located under the diaphragm at the
right side of the body and overlies the
stomach
• The liver has four lobes and is
suspended from the diaphragm and
abdominal wall by a delicate mesentery
cord, the falciform ligament.

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LIVER
• The liver has many critical metabolic and regulatory roles; however, its digestive function
is to produce bile

• Bile – a yellow-to-green, watery solution containing bile salts, bile pigments (bilirubin),
cholesterol, phospholipids, and electrolytes
• Bile salts physically break large fat globules into smaller ones
• Bile exits the liver via the common hepatic duct

• Liver cells detoxify drugs and alcohol and degrade hormones

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Hepatitis – an inflammation of
the liver resulting from drinking
contaminated water or
transmitted in blood via
transfusion or contaminated
needles.
LIVER Cirrhosis – chronic inflammatory
condition in which the liver is
severely damaged and becomes
hard and fibrous; caused by
excess alcoholic beverage
consumption for many years

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GALL BLADDER
• Small, thin-walled green sac in the inferior surface of
the liver
• Bile enters the gall bladder via the cystic duct where it
is stored when food digestion does not occur
• While in the gallbladder, bile is concentrated by the
Cystic duct
removal of water
• Gall stones – crystalize cholesterol formed when bile
is stored in the gallbladder for too long or when too
much water is removed

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PHYSIOLOGY OF
THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM

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GASTROINTESTINAL PROCESS
• The major functions of the digestive tract are usually summarized in two words––digestion
and absorption.

• The essential activities of the GI tract include the ff. six processes:
1. Ingestion
2. Propulsion
3. Food Breakdown: Mechanical breakdown
4. Food Breakdown: Digestion
5. Absorption
6. Defecation

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• It is an active, voluntary process where food

is placed into the mouth
• First step to the digestive system process
occurring in the oral cavity

INGESTION
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• It is the process of propelling food

from one organ to the next
• Peristalsis – involuntary alternating
waves of contraction and relaxation
of the longitudinal muscles in the
organ wall to move food along the
tract (e.g. Swallowing)

PROPULSION

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It is the process of physically fragmenting

food into smaller particles and preparing
food for further degradation by enzymes

FOOD
BREAKDOWN: Examples of mechanical breakdown are
mastication or chewing of food and
MECHANICAL churning or mixing of food in the stomach
BREAKDOWN

Segmentation – process where the small

intestine moves food back and forth,
mixing it with digestive juices.

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• The sequence of steps in which large food

molecules are chemically broken down to
their building blocks by enzymes
• Organic food molecules :
• Monosaccharides or simple sugars (glucose,
fructose, galactose)
• Disaccharides or carbohydrates (sucrose,
lactose, maltose and starch)
FOOD • Proteins

BREAKDOWN: • Lipids (fats)

DIGESTION
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• Gastrin – stimulates release of gastric

juice

HORMONES IN • Somatostatin – inhibits secretion of

gastric and pancreatic juices

DIGESTION • Secretin – increases pancreatic juice

and bile output
• Cholecystokinin (CCK) – stimulates
gallbladder to expel stored bile

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ABSORPTION
• It is the transport of digestive end products from the lumen of the GI tract to the blood or
lymph

• The small intestine is the major absorptive site

• The process of chemical digestion is accelerated as the food now takes a 3- to 6-hour
journey through the looping coils and twists of the small intestine until digestion and
absorption of all nutrients is completed.
• Absorption by the large intestine is limited to the absorption of vit. K and B, some ions,
and most of the remaining water

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• It is the elimination of indigestible residues

from the GI tract via the anus in the form of
feces.
• Haustral contractions – slow segmenting
movements in the colon, lasting about 1
minute that occur every 30 minutes or so;
propel and mix residue

• Mass movements – long, slow-moving but

powerful contractile waves that move over
large areas of the colon three or four times
daily and force the contents toward the
rectum
• Fiber increases the strength of colon

DEFECATION contractions and softens the stool

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• DEFECATION REFLEX – a response of the

rectum when it is stretched due to
presence of feces pushed via mass
movements
• It causes the walls of the sigmoid colon and
the rectum to contract and the anal sphincters
to relax
• Diarrhea – result from any condition that
rushes food residue through the large
intestine before that organ has had sufficient
time to absorb the water (as in irritation of the
colon by bacteria)
• Constipation – If food residue remains in the
large intestine for extended periods, too
much water is absorbed, and the stool

DEFECATION
becomes hard and difficult to pass

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Reference:
Marieb, E. and Keller, S., 2018. Essentials of Human Anatomy &
Physiology. 12th ed. Pearson Education Limited, Chapter 14, pp. 492-
514

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