UST – MEDICAL BIOLOGY  No visible chromosomes yet, instead has chromatin fibers in

GENETICS LEC the nucleus

CELL DIVISION
G1 (gap 1)

 Cell goes through intense metabolic activity and growth

Introduction to Mitosis  Cell can either proceed with G1 or become G0
 Important for all eukaryotic organisms (tissue replacement and o G0 cells are metabolically active but are not
growth) dividing
 Used by single celled organisms for asexual reproduction o Can be stimulated to go back to G1

Karyokinesis (Nuclear Division) S phase

 Genetic material is partitioned into daughter cells  DNA is synthesized

 Chromosomes are replicated and partitioned precisely
 Output = 2 daughter nuclei with identical chromosome G2 (gap 2)
composition
 Cell goes through intense metabolic activity and growth
Cytokinesis (Cytoplasmic Division)  Doubles in size by the end of G2
 At the end of G2 the cell has doubled in size and has
 Partitions the cell into two parts then surrounds each of them replicated its DNA
with a new plasma membrane
 Organelles replicate themselves

After Cell Division

 Daughter cells are around half the size of parent cell but
contain identical nuclei
 Genetic material is identical

Prophase
 Over half of mitosis is prophase
 Centrosomes migrate to the poles of the cell (opposite ends)
o Organizes the cytoplasmic microtubules into the spindle
fibers
o Each centrosome has 2 centrioles
 While centrosomes migrate to the poles the nuclear membrane
breaks down
o Chromatin fibers are starting to condense into
chromosomes (apparent in late prophase)
o Chromosomes are split into two sister chromatids by
Interface and Cell Cycle the centromere
 Cells alternate between replicating and not replicating o Sister chromatids are held together by the protein
 Cell cycle is the events from one complete division to the next complex cohesion

Interface

 The initial stage of the cell cycle

 What the cell does before dividing
 Divided into three parts G1, S phase and G2

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 Kinetochore and Spindle Fiber Mechanisms

 Faulty kinetochore can lead to altered diploid content of the

cells
 Spindle fibers consist of microtubules which consist of
tubulin
o They grow out of the centrosome region at the
poles of the cell
 Microtubules directly responsible for the migration of the
chromosomes are called kinetochore microtubules

Prometaphase and Metaphase

 Prometaphase is the movement of the chromosomes to the
metaphase plate
 Metaphase is the chromosomes already at the metaphase plate
 Metaphase plate
o Midline region of the cell
o Perpendicular to the axis established by the spindle
fibers

Anaphase
 The shortest stage of mitosis
 Events critical to chromosome distribution
 The location of the centromere determines the shape of the
chromosomes during separation

Disjunction

 Event where sister chromatids separate from the other pair

Migration
 Spindle fiber binds to the kinetochore of the chromosome
o Kinetochore forms on each side of the centromere
 Once the spindle fibers attach the cohesin is degraded by
the enzyme separase so they can separate (lol)
o The cohesin doesn’t degrade at the centromere
region so the sister chromatid is intact
o Protein Shugoshin prevents this from happening
 For disjunction to occur
1. Shugosin must be degraded
2. Cohesin must be cleaved by separase
3. Sister chromatids are pulled towards the poles
 Each migrating chromatid is called a daughter chromosome
 46 chromosomes at each pole from each sister pair(92 in the
cell)

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 o Chiasma is where non-sister chromatids have
undergone crossing over
 At the end of Prophase I the nuclear membrane dissolves and the
spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of the tetrad
 Has 5 substages

Leptotene

 Chromosomes are threadlike

 In each chromosome, chromomeres (serially aligned beads
from DNA coiling) can be seen
 Replicated chromosomes start to condense
 Sister chromatids are so close together they appear to be
one
Telophase
Zygotene
 The final stage of mitosis
 At the start two sets of chromosomes are present (46 at each
 Polarity – Chromosomes are drawn to one side of the cell to
pole)
prepare for synapsis
Cytokinesis  Synapsis – Pairing of 2 homologous chromosomes
(homologous pair = 1 paternal & 1 maternal)
 Different in plants than in animals  Chromosomes are homologous if they have the same size,
o Plant – Cell plate (middle lamella) is made and put position of centromere, gene sequence, gene position (could
in the region of the metaphase plate still differ in alleles)
o Animals – Cytoplasm constricts (cell furrow) and  Formation of synaptonemal complex
pinches the cell in two o Zipper like structure that forms in between
homologous chromosomes
o Mediates synapsis
Cell Cycle Regulation and Checkpoints o Scaffolding to allow chromatids to cross over
 Formation of bivalents (number of chromosomes) or tetrads
(number of chromatids)
o These become thicker and more distinct

Meiosis
 Produces gametes or spores that only have the haploid set of
chromosomes
 During reproduction the two haploid counts merge to form a
diploid count
 The homologous chromosomes undergo synapsis and are paired
bivalently (pair of homologs are called bivalents)
o The number of bivalent is equal to the haploid number
 Highly precise since haploid gametes need to contain exactly one
member of the pair of homologous chromosomes
 Ensures genetic variation via mixing of parent chromosomes and
crossing over
o Crossing over – Genetic exchange of between
members of a homologous pair
Pachytene
Prophase I  Crossing over occurs
 Begins with a diploid cell undergoing 2 divisions o Exchange of genetic information resulting in
 Identical sister chromatids are paired up after going through recombinants
synapsis
 The two pairs of sister chromatids are called tetrads Diplotene
 As prophase continues each pair of sister chromatids drift apart
except in some areas where they remain attached called the  Breaking down of synaptonemal complex making the
chiasma homologous chromosomes separate a bit
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Diakinesis
 Chiasmata (link between crossover) move to the terminal
ends of the chromosomes
 Further chromosome condensation
 Desintigration of nuclear envelope into vesicles (nucleolus
seemingly disappears)
 Spindle fibers start to form
Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I
Metaphase 1
 Bivalents align in the metaphase plate
 Orientation is random so each daughter cell has a 50/50 chance
of inheriting either a maternal or paternal chromosome
 a single centromere holds each pair of sister chromatids
 In meiosis II it is important that the new cell only receives one
chromatid from the tetrad
 In prophase II each dyad is composed of a pair of sister
chromatids attached by a centromere
 In metaphase II the centromeres are positioned in the metaphase
plate
 In anaphase II the dyad divides and each sister chromatid goes to
the poles
o Since the dyads are equal to the haploid number they
are good to go
 In telophase II each chromosome is now a monad
o Cytokinesis follows and the output is 4 genetically
different daughter cells
o This ensures genetic variation in organisms

Anaphase 1

 Chiasmata separate
 Chromosomes separate from their homologues
 Chromosomes are now reduced to half
 Another cell division is needed since chromosomes need to
be separated into chromatids
 During anaphase I one half of each tetrad (dyad) is pulled to
the poles
o This process is the basis for disjunction
o Errors where separation is not achieved are called
non-disjunction
 At the end of anaphase I the number of dyads in each pole is
equal to the haploid number

Telophase 1

 No reorganization, cell immediately goes to prophase 2

 At telophase I nuclear membrane forms around the dyads
o In some organisms the nucleus enters through a short
interphase phase
 Chromosomes don’t replicate here
o In other organisms they go straight to Meiosis II
o Telophase I is shorter than mitotic telophase

The Second Meiotic Division

KATHRYN B 4