REPRODUCTION

 It’s the process by which mature individuals produce viable offspring.

Types of reproduction
Sexual reproduction
 It involves the fusion of the male and female gametes to form a zygote/fertilized
egg e.g.

 The fusion of the male gamete nucleus with the female gamete nucleus to form a
diploid zygote is called Fertilization
Asexual reproduction
 This is where some parts of a mature organism develop into new individuals e.g.

o Importance of reproduction
1. Procreation – reproduction sustains the species so that it does not become
extinct.
2. Quality improvement –it improves the quality of the species. Reproduction
allows for the mixing of genetic materials which leads to variations among
individuals in a species.
3. Brings about development of resistant stages in the lifecycle of some
organisms for survival.
4. Involved in the development of seeds, spores and larval stages which hinder
competition for the available resources.
CELL DIVISION
 The cell division starts with division of the nucleus i.e. chromosomes then the
cytoplasm.
o Chromosomes
 They are long thread-like structures in the nucleus of plant and animal cells.
 Each cell normally has a fixed number of chromosomes.
 Each chromosome is made of two parallel strands called chromatids.
 Each pair of chromatid is connected at one point by a structure called
centromere. e.g.

 Chromosomes are present in the nucleus all the time but they only appear or
become visible under a microscope during cell division.
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 In body cells, chromosomes occur in pairs. Each pair of chromosomes has a
characteristic length.
 The member of each pair is called a homologous chromosome i.e. the
chromosomes are alike in appearance although their genetic composition may be
different.
 During sexual reproduction each parent contributes one of the chromosomes
from a homologous pair.
 Along the length of the chromosome is a series of structures called genes. They
determine the characteristics of the cell and its progeny.
 Genes are made of a protein chemical substance called DNA (Deoxyribonucleic
acid) which contains coded information of instructions that dictate the
characteristics of the offspring e.g. whether male or female.
 The ability of cells to divide is located in specific areas e.g. meristematic
cambium cells, meristematic apical cells in woody plants and in Malpighian layer
in the mammalian skin.
Types of cell division
(a) MITOSIS
 This is a type of cell division in which a cell divides into two daughter cells each
having the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
 Mitosis takes place in somatic (body) cells.
o Stages of mitosis
 Mitosis cell division takes place in Five stages i.e.
i. Interphase (I)
ii. Prophase (P)
iii. Metaphase (M)
iv. Anaphase (A)
v. Telophase (T)
I. Interphase
 The cell undergoes intense internal
activities in preparation for the
division. These activities include;
 Multiplication of genetic material so
that daughter cells will have the
same number of chromosomes as the
parent cell.
 Synthesis of new cell organelles e.g.
Golgi apparatus, centrioles,
mitochondria and ribosomes.
 Build-up of enough energy stores in
the form of ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate) to drive the cell
through the entire process of cell
division.

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 II. Prophase

 Duplicated centrioles (in animal cells)

separate and move to the opposite
poles of the cell and spindle fibres
begin to form.
 Nuclear membrane begins to break
down while nucleolus disappears.
 *The chromosomes thicken and
shorten and can take up stains easily
hence become visible.
 Each chromosome now consists of a
pair of chromatids joined at the
centromere.

III. Metaphase
 The nuclear membrane disappears.
 Spindle fibres lengthen. In animal
cells they attach to the centrioles at
both poles.
 The chromosomes align themselves at
the equator of the spindle.

IV. Anaphase
 The chromatids separate at the
centromere and migrate to the
opposite poles. This is brought about
by the shortening of spindle fibres.
 The spindle apparatus begins to
disappear
 In animal cells, the cell membrane
begins to constrict towards the end of
anaphase

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 V. Telophase
 The chromatids collect together at the
two opposite ends of the spindle.
 A nuclear membrane forms around
each set of chromatids and are now
referred to as chromosomes.
 The cytoplasm divides into two
leading to the formation of two
daughter cells.
 Chromosomes become less distinct
NB In animal cells, the division of
cytoplasm is by constriction of cell
membrane. But in plant cells, a
cell plate forms within the
cytoplasm and grows to separate
the cell into two.

Significance of mitosis
 It is the basis of asexual reproduction.
 Mitosis ensures that chromosomal constitution and hence the genetic constitution
of the offspring is the same as the parents. E.g.
 Man - 23 pairs
 Drosophila melanogaster - 4 pairs
 Responsible for growth of an organism. (due to an increase in the number of cells
within an organism)
 Brings about repair of worn out tissues and cells
 Brings about regeneration of body parts which have been cut off e.g. tail of a
lizard.

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 (b) MEIOSIS
 Type of cell division that involves two divisions (Meiosis 1 and 11) of the parental
cells resulting into 4 daughter cells. Each daughter cell has half the number of
chromosomes (haploid, n) as the parent cell.
 Meiosis takes place in the reproductive organs (testes and ovaries) of animals
and ovaries and anthers in plants.
Principle underlying Meiosis
 Meiosis consists of two successive divisions i.e.
 First meiotic division where the homologous get separated from each
other and go into different cells.
 2nd meiotic division where the chromosome separates giving a total of 4
daughter cells.
First meiotic division (Meoisis1)
 This 1st meiotic division is responsible for separating the homologous
chromosomes and halving the chromosome number, hence described as
reduction division.
 The stages include;
i. Interphase I (I)
ii. Prophase I (P)
iii. Metaphase I (M)
iv. Anaphase I (A)
v. Telophase I (T)

I. Interphase 1
It involves;
I
 Replication of chromosomes
 Synthesis of organelles
 Build-up of energy to be used
during the meiotic division.

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 II. Prophase 1
 Nucleolus disappears
 Centrioles become arranged at
opposite sides of nucleus.
 Chromosomes condense by
shortening and thickening hence
become more visible.
 Homologous chromosomes lie side
by side in the process of synapsis
forming pairs called bivalents.
 Chromatids of homologous
chromosomes may then wrap
around each other and become
joined at certain points called
chiasmata (singular chiasma).
Important genetic exchanges usually
take place at these points.

III. Metaphase1
 Cell membrane disappears.
 Spindle fibres are fully formed.
 The bivalents move and lie along
the equator of the spindle

IV. Anaphase1
 Homologous chromosomes of
the bivalent separate and
move to the opposite poles of
the cell, due to the shortening
of the spindle fibres hence
pulling the chromosomes

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 V. Telophase 1
 Spindle fibres disappear
 In animal cell, the cell constricts
across the middle and cytoplasm
finally divides resulting in two
cells.

NB. At the end of meiosis 1,

separation of homologous
chromosomes has been
achieved.

Second meiotic division

 Purpose of this phase is to separate the chromatids from one another.
I. Interphase 11
 The resultant cells of meiosis 1 usually go into a short interphase e
II. Prophase 11
 New spindle fibres are formed e.g.

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 III. Metaphase11
 Chromosomes move to the equator of the spindle and attach to the spindle fibres
at the centromere.
 The chromosomes orientate themselves towards the opposite poles.

IV. Anaphase11
 The sister chromatids separate from each other and move to the opposite poles
pulled by the shortening of the spindle fibres e.g.

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 V. Telophase 11
 The spindle apparatus disappears.
 Nucleolus reappears and a nuclear membrane is formed around each set of
chromatids.
 The cytoplasm constricts resulting in the formation of 4 daughter cells. Each
daughter cell has the haploid number of chromosomes

NB The function of the 2nd meiotic division is to separate the chromatids from
each other.
Significance of meiosis
 Gamete formation- gametes have he haploid number of chromosomes. The diploid
number of chromosomes is retained when the male and female gametes fuse.
 A source of variation in individuals of the same species. Genetic variation is
brought about by the combination of genes.
Similarities between mitosis and meiosis
 Both take place in plant and animal ells
 Both involve the division (multiplication) of cells
Differences between meiosis and mitosis

Meiosis
1. Homologous chromosomes
associate with one another
2. Takes place in two nuclear
divisions (2 phases) each having 4
stages
3. Produces 4 daughter cells, each
haploid
4. Occurs in reproductive organs
5. Chiasma formation takes place
and may lead to crossing over hence
variation
Mitosis
Homologous chromosomes’ do not
associate with one another
Takes place in one nuclear division
having 4 stages
Produces 2 daughter cells each diploid
Occurs in somatic cells leading to growth
No chiasma formation therefore no
crossing over hence no variation

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 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 It is the production of offspring from a single organism without the fusion of
gametes. The offspring are identical to parents.

Advantages of asexual Reproduction

1. Good qualities from the parents are retained in the offspring without any
variation.
2. The plants mature faster than those produced by sexual means.
3. It does not depend on processes such as pollination, fertilization and dispersal
of fruits and seeds.
4. The new plants are able to obtain nourishment from their parent plants hence
are able to survive temporarily under unsuitable conditions.
5. It gives rise to dense clumps of plants which do not encourage competitors.
Disadvantages of asexual Reproduction
1. The new offspring can retain undesired qualities from the parents.
2. No variations hence the offspring may not be able to withstand changing
environmental conditions.
3. It gradually reduces the strength and vigour of the succeeding generation.
4. Brings about overcrowding and competition due to faster growth and
development.
Types of asexual reproduction
 Binary fission
 The word binary means two and fission mean splitting
 It is the simplest form of asexual reproduction. It involves the splitting of the
original cell into two similar daughter cells. The fission occurs when the
organism attains a maximum size.
 Binary fission involves division of nucleus (karyogamy) and cytoplasmic division
(cytogamy) e.g. Amoeba, Plasmodium and bacteria
Binary fission in Amoeba
 The amoeba reproduces mainly through binary fission. The nucleus divides into
two through mitosis and is soon followed by division of the cytoplasm.
 A cell membrane is finally formed around each of the cells. The two cells are
identical and have the same number of chromosomes as the parent amoeba.

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 Amoeba is capable of dividing once every 30 minutes.
 The rapid cell division leads to a rapid increase in the population of amoeba
 Spore formation (sporulation)
 Spores are small single celled reproductive cells capable of giving rise to an
individual. They are produced by fungi, bacteria and protozoa.
Spore formation in Rhizopus
 Rhizopus is a saprophytic fungus which grows on substrate like bread, rotting
fruits and other decaying organic matter.
 The vegetative body is called mycelium which consists of many branched threads
called hyphae.

 Horizontal hyphae are called stolons

 Hyphae which grow vertically are called the sporangiophores. The tips of these
upright hyphae swell up to form the sporangia (spore bearing structures)
 The hyphae are anchored in a substratum by delicate outgrowths known as
rhizoids
 Inside the sporangium the nuclei divide meiotically producing daughter nuclei
that contain a haploid number of chromosomes (n)
 The daughter nuclei develop into spores by the incorporation of cytoplasm
around each nucleus and a wall around the cytoplasm
 The sporangium contains very many spores as it matures and ripens, it turns
black in colour
 When fully mature the sporangium wall burst and releases the spores which are
dispersed to restart a fresh generation of growth and development.
 Spore dispersal may be by wind, insect or mechanically by being scattered by
animals

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  Budding in yeast
 It’s a form of asexual reproduction in which a new individual is produced as
an outgrowth (bud) of the parent and is later released as a self-supporting
identical copy of the parent.
 Yeast is a single celled organism in the kingdom fungi. The cell is made up of
a thin cell wall which encloses the cytoplasm containing a vacuole

 The yeast cell under favorable conditions i.e. plenty of sugar, moisture, and
oxygen etc, reproduces asexually by budding.
 In budding a small area of the cell wall of a parent cell softens and forms a
projection of bud which bulges outwardly. This is followed by the division of the
nucleus into two. One of the nuclei moves into the new bud.
 The bud then grows in size and forms new cell organelles. At this stage the
bud separates off but since the budding process is so fast the first bud starts to
form another before it separates off from the parent thus forming a short chain
of cells.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

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 In flowering plants the flower is the reproductive organ which is a specialized
shoot consisting of a modified stem and modified leaves.
 The stem portion consists of a pedicel (flower stalk) and a receptacle to
which are attached the modified leaves.

Structures and function of a flower

The flower parts are
 Pedicel (flower)
 Receptacle (apex of flower stalk) to which are attached the 4 groups of floral
structures i.e.
 Calyx
 Corolla
 Androecium (male parts)
 Gynoecium/ pistil/ female parts

 Pedicel
 Also called flower stalk. Some flowers have no stalk and are directly attached to
the stem of the plant. Such a flower is said to be sessile.
 Sepals
 They are the outermost floral parts. They are mostly green and in most flowers,
sepals resemble leaves.
 Sepals are collectively referred to as the calyx. Sepals may be hairy e.g. roses
 The sepals protect the young flower while in the bud stage.
 Where the sepals are free they form a polysepalous calyx and when fused they
form a gamosepalous calyx.
 In some flowers there may be another ring of sepal- like structures just beneath
the calyx called epicalyx e.g. hibiscus.

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  Petals
 The petals are collectively referred to as the corolla. The petals are brightly
coloured, large and conspicuous especially in insect pollinated flowers where
they attract insects for pollination
 If the petals are fused the corolla is said to be gamopetalous and if they are free
they are termed as polypetalous
 Fused petals form a corolla that can be tubular or funnel shaped as in the
flowers of sweet potato and pumpkins plants
 Some of the petals of leguminous plants are keel like and they enclose stamens
and carpels
 Sepals and petals are collectively referred to as the perianth
 Stamen
 The male reproductive structures are collectively referred to as the Androecium.
Stamens are made up of:
 Filaments
 It is a slender stalk that supports the anther. The anther is attached to the apex
of the filament. The filaments of Sodom apple and potatoes arise from the petals.
 The filament of some flowers are fused to form a tube like structure called
staminal tube e.g. in hibiscus flowers.

 In garden pea flower, nine filaments are fused while the tenth is free
 Anther
 It’s a two lobed upper part of the stamen. Each lobed 2 pollen sacs within which
pollen grains develop

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  Carpel/ Gynoecium/ pistil
 It’s the female reproductive structure. Each carpel comprises the ovary, style
and stigma
 Ovary
 The ovary contains ovules. Ovules are unfertilized filament gametes. After
fertilization the ovules develop into seeds while the ovary becomes a fruit.
Position of ovaries in different flowers
Superior ovary/ hypognous
 This is where the ovary is above the other floral parts i.e stamens, petals and
sepals e.g. ovary of a bean flower, hibiscus flower, crotalaria

Inferior ovary/ epigynous

 This is where the ovary is positioned below the other floral parts e.g. apple
flowers, sunflower, canna lily, guava

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 Perigynous ovary
 This is where the receptacle surrounds the carpel with other floral parts arising
around the ovary i.e. the stamens, petals, sepals arise from the margin of the
receptacle e.g. roses.

Style
 It connects the stigma to the ovary. In maize plant the style and stigma hang out
of the flower
Stigma
 It’s a sticky structure at the tip of the carpel. The stigma is the tissue onto which
the pollen grain are deposited
NB - the Gynoecium can be of different types depends on the number of carpels
e.g
Monocarpous gynoecium
 It has one carpel e.g. beans
Polycarpous gynoecium
 It is the one with 2 or more carpels. The Polycarpous Gynoecium with free
carpels is termed as apocarpous e.g. in rose and Bryophyllum
 When the carpels are fused together the Gynoecium is termed as synocarpous
hibiscus

Other terms used to described a flower

 Complete flower - one with all the 4 floral parts present i.e. calyx, corolla,
Androecium and Gynoecium. When one part or more of these are absent, the
flower is said to be incomplete.

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 Unisexual flower - one with only one of the reproductive parts. It may be either
a male or female flowers.
 Staminate flower - it’s a male flower
 Pistilate flower - It’s a female flower.
 Monoecious plant - when both male and female flowers are born on the same
plant e.g. maize. However there are cases when plants bear either male or female
flowers. These plants are also known as male or female plants and are described
as dioecious plants e.g. paws paws
 Hermaphrodite (bisexual) flower - has both the male and female reproductive
organs e.g. hibiscus.
 Calyx & corolla - they are known as the non- essential parts of a flower while
Androecium and Gynoecium are essential parts
 Regular (actinomorphic) flower - those that can divide into two similar halves
by any vertical section passing through the centre e.g. morning glory. These
types of flowers are radically symmetrical
 Irregular (zygomorphic) flower – can be divided into two halves in one particular
plane only e.g. crotalaria. Such flowers are bilaterally symmetrical.
 Pedicillate flower - flowers with a flower stalk
 Solitary flowers - those that occur singly. Those that grow in clusters make an
inflorescence
POLLINATION
 This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
 When the transfer is from the anther of the flower to the stigma of another flower
but of the same species it is called cross pollination
 If the transfer of the pollen grains is from anther to the stigma of the same
flower, it is referred to as self-pollination

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 Agents of pollination
 These are agents which aid in pollination
Insect pollinated flowers
 They are also known as entomophilous flowers e.g. hibiscus

Adaptive features
 Flowers are large, conspicuous with brightly colored petals/bracts/ inflorescence
to attract insects
 Flowers are scented and produce nectar to attract insects which come to obtain
nectar for their food.
 Anthers are small and firmly attached to a firm filament. This feature ensures
that the insect rubs against the anthers as they crawl into the flower hence
collecting pollen grains on their bodies.
 Pollen grains are relatively large, heavy and are rough/ sticky so as to stick on
the body of the insect.
 Stigmas are small sticky and occur inside the flower so that pollen grains from
the body of an insect stick onto it.
 The flower structure is specially designed with tubular or funnel shaped corolla,
landing platforms, honey guides and some even mimic the body form of the
pollinating insect.
 These features ensure that the insect comes into contact with the stamens and
Carpels when getting into the nectary.

Wind pollinated flowers

 They are also known as anemophilous flowers e.g. Zea Mays
Adaptive features
 Flowers are small with inconspicuous petals, bracts or inflorescence
 Flowers lack nectar and are not scented.

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 Anthers are large and loosely attached to a flexible filament. This ensures that
pollen grains are released readily when wind flows on the anthers.
 Pollen grains are usually small, smooth and light to enable them float in the air
currents for dispersal
 Stigmas are long, feathery and hang outside the flowers acting as nets to trap
pollen grains.
 Flower structure is simple and flowers have no particular shape.

Features and mechanisms that hinder self-pollination and self

fertilisation
 Monoecious and hermaphrodites plants
The hermaphrodites risk a wide chance of being self- pollinated but there are
natural provisions developed in most plants to prevent self- pollination e.g.
having brightly coloured and scented flowers which have nectar hence
encouraging cross pollination by insects
 Protandry and protogyny
Protandry- this is when the stamens ripen earliest and the anthers shed their
pollen grains before the stigma is mature enough to receive them e.g. sunflower
(helianthus annus)
Protogyny- the stigma matures earlier and is ready to receive pollen grains
before the anthers are ripe enough to shed the pollen grains e.g. most grass
plants e.g. maize.
 Self- sterility and incompatibility
 In maize flowers, the pollen grains are sterile to the stigma of the same plant
hence self-pollination is not possible.
 Heterostyly
 It is a condition of having different arrangements of stamen and pistil, the stigma
e.g. plants like coconut have flowers with shorter stamens than pistils which
renders it impossible for the pollen grains from the stamen to reach the stigma.

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 Process of fertilization in flowering plants
 Fertilization is the fusion of the male and female nuclei in the embryo sac. After
pollination the pollen grains absorb nutrients from the stigma and develop an
outgrowth called the pollen tube.
 The pollen tube grows down the style to the embryo sac taking along the male
gametes with it.
 The pollen grains usually adhere to the stigma as a result of the stigma cells
secreting a sticky substance which also stimulates the pollen grain to germinate
sending down its pollen grain.

Mature pollen grain

 The growth of the pollen tube into the stigma through the style to the ovary is by
pushing its way between the cells where it get its nourishment from the
surrounding tissues. This process takes place in a matter of minutes.
 As the pollen grain germinates the tube nucleus occupies a position at the tip of
the growing pollen tube.

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 The generative nucleus divides by mitosis into two male gamete nuclei which
follow behind the tube nucleus as the pollen tube grows down the style.
 The pollen tube enters an ovule through the micropyle and when it reaches the
centre of the ovule it penetrates the wall of the embryo sac and burst open:
meanwhile the tube nucleus disintegrates leaving a clear way for the entry of the
male nuclei.
 One of the male nuclei fuses with the egg cell to form a diploid zygote which
develops into an embryo while the other male nucleus fuses with polar nuclei to
form a triploid nucleus. This gives the double fertilization that is unique
flowering plants.

Seed and fruit development

Changes that take place after fertilization
1. The zygote undergoes mitotic division and develops to become an embryo. The
embryo has a plumule (young shoot), the radicle (young root) and one or two
cotyledons.
2. The triploid primary nucleus undergoes mitosis to form endosperm.
3. The ovules form the seeds.
4. The ovary develops into a fruit, ovary wall becomes the fruit wall (pericarp)
5. The integuments form the testa/seed coat.
6. Calyx dries and falls off or persists
7. Petals and stamens wither and fall off.
SEED AND FRUIT DEVELOPMENT
Development of the seed
 The zygote undergoes mitotic division and develops to become an embryo. The
embryo has a plumule (young shoot), the radicle (young root), and one or two
cotyledons.
 The primary endosperm nucleus develops into the endosperm. The ovule forms
the seed while the ovary develops into a fruit.
 The cotyledons are surrounded by a seed coat (testa).The testa has got a scar
(hilum) which is the point of attachment to the placenta.
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 The embryo completely separates from the endosperm and membrane, leaving
an opening (micropyle) which allows in water into the seed.
 As the seed matures the endosperm or cotyledons harden by losing water then it
dries and becomes dormant.
Development of the Fruit
 The fruit begins its development immediately after fertilization and is brought
about by gibberellins which cause it to increase in size.
 During fruit formation the wall of the ovary becomes the pericarp or fruit wall.
The pericarp is made up of 3 layers i.e.
-Outer layer (epicarp)
-Middle layer (Mesocarp)
-Inner layer (endocarp)
 Fruit is a fully grown fertilized ovary containing fully developed seeds. However
in certain plants such as pineapples and bananas, fruit development takes place
without fertilization. This is known as parthenocarpy

NB. (i) A seed has only one scar-point at which it was attached to the
receptacle while a Fruit has two scars i.e.
- Point at which it was attached to the receptacle.
- Remains of style.
(ii) A seed is covered by a testa/seed coat while a fruit is covered with
pericarp.
(iii) A seed is formed from an ovule while the fruit is formed from an ovary.

Types of Fruits
They are classified into 2 major categories i.e.
 Dry fruits.
 Succulent fruits

(1) Succulent fruits

 They have a fleshy pericarp and may contain juice. They are sub-divided
into;
 Berry
 It has a succulent pericarp (Epicarp, Mesocarp and Endocarp).
 Berries usually have many seeds embedded in the Endocarp e.g. Tomatoes,
paw paws, bananas, Oranges, Water melons, Lemon.
NB In the orange, the Endocarp bears hairs which have developed into
Succulent structures.

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  Drupe
 Has a thin epicarp, the Mesocarp is fleshy or fibrous and the Endocarp is
hard and stony. The Endocarp encloses the seeds e.g. mango, coconut, plum
etc
 In the mango, the fleshy edible part is the Mesocarp, while in coconut the
Mesocarp is the fibrous cover lying over the hard endocarp.

Pome
 It’s a fruit whose succulent part develops from the receptacle of the flower e.g.
apple, pears etc
 In the pear and cashew, the receptacle swells and forms part of the fruit.

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 (2) Dry fruits
 These are fruits with low moisture content.
 They are subdivided into Dehiscent fruits and indehiscent fruits
(a) Dehiscent fruits
 It’s a fruit whose ovary wall splits to release the seeds. The ovary wall has
lines of weakness that exist as sutures /dehiscent lines.
 Tension is created along the sutures of the pericarp and this causes splitting
and the release of the seeds. They include;
 Legume (pod)
 The fruit wall (pericarp) is not differentiated. The fruit (pod) is usually long
and flattened sideways. When the fruit is ripe, the pericarp dehisces
longitudinally along both sides to liberate the seed.
 The seeds are usually arranged along one of the margins of the fruit (marginal
placentation) e.g. Bean fruit.

 Capsule
 The pericarp dehisces longitudinally at more than two places e.g. cotton or by
a ring of pores at the top e.g. poppy

 Others are; Aloe, Datura

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  Schizocarp
 The ripe fruit breaks into a number of small one-seeded parts called
mericarps e.g. Castor seed

 Follicle
 It’s a dry fruit that splits open only along one side or line when mature e.g.
Nandi flame
(b) Indehiscent fruits
 These are fruits that do not split open to release their seeds e.g.
 Caryopsis
 The pericarp and seed coat are fused together to form a thin covering
over the entire seed e.g. maize

 Cypsela
 This is a one-seeded fruit where the seed is free from pericarp. The
calyx persists for dispersal e.g. Tridax, Black jack (Bidens pilosa),
Sonchus.


 Nut
 It’s a fruit where the pericarp becomes hard and woody and is
separate from the seed coat e.g. macadamia, cashew nut.

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Other types of fruits
 False fruits-It’s formed when the ovary, petals, sepals, receptacle and
pedicel form part of the fruit e.g. apple, rose hip, pineapple,
strawberry.
PLACENTATION
 This is the arrangement of the ovules in an ovary. When gynoecium is
monocarpous, the placentation can be marginal or basal.
 When gynoecium is syncarpous, the placentation can be axile,
parietal or free central.

Types of placentation

(a) Marginal placentation

 The ovules are attached along the margin of the fruit wall. The fruit is
pod-shaped e.g. beans in a pod.

(b) Basal placentation

 The placenta is formed at the base of the ovary with numerous ovules
attached to it e.g. sunflower, mango.

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
(c) Parietal placentation
 In this type the edges of the carpels fuse together and the dividing
walls disappear, leaving a loculus.
 The placentas from each carpel appear as parietal placentation ridges
on the ovary wall and have numerous ovules on them e.g. pawpaw,
passion fruit.

(d) Axile/ central placentation

 In this type the edges of the carpels fuse together to form a central
placenta. Ovules are arranged on the placenta.
 The ovary is divided into a number of loculi by the walls of the carpel
e.g. orange, tomato, and lemon.

(e) Free central placentation

 The edges of the carpels fuse together and the dividing walls
disappear leaving one loculus. A placenta appears at the centre of the
ovary and has numerous ovules on it.

FRUIT AND SEED DISPERSAL

Reasons for dispersal
 Dispersal prevents overcrowding and competition amongst seedlings for
light, water and mineral salts.
 Enables the colonization of new habitats.

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 Adaptations of fruits and seeds to their agents of dispersal
1. ANIMAL DISPERSAL
 The features of seeds and fruits dispersed by animals include;
 Some fruits have hooks and spikes on fruit walls make it easy for
them to get attached onto the skin or fur of animals e.g. Black jack.
 Some fruits produce a pleasant scent. The scent attracts animals to
feed on the fruits e.g. oranges and mangoes.
 Some fruits are succulent/fleshy/juicy to attract animals which eat
them and carry them away from the parent plant. E.g. lemons,
avocado, oranges, passion fruits.
 Some fruits are brightly coloured to attract animals to feed on them.
The animals disperse the seeds away from the parent plant e.g.
oranges, passion fruits.
 Some seeds have a hard seed coat and has a slimy protective covering
hence the seeds are not digested by the enzymes of the animal and
are removed in faeces e.g. oranges, passion fruits, tomato seeds,
guava.
 Some seeds are sticky e.g. mistletoe seeds. A bird that feeds on the
fruit wipes its beak onto tree trunks and branches hence dispersing
the seeds.
2. WATER DISPERSAL
 Some fruits have mesocarps that are fibrous and spongy to trap air
making the fruit light and buoyant to float on water and be carried
away from the parent plant.
 Some seeds have seed coats that trap air bubbles that make the seeds
float on water and be carried away from the parent plant when
released from the fruit. E.g. water lily seeds.
 Some fruits and seeds are generally light to make it easier to be
carried away by water.
 Some fruits have a waterproof pericarp as well as some seeds have a
waterproof seed coat making the fruit and seeds remain afloat without
soaking and sinking immediately they are released from the parent
plant.

3. Wind dispersal
 Fruits and seeds are generally small and light in order to be carried by
air currents.
 Some seeds and fruits have wing-like structures which are flat, broad
and papery to create a large surface area so as they can easily be

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 blown by wind e.g. jacaranda, tecoma,and spathodea seeds (Nandi
flame) e.g.

 Some seeds and fruits have developed hairy and feathery-like

projections which increase their surface area so that they can be blow
away by wind and dropped some distance away from the parent plant
e.g. cotton, Sonchus spp.

 Some fruits have open/perforated capsules attached on long stalks

which are swayed by wind scattering the seeds. E.g. in simsim,
Mexican poppy and tobacco.

4. Self-explosive mechanism
 Some fruits (e.g. legumes/pods) have lines of weakness (sutures) which
split open when dry scattering/ throwing away the seeds. E.g. beans,
peas, castor oil, geranium
 This method of dispersal occurs in fruits with dry pods. After the pod
dries, the seeds break off from the placenta and are placed inside the
pod. Due to the loss of water from the pod and pressure from within,

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 the pod opens violently along the lines of weakness (sutures). In the
process the seeds are thrown away from the parent plant.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

 Sexual Reproduction involves the fusion of gametes. The males
produce gametes called sperms and the females produce gametes
called ova (ovum).
 These gametes are produced by special organs called gonads - the
testes which produce sperms and ovaries which produce ova.
 The fusion of the male gamete nucleus with the female gamete/ovum
nucleus to form a diploid zygote is known as Fertilization
 There are two types of fertilization;
a) External fertilization;
 It occurs in animals such as amphibians and fish. This is only
possible in water. During this time, the female lays eggs in water and
the male sheds sperms over the eggs to fertilize them, resulting in
fertilization outside the body.
 In this kind of fertilization, many eggs are released to increase the
chances of survival, since the fertilized eggs could be attacked by
bacteria or eaten by some animals.
 During the mating season which coincides with the rainy season, the
males croak mainly at night to attract females.
 While mating, the male mounts the female and sheds sperms as the
female lays eggs. These activities increase the chances of fertilization.
 The eggs are laid in long strands of slippery jelly-like substance which
has several functions i.e.
 Provides protection to the eggs i.e. prevents predators from
feeding on the eggs.
 It separates the eggs from each other allowing for good
aeration.
 It attaches the eggs from each other allowing for good
aeration.
 It attaches the eggs to the water plants.
 Makes the eggs to be buoyant.

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 b) Internal Fertilization
 It occurs in reptiles, birds and mammals. Fertilization occurs within
the body of the female.
 The number of eggs produced by the females is fewer than those
produced by animals where external fertilization occurs. This is
because there are higher chances of fertilization since the sperms are
deposited into the female’s body.
 In most mammals, some chameleons and some snakes, the fertilized
eggs develop into young ones within the body of the female. After the
gestation period the females give birth to young ones.

Differences between internal & external fertilization

Internal fertilization External fertilization

1. Fertilization takes place
inside the body of the female.
2. Found mostly in animals
which live on land e.g.
mammals.
3. Have specialized set organs
to introduce sperm to the
female’s body.
4. Fertilization takes place in
the watery environment
inside the female’s
reproductive tract.
5. Few eggs are produced.
6. Eggs are protected from
predators and adverse
weather.
Fertilization takes place outside the
body of the female
Found in animals that breed in
water e.g. amphibians.
Sex organs of the male shed
sperms over the eggs in water
Fertilization takes place in the
watery environment in the
surrounding of the animals.
Very many eggs are produced.
Eggs are easily affected by adverse
weather and also eaten by
predator.

REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS
 Fertilization occurs internally. After fertilization the fertilized egg is
laid or develops within the female’s body in a special structure called
uterus.
 The egg laying mammals (monotremes) are said to be oviparous e.g.
platypus. The embryo develops outside the body of the female.
 In some mammals the zygote does not develop fully within the uterus
but completes development within a special structure called pouch as
in the marsupials e.g. kangaroo.
 The ability to give birth to young ones as in placental mammals is
referred to as Viviparity.

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 Mammals whose zygotes develop within the uterus have mammary
glands. These glands produce milk on which the young ones feed until
they are able to feed on the same feed as adults.

REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

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  It consists the following structures:
 Testes
 There are two testes in the male. They are the main gonads where the
male gametes (sperms) are made.
 They produce the male sex hormone testosterone.
 Scrotal Sac/Scrotum
 The testes are positioned outside the abdomen in a sac of skin called
the scrotal bag or scrotum.
 The function of scrotum is to support and protect the testes. It
ensures that the testes are located at a lower temperature than that of
the body. this is because the sperms require temperatures slightly
lower than that of the body for their production. High temperatures
reduce the life of sperms.
 Seminiferous tubules
 Each testis contains in its tightly coiled seminiferous tubules. They
are coiled to increase surface area.
 The walls of these tubules have specialized cells that produce sperms.
 Other specialized cells located in between the seminiferous tubules
are known as interstitial cells which produce the hormone
testosterone.
 The sertoli cells found on the walls of the seminiferous tubules
nourish the sperms till they become mature.
 Epididymis
 It’s a much coiled tube (6 m long) when stretched. Its long and coiled
to provide a large surface area for temporary storage sperms.
 Vas deferens (Plural Vas Deferentia) / sperm duct
 This is a narrow muscular tube connecting the epididymis to the
urethra which is the ejaculatory duct. Upon the contraction of its
muscles it pushes sperms and allows ejaculation.
 Urethra
 This is a tube that directs urine from the bladder as well as sperms
from the Vas deferentia out of the male’s body via the penis at
different times. Therefore the urethra plays a role in both urinary $
reproductive systems of the human male, hence referred to as
urinogental organ.
 Penis
 Its role is to deposit sperms into the vagina of the female. This is possible
due to the presence of specialized tissue known as erectile tissue. This
tissue has spaces that fill up with blood during sexual excitement causing
the penis to become rigid and erect, a process known as erection. This
way it can penetrate and deposit sperms into the vagina. Also highly
supplied with blood capillaries that supply enough blood to spongy spaces
for erection.

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  Glans
 This is the tip of the penis. It’s highly sensitive due to the nerve supply
and during copulation it is easily stimulated to bring about erection and
ejaculation.
 Prepuce (Foreskin)
 It’s a retractable skin which covers the glans. This skin may be removed
during circumcision.
 Accessory glands
These are:-
1. Prostate gland
 This gland secretes mucus and a slightly alkaline fluid that is released
during ejaculation. It makes sperms more active and neutralizes the
acidity of the vagina.
2. Cowper’s gland
 Secretes a clear, sticky slightly alkaline fluid which cleans the urethra
prior to ejaculation by neutralizing any urine present.
3. Seminal Vesicles
 Produce a mucus secretion which aids in sperm movement. The
combination of secretions and sperm is called semen.
Semen - It’s made up of:-
 Sperms
 Sugars that nourish the sperms making them more active.
 Mucus that forms a semi-fluid liquid that the sperms can swim in.
 Alkaline substances to neutralize the conditions in the urethra
and vagina.
 Hormones which help sperms reach the ovum by causing
muscular contractions of uterus oviduct.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

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  Ovaries
 There are two ovaries which are cream coloured oval bodies measuring 3-
4 cm long. They are found in the lower part of the abdomen below the
kidneys.
 They are held in position by membranes and blood is supplied to them by
the ovarian artery and removed by the ovarian vein.
 The ovary produces the eggs and female hormones i.e. oestrogen and
progesterone.
 Oviduct/Fallopian tube
 It connects the ovary to the uterus. One end of the oviduct opens into the
body cavity. This end is funnel shaped; the other end of the oviduct opens
into the uterus.
 An ovum enters into the oviduct through the funnel-shaped end.
Fertilization occurs in the oviduct.
 The lining of the oviduct is ciliated. The cilia propel the ovum towards the
uterus.
 Sexually transmitted infection of the oviducts may result in their
becoming scarred and blocked. This may cause sterility.
 Uterus/Womb
 It’s found in the lower abdomen, and the embryo develops in this
structure.
 The uterus is capable of expanding as the embryo grows and can return
to the original size of about 8cm in length after birth. This is possible
because its walls are muscular. These muscles are also important at the
time of birth as they aid in the expulsion of the fully developed foetus.
 The uterine wall is lined by an endometrium for implantation and
nourishing of the embryo at its initial stages.
 The uterus is kept in position by ligaments.

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  Cervix
 It’s a ring of muscles that separates the uterus from the vagina. It
secretes a plug of mucus which prevents entry of pathogens into the
uterus during pregnancy.
 The ring of muscles remains contracted to keep the baby in the uterus.
During birth, the ring of muscles relaxes to allow the baby to pass
through to the world.
 It is also referred to as the mouth of the uterus.
 Vagina/Birth canal
 It’s a muscular tube leading from the cervix. Sperms are deposited here
during sexual intercourse.
 The walls of the vagina comprise the elastic tissues that stretch during
sexual intercourse and also at the time of birth. It’s long to allow for
sufficient entry of penis to avoid wastage of sperms.
 The vagina together with the urethra opens to the outside at the vulva.
 Vulva
 Within the walls of the vulva are the vestibular glands which release
mucus when the female is sexually aroused which helps to lubricate the
vagina during intercourse.
HUMAN SPERM
It consists of:-
 Head
 It contains a large nucleus, which carries genetic material which
is haploid in number(n)
 At the tip of the head is an acrosome which lytic enzymes. These
enzymes digest the membrane of the egg for sperm to penetrate.
Human spermatozoon
 Neck – Contains the centrioles.
 Middle piece – Contains numerous mitochondria. The mitochondria
provide energy for the movement of the sperm cell.
 Tail piece – It propels the sperm forward by its side to side lashing
action.

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 Formation of Ova
 Unlike the production of sperms in mammals in males which only begins
at puberty, the process of egg formation begins in the ovary of the foetus
before birth.
 At birth, there are about 70,000 potential egg cells in the ovaries of a
baby girl. They are enclosed by a layer of ovary cells known as primary
follicles which provide nourishment of these, about 500 of them may
develop into ova during puberty. This involves the process of meiosis.
 During puberty the primary follicles undergo growth to become the
mature graafian follicle.
 At ovulation the Graafian follicle bursts open to release a mature ovum
surrounded by layers of follicle cells.
MATURE HUMAN OVUM

 A mature ovum is spherical in shape with a diameter of about 0.2mm. It

contains a large haploid nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
 The nucleus is within the cytoplasm enclosed by a plasma membrane.
Another membrane, the vitelline membrane surrounds the plasma
membrane.
Process of fertilization
 Fertilization – This is the process whereby the nucleus of a male gamete
fuses with the nucleus of a female gamete to form a zygote. This occurs in
the upper part of the oviduct after copulation.
 The sperms are drawn up by suction through the cervix into the uterus
from where they swim up to the oviduct using their tails.
 Although a single ejaculation contains millions of sperms (50 million –
300 million) only one will fertilize the ovum.
 As the ovum moves down the oviduct it releases chemical substances
which have to be neutralized by those produced by the acrosome before
the sperm penetrates the ovum.
 When the sperm comes into contact with the egg, the acrosome burst
open and releases the lytic enzymes which dissolve the egg membrane.

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 The acrosome then turns inside–out forming a fine filament that is used
to penetrate the egg.

 The vitelline membrane undergoes a change which stops any other sperm
from entering the ovum. Once in the cytoplasm the head bursts to release
the male nucleus. The male nucleus then fuses with the female nucleus
to form a diploid zygote.
 After ovulation the ovum can remain viable for 8-24 hours before it dies.
On the other hand the sperms can remain viable for 2-3 days within the
female reproductive tract.
Implantation
 It’s the attachment of blastocyst to the wall of the uterus.
 After fertilization, the zygote undergoes several mitotic divisions as its
moves down the oviduct. Its movement is aided by the cilia movement and
contractions of the smooth muscles along the oviduct. By the time it
reaches the uterus it has formed a hollow structure of several cells called
a blastocyst.

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 The movement of the zygote from the oviduct to the time it gets implanted
takes about 7 days.
 In the uterus the blastocyst develops finger-like projections called the villi
which grow into the wall of the uterus (endometrium). The villi together
with endometrium develop into a special organ called placenta.
 Upon implantation the blastocyst becomes an embryo.
N/B Occasionally the zygote fails to move down the oviduct to the
uterus but instead gets implanted into the wall of the oviduct where it
develops. This condition is referred to as ectopic pregnancy which is
fatal if carried to term in most cases.
Formation of placenta
 During implantation the blastocyst differentials into 3 layers i.e.

1. Amnion
 It surrounds the embryo forming an amniotic cavity within which the
embryo lies. Amniotic cavity is then filled by a fluid secreted by amnion
called amniotic fluid.
Functions of amniotic fluid.
 Provide a fluid environment which later suspends the foetus providing it
with support.
 Acts as a shock absorber hence protecting the foetus against mechanical
injury.
2. Chorion
 It’s the outermost layer and develops finger-like projections called
chorionic villi. These villi grow into the endometrium. During the early
stages of embryo development, the villi form the sites for material
exchange between the embryo and maternal blood vessels in the uterine
wall.
3. Allantois
 It develops as a sac – like outgrowth. It fuses with the chorion and
endometrium to form the placenta.
 The embryo is attached to the placenta by a tube called the umbilical cord
which increases in length as the embryo develops.
 When placenta is fully formed the embryo becomes a foetus (about 3
months) of pregnancy.

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 ROLE OF PLACENTA
 Placenta is a temporary organ found in placental mammals and is the
only organ in mammals composed of cells derived from two different
organisms i.e. foetus and mother.
 It’s a point of close association between the maternal foetal circulations
and facilitates the transfer of nutrients and metabolic waste products
between the foetus and the mother.
 It’s a disc shaped structure localized in one region of the uterus wall. The
placenta selectively allows some substances to pass through and not
others.
 The foetal blood does not mix with the maternal blood in the placenta.
The exchange of materials occurs across the sinus in the uterine wall and
capillary systems of foetus across intercellular space by diffusion.
 This is because there is no direct connection between the foetal blood
system and that of the mother. If the two systems were directly
connected, the delicate blood vessels of the foetus would burst due to the
higher blood pressure in the maternal circulation system.

Summary of roles of placenta

1. Physical barrier
 Prevents the mixing of the mother’s blood and foetus blood. This
prevents agglutination in case the two bloods are of different blood
groups.
 Protects the foetus by preventing certain pathogens from crossing
from the mother.
 Prevents chemicals and hormones from the mother crossing to the
foetus. This protection is not complete and drugs can also enter and
cause damage to the foetus.
 NB pregnant mothers are advised not to take alcohol or smoke
excessively. If she has to take drugs, it has to be under the instructions of
a doctor.
2. Channel of communication
 It allows diffusion of oxygen and nutrients from the mother’s blood
to the foetal blood.
 It allows diffusion of CO2 and urea and other nitrogenous waste
products from the foetal blood to the maternal blood for excretion.

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  It allows the passage of antibodies from the mother to the foetus
giving it immunity against diseases. This lasts for only a short time
after the baby is born.
3. Gland
 After 4months placenta starts producing hormones e.g.
progesterone and oestrogen that maintains the pregnancy.
 It also produces a hormone whose presence in the urine is a sign of
pregnancy i.e. human chorionic gonadotropin hormone (hCG). This
is the basis of most pregnancy tests.
NB after about the 4th month of pregnancy, placenta takes over from
corpus luteum as the source of progesterone hormone which maintains
the pregnancy.
Gestation period
 This is the period between conception (implantation) and birth. It varies in
different animals e.g.
 Mice-22 days.
 Rabbit-30 days.
 Man-9 months.
 Elephant-18 months.
 At 2 weeks, the embryo appears as a bump in the uterine wall and the 3
embryonic membranes (amnion, allantois and chorion) have already
formed.
 At the end of the 3rd month;
 Head and blood vessels forming and foetal circulatory system are fully
formed.
 Head (nose and eyes) are well developed.
 Spinal cord and tail are developed.
 Limbs show early signs of development.

 At the 6th month the following are well developed;

 limbs
 Alveoli
 Nostrils
 Foetal movements can be felt.

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 At end of 9th month;
 Foetal head is directly above the cervix.
 All organs and systems are fully developed.
 Normally birth occurs after the 9th month

 If birth occurs before completion of 6 months, the baby will not survive
and this is referred to as miscarriage.
 In case where foetus development is interfered with either chemically or
physically, it is referred to as abortion.
 If birth occurs after the 7th month but before full term, such is referred to
as premature birth. A premature baby can survive if it has attained a
certain weight or it will require specialized medical care. In hospitals
premature babies are cared for in incubators.
 A pregnant mother must have a balanced diet to keep her healthy.
The embryo requires;
 Proteins-for growth and development.
 Calcium and phosphorus- for bone formation.
 Iron-formation of haemoglobin hence the mother has to take
plenty of nutrients.
 An expectant mother is advised to visit antenatal clinic or her doctor
regularly for examination. The following is done during the examination;
 Urine test.
 Changes in blood pressure.
 Heartbeat.
 Weight.
 Sugar level.
 Albumen level.

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 Birth (parturition)
 The onset of birth is signaled by the reduction in the progesterone level in
the mother’s blood which allows the maternal posterior pituitary gland to
release a hormone called oxytocin.
 Oxytocin stimulates the myometrium whose muscles start contracting the
release of oxytocin occurs in “waves” during labour and provides the force
to expel the foetus from the uterus.
 The onset of contractions of the myometrium called the “labour pains “are
accompanied by;
 Dilation of the cervix.
 Rapture of the amnion and chorion releasing amniotic fluid through the
cervix.
 Stimulation of the stretch receptors in the walls of uterus and cervix.
 Uterine contraction then follows, thus pushing the foetus downwards
head first through the widened cervix and birth canal and the baby is
born.
 After birth the umbilical cord is ligatured and cut in order to separate the
baby from the placenta. The placenta is expelled later as afterbirth.
 After birth and expulsion of the placenta, important changes take place in
the baby’s circulation associated with the fact that the respiratory
function of the placenta is taken over by lungs. The newborn takes the
first breath and the lungs expand and become functional.
Caesarean Delivery
 It’s the surgical incision of the abdominal and uterine walls for the
delivery of the offspring. This is done when there are complications such
that the foetus can not pass through the birth canal.
Multiple Births
 In humans, cattle and many other mammals, offspring are usually born
singly and other mammals such as dogs, rats, and pigs normally produce
a litter containing several offspring.
 Occasionally humans and other animals that normally produce only one
offspring give birth to 2 or more offspring. When 2 such offspring are
produced they are referred to as twins.
Kinds of twins
 Dizygotic/Fraternal twins
 These are as a result of simultaneous release of 2 ova both of which
become fertilized and develop. Such twins maybe be of the same or
different sex.They are genetically different and have the same degree of
resemblance as that of other brothers and sisters born at different times.
 Monozygotic/ Identical twins
 These result from the same fertilized egg which at some stage during early
development divides into 2 independent parts. Each of these parts
develops into an embryo. Such twins are of the same sex.
 They are genetically identical and are also alike i.e. it’s difficult to tell
them apart.

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 NB Occasionally identical twins develop without separating completely
and are born attached to one another, these are called Siamese twins.
Such twins can be separated surgically but their survival depends on
the degree of fusion.
Parental Care
 It’s the attention given to the new born by providing food and protection.
 The degree of maturity in mammalian newborn varies from species to
species e.g. newborn donkey and guinea pig can run around and eat solid
food. Newborn humans, dogs, rats are quite helpless and require a lot of
parental care to survive
 The parents protect the newborns from unfavorable weather and
predators by;
 Most mammals make a nest just before delivering the young.
 Parents are often very aggressive when they have young ones and will
react very violently to any intruders.
 In humans parental care extends for a long time upto and over 18 years.
 All the mammals suckle their young ones and the milk is produced by the
mammary glands under the influence of lactogenic hormones e.g.
Prolactin.
 From the 1st and to the 3rd day, the mammary glands produce colostrum,
a yellow fluid which contains proteins, lactose and antibodies which
provide natural defense against some diseases.
 Colostrum is then replaced by milk which contains proteins, fat, lactose,
vitamins and mineral salts including calcium.
Releasing of milk by mammary glands

 The releasing of milk or milk letdown is an example of a reflex action. This

is influenced by the prevailing environmental conditions which could be
either positive or negative. When the baby begins to touch the breast and
suck, messages go to the brain. In the brain, the hypothalamus sends
messages to the pituitary gland which in turn signals the breast to let
down the milk.

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 Milk production in various environments
Positive environment

 The milk let down reflex is triggered by the sucking at the breast or in
some cases the crying of the baby or smell of the baby.
 When this happens the hypothamus relays messages to the pituitary
gland which in turn releases the hormone oxytocin which reaches the
breast and causes the alveoli to contract forcing milk into the ducts.
 The ducts conduct milk into the reservoirs behind the areola. The baby
then sucks the milk from the reservoir into its mouth.
 Negative Environment
 The milk let down reflex maybe inhibited or blocked if the breast feeding
mother experiences;
 Distraction
 Embarrassment
 Anxiety
 Fatigue

ROLE OF HORMONES IN HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Secondary sexual characteristics
 Primary sexual characteristics are those that distinguish males and
females at birth.
 Secondary sexual characteristics are physiological, structural and mental
changes which are associated with femininity and masculinity. These are
controlled by oestrogen in females and androgens in males. The period
during which these changes occur is referred to as puberty.
Secondary sexual characteristics in males
 In males, the testosterone hormone produced by the testes initiates
secondary sexual characteristics at about the age of 13-15 years. These
are;
 Growth of hair on the chin called beard, pubic area and arm pits.

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 Deepening of the voice-the deep voice is as a result of the thickening and
enlarging of the chords in the voice box/ larynx.
 Enlarged pectoral girdle i.e. collar bones and shoulder blades hence
broadening of the shoulders.
 Enlarged testis-the development of the seminiferous tubules within the
testes lead to the enlargement of the testis.
 Muscular body-the muscles enlarge and the body becomes more
muscular especially the chest.
 Scrotum and penis enlarge and mature.
Secondary sexual characteristics in females
 In females the hormones oestrogen and progesterone are secreted by the
ovaries. The secondary sexual characteristics begin to show as early as
the age of 10 years in some girls. These are;
 Large pelvic girdle- pelvic girdle enlarges resulting in wide hips in
preparation for birth.
 Development of mammary glands in anticipation of lactation.
 The body fat is redistributed and increases in the hips, thigh and breasts
and the whole body becomes feminine.
 Internally the ovaries mature and start releasing eggs and the girl begins
to menstruate.
 The development of secondary sexual characteristics is controlled by
hormones. There are 3 different organs that release these hormones.
These are;
 Hypothalamus
 Pituitary gland
 Gonads
 Puberty is the time between childhood and adulthood and it marks the
process of sexual maturity. In boys, its about 13-15 years and in girls 10-
13 years.
 In girls the Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) stimulates the ovaries to
produce oestrogen and progesterone.
 The ovaries start producing eggs and this leads to the first menstruation
(menarche). At first it is irregular and unpredictable but stabilizes within
a year.
 NB in some females pain be experienced due to progesterone hormone
which causes the uterine muscles to contract (muscle cramps).

Menstrual Cycle
 Menstruation is the shedding of the uterine lining and blood through the
vagina in females. It only takes place when fertilization does not occur.
 The whole sequence repeats itself once every month in what is called
menstrual cycle.
 The events of menstrual cycle involve the ovaries (ovarian cycle) and the
uterus (uterine cycle) and these are regulated by hormones secreted by
ovary which in turn is regulated by pituitary gonadotropins.

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 The cycle begins with the discharge of blood and tissue debris from the
uterus. This flow is called menses.
 Before menses the woman experiences;
 Nausea
 Abdominal pain
 Back pains
 Just before menstruation, the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland start
secreting the Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) which has 2 effects;
 Causes Graafian follicle to develop in the ovary.
 Stimulates the tissues of the ovary to secrete another hormone called
oestrogen
Oestrogen
 It brings about repair and healing of endometrium which is destroyed
during menstruation.
 It accumulates to a level which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to
produce luteinising hormone (LH).

Luteinising hormone (LH).

 The hormone stimulates the maturity of the Graafian follicle. The mature
Graafian follicle releases an ovum into the funnel of the oviduct (fallopian
tube). This process is called ovulation.
 After releasing the ovum the Graafian follicle changes into a yellow body
(corpus luteum). The LH stimulates the corpus luteum to secrete the
hormone called progesterone.
Progesterone.
 It stimulates the thickening and increased blood supply to endometrium.
This prepares the uterus for implantation of the blastocyst.
 If fertilization takes place the level of progesterone increases and inhibits
the FSH from stimulating the maturation of the Graafian follicle.
 If fertilization does not occur, corpus luteum disintegrates and no more
progesterone is produced, hence the endometrium sloughs off and
menstruation occurs. This completes the cycle. The whole cycle lasts for
about 28 days in human beings.
Sanitary health
 During menstruation it is important to maintain high standards of
cleanliness in both body and wear e.g.
 Wear sanitary towel to absorb discharged blood/ tissue debris.
 Changing of soiled sanitary towel /material, frequently to avoid infection
of reproductive organs.
 Observe proper disposal of sanitary towels.
 Bathing regularly to avoid awful smell.

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 Menopause
 Majority of women stop to ovulate at the age of 45 years. This is described
as menopause.
 Men do not stop producing spermatozoa and they can produce viable
spermatozoa even at the age of 75 years.
 Knowledge of hormones of the menstrual cycle has been used in the
manufacture of contraceptive pills. These include;
 Oral pills
 Injections (Depo provera) which are injected once every 3 months.
 Others are inserted under the skin (Norplant).
 The major cause of male infertility is low sperm count. This problem is
being solved by “in vitro” fertilization i.e. fertilization is done in a test tube
and he fertilized ovum transferred to the mother’s uterus.
 Today it is possible to store ones sperms in a sperm bank for many years
until the person is ready to give children.

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 Surrogate motherhood
 Surrogate mothers are women who allow their uterus to be used to carry
artifially fertilized ovum to birth. After birth the baby is given to the sterile
mother.
 The ova can be extracted from the sterile woman if her ovaries are
functional or ova can be donated by another woman. The sperm cells
normally come from the husband.

Sexually Transmitted Infections (S.T.I)

 They are diseases transmitted through sexual intercourse. These diseases
are;
1. Gonorrhea
 Cause; Bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhea.
 The bacteria invade the urethra of males and the vagina of females.
Mode of transmission
 Mostly through sexual intercourse with an infected person.
 In infants the infection occurs during birth if the mother is suffering from
the disease. The infected infant can become blind.
 Sharing of common items such as bathing towels with an infected person.
Symptoms
 The incubation period i.e. period between the entry of the pathogens and
the appearance of the symptoms, is 2-14 days.
The Symptoms are;
 Itching of urethra
 A yellow foul discharge containing pus from the penis.
 Pain when urinating because it affects the penis making it sore at the tip.
 In females the Symptoms are;
 Vaginal discharge with a foul smell
NB In females the Symptoms is not clear.
 On healing the infection can leave a scar tissue where the infection was
and this leads to blockage of sperm ducts or oviducts which makes a
person infertile.
Control and Treatment
 Avoiding sexual intercourse with an infected person.
 Not sharing personal items such as towels.
 Treating the affected person using antibiotics.
 Use of condoms
NB if left untreated, it becomes a systemic disease thus affects other
related organs such as spinal cord and urinary bladder and can result
in sterility in both sexes.

2. Syphilis
 Cause; Bacterium called Treponema pallidum. This disease occurs in 3
stages.
Mode of transmission
 Sexual intercourse with an infected person.
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 From infected mother through the placenta to the foetus.
 Blood transfusion from an infected donor.
Symptoms
First stage
 Symptoms appear 2-4 weeks after infection.
 In males the Symptoms include sores or ulcers on the penis especially on
the glans. The sores are not painful and can go undetected.
 In females, the sores or ulcers develop inside the vagina. The sores are
not painful and can go undetected.
 These Symptoms then disappear in both sexes with or without treatment.
Second /Secondary stage
Occur after 6 months. The Symptoms are;
 Skin rashes
 Patches of hair may fall out
 Headaches
 Low grade fever
 Enlarged lymph nodes
 Sores on lips, mouth and genital areas.
 The Symptoms disappear after 3 months.
Tertiary stage
 Occur after 20 years. It’s a fatal stage because the infection reaches the
nervous system. The Symptoms are;
 Teeth develop a rugged biting edge.
 Membranes of spinal cord and brain are invaded by bacteria and the
patient shows signs of mental instability (insanity).
 Blindness and death soon follows.
Control and Treatment
 Avoiding sexual intercourse with an infected person.
 It’s easier to treat syphilis in the primary stage by use of broad spectrum
antibiotics. Secondary and tertiary stages are difficult to treat and need
specialized medical care.
 Treating infected pregnant women to reduce mother to child infection.
 Transfusion with blood that has been screened.

3. Trichomoniasis
 Cause; Protozoan called Trichomonas vaginalis (T.V)
 It infects the genital organs in both sexes but it thrives well in a vaginal
canal which is less acidic.
Symptoms
 Excess frothy yellow discharge with a foul smell from the vagina of the
female.
 Itching of the urethra in males and vaginal itch in females.
 Discharge in males which are not easily noticeable.
Mode of transmission
 Sexual intercourse with an infected person.
 Sharing of common items such as bathing towels with an infected person.
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 Control and Treatment
 Avoiding sexual intercourse with an infected person.
 Not sharing of common items such as bathing towels with an infected
person.
 Observe high personal hygiene.
 Trichomoniasis can be treated and cured if the infected couples are
properly diagnosed and the correct antibiotics administered.

4. Candidiasis /Thrush
 Cause; Fungus called Candida albicans.
 The fungus can infect the mouth by growing on the tongue. It also affects
the vulva in females and penis in males.
 The fungus may be present in the vaginal canal of an individual and
cause no harm to the individual. The problem arises when its population
increases due to factors such as;
 Change of PH in the vaginal canal.
 Use of antibiotics which kill bacteria that keep Candida population in
control.
Symptoms
 Inflammation of the glans of the penis. In uncircumcised males
inflammation occurs just beneath the foreskin.
 Females produce a thick white discharge from the vagina.
 Itchiness of the vulva due to the irritation caused by the fungus.
 In both sexes, the mouth may be infected with a white flurry fungal layer
especially on the tongue.
Mode of transmission
 Sexual intercourse with an infected person.
 Sharing of common items such as bathing towels with an infected person.
Control and Treatment
 Treatment is administered by use of anti-fungal drugs.
 Control involves;
 Avoiding sexual intercourse with an infected person.
 Avoid use of strongly scented medicated soaps or disinfectants that might
alter the PH medium of the birth canal.
 Wiping oneself from the front to the back after going to the toilet to
prevent thrush from being transferred from the bowel.
 Keep proper aeration of the genital region by use of pure cotton and loose
pants.
 Not sharing of common items such as bathing towels with an infected
person.

5. Hepatitis
 It’s a condition that describes the inflammation of the liver.
 Cause; Virus which attacks liver cells eventually causing damage in the
liver.

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 There are 2 main types of hepatitis depending on the causative virus i.e.
virus A (hepatitis A), and virus B (hepatitis B).
Hepatitis B
Symptoms
 Diarrhoea
 Weight loss
 Abdominal pain
 Jaundice
 Bleeding in the intestines
 Fever
 Dark yellow urine
 Nausea
 Vomiting
Mode of transmission
 Sexual intercourse with an infected person.
 Blood transfusion
 Sharing contaminated razors
 Unsterilised syringes used mainly by drug addicts.
 Kissing
 Contaminated instruments used by dentists and barbers.
 Hepatitis B is present in the body fluids i.e. urine, saliva, semen and
milk.
 Incubation period; 2-6 months.
Control and Prevention
 Vaccination
 Practice safe sex
 Boil water and cook food well before consuming.
 Screen donated blood before transfusion.
 Use of sterilized surgical instruments.

6. Herpes
 Cause; virus called Herpes simplex.
Symptoms
 Recurrent fever
 Headache
 General feeling of illness.
 Ulcers /blisters in and around the vagina.
 Ulcers /blisters in and around the penis.
 The main mode of transmission is sexual intercourse with an infected
person.
Control and Treatment
 Avoid contaminated needles and syringes.
 There is no known treatment for herpes but exposure to he disease can
stimulate the body’s immune system to acquire partial resistance to the
disease.
 Avoiding sexual intercourse with an infected person.
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 7. HIV and AIDS
 AIDS stands for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome and is caused by
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
 The virus belongs to a group of viruses called retroviruses. It infects and
destroys certain white blood cells called T-helper lymphocytes which are
involved in the defense of the body against diseases and infections. This
virus attacks the immune system so that the body is defenseless against
infection.
 The disease was first identified among homosexuals and drug users in the
U.S.A in1981.
 The first case of AIDS in Kenya was reported in 1984. by the year 2003,
about 2.2 million people were infected with the virus. About 15-20% of
the adults in Kenya are HIV positive.
 It is a serious contagious disease which has no known cure or vaccine for
control at the moment.
 After infection the incubation period is 1-10 years. The symptoms depend
on the stage of infection e.g.
Stage 1 (Phase 1)
 Body produces HIV antibodies.
 A short flu-like illness.
 Skin rash.
 Swollen lymph nodes.
Stage 2 (Phase 2)
 No symptoms of infection and can last from 2 weeks to 13 years.
Stage 3 (Phase 3)
 A person contracts a variety of conditions known as opportunistic
infections e.g. pneumonia, Bronchitis, Tuberculosis.
 Loss of body weight.
Stage 4(Phase 4)
 Body organs get diseased and secondary cancers can form.
 Cancer of the lymphatic system, pneumonia, severe Diarrhoea and
tuberculosis occur. These diseases result from the weakening of the
immune system.
Mode of transmission
 This disease is not spread by casual contact (shaking hands, staying
together, second hand clothes), air borne means, ingestion and faecal
matter. This is because the virus always occurs within the lymphatic
system and only in small quantities in the blood. This makes it difficult to
detect by the normal serological tests and therefore there are special
HIV/AIDS kits which have been installed in every District and Provincial
medical centers for the detection of the HIV/AIDS virus.
 Once the HIV virus enters the lymphocytes, it binds itself to the
chromosomes and integrates into the genetic material. The virus now
replicates very fast using the contents of the lymphocytes. The daughter
viruses invade more lymphocytes destroying them.

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 The immune system of the body produces antibodies against the virus but
due to the high rate of mutation of the virus, the antibodies fail to act
against them.
Methods of transmission
 Sexual intercourse with an infected person.
 Blood transfusion from an infected donor.
 Organ transplants from an infected donor.
 Use or sharing of unsterilised surgical instruments such as scalpel blades
and hypodermic needles.
 Through the placenta from an infected mother to the unborn child.
 Through the breast milk from an infected mother to the baby.
 During the process of birth when blood from infected mother leaks into
the foetus.
 Occupational hazards due to accidental puncturing of the skin when
handling an HIV positive patient or infected blood.
Control and Prevention
 Avoid indiscriminate sex.
 Abstinence from sex by unmarried people.
 Married people. Should remain faithful to their partners.
 Use of physical barrier methods e.g. condoms.
 Use of sterile tools e.g. traditional birth attendants and circumcisers they
should protect themselves by using sterile disposable gloves.
 Change of behaviour e.g. abstinence for unmarried people.
 In the case of AIDS, opportunistic infections can be minimized by taking
anti-retroviral (ARV) medications. These are only used to prolong the life
of the infected individuals.
 One should know his/her HIV status by visiting a VCT (Voluntary
Counseling and Testing) centre. In the VCT, one is able to make decisions
that allow them to change their behaviour to reduce the risk of
contracting HIV/AIDS and / or spreading it to others.
Social and Economic effects of HIV/AIDS
 Most of the people dying are in the age earning group and this affects the
country’s labour force.
 The death of parents has led to an increase in the number of orphans
hence placing the burden on the state and families.
 High cost of medical services i.e. medical expenses for the individual will
be high.
 Decreased productivity due to lack of motivation.
 Disrupted family life.
 Psychological torture and suicidal feelings.

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 Advantages of sexual Reproduction
 It brings about introduction of desirable characteristics to a particular
species.
 It leads to variation due to crossing over which leads to hybrid vigor and
better adaption of organisms to the environment.
 Variations provide the basis for evolutionary changes.

Disadvantages of sexual Reproduction

 It requires a lot of time to become successful.
 May lead to the transfer of undesirable characteristics from parents to
offspring.
 It involves two organisms that must mate and it may be difficult if they’re
isolated.
 Only fewer offspring can be produced at a time.

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