ees CE where A; and A, aro the amplitudes, wo, and w, are the nngular frequencies Comparing equation (i) with equation Gi), wo gat ) = 5000n radian/aeo 2 = 80007 radian/aec Therefore, he rs or id Soon = 2500 He or hy = ate = 1500 Hz ‘Then, highest frequency component of the given measange signal will be Fax = Max {fy fa) : = Max (2500, 1500} = 2500 Hz Hence, Nyquist rate = 2 eee = 2x 2500 = 5000 Hz i and, Nyquist interval = ——2__ ' Nyquist rate E ee 500 Example 6.7, A real-valued continuous-time signal x(t) is known to be uniquely determined by its samples whon the sampling frequeney is «, = L0* x radian/sec. Find the value of » when X(w) is guaranteed to he zero. Solution ; From sampling theorem, we know that for perfect reconstruction of the message signal from its samples, sampling frequency or sampling rate should ‘be greater than twice the highest frequency component of the message signal. * 104 = 200 milliseconds Ans. It X(jo) = 0 for ol Se then the signal is recovered perfectly from its samples. Hence, CTT {x(#)) = Xu) =0 for wi> or ofp 10x 2 or Jo| >5* 10%, Ans. Example 6.8. A continuous-time signal x(t) is obtained at the output of an ideal low pass filter with cutoff frequency = 10° x radian/sec. Ifimpulse-train sam- ng is performed on signal x(1), which of the following sampling periods will srantee that x(t) may be recovered from its sampled version using an appro- te low pass filter? T, = 5x10 seconds T, = 2% 10" seconds T, = 1* 104 seconds From sampling theorem, we know that the sampling rate must be to twice the highest frequency component, i,¢,, 20,.XG) = 0 for jo) = ate it US MeSMe that fepisiso kos aay ME) = ay COT sy) Any = ap Ue) ® X(j0)) ; Te is clear that we can only gu “Nyquist rate for (4) is 20. An p ple 6.11. Given « continu i | inet aint ratfor ne coanansn Ay Noaua e Dee YY = x(t) cos wgt 7 woUs-time signal x(t) has the Nyquist rate of w, then its CTFT Xo) = 0 for Jo} > = ‘We also know that ntee that ¥(jw) = 0 for |w| > mg Hence, the ‘Solution: If the contin HO = x(t) cor mgt LT, x1 jm —a9)) +} XLj(@+@o)] 1 3 2 Tt is clear that we can guaragntee that YGo) = Ofor |w| >, + a4 on Yj) > a wld) Thus, the Nyquist rate for signal (1) is 2% S i.e, 30g Ans. Example 6.12. (i) What is aliasing ? What can be done to reduce aliasing 7 (i) Determine the Nyquist sampling rate and Nyquist sampling interval for the following. (1) S, (100 rt) 2) $100 nt) + §, (50 xt) (U.P. Tech Sem Examination 2001-2008) Solution ; Aliasing ; Aliasing is an effect of under sampling, Alasing occurs when sampling rate <2 ,, is not sufficiently high to prevent the shifting of high frequency infor- ition into lower frequencies. Such type of pentration of information form one d of frequencies to another is called aliasing and the resulting frequency is called an aliased representation of the original continuous-time sig- jus, aliasing phenomenon is defined as phenomenon of high frequency nts in a spectrum of a continuous time signal seemingly taking on the of a lower frequency in the spectrum of its sampled version. . are two corrective measures which are used to elimiate alising. “alias low pass filter is used hefore sampling for attenuating those encies that are not essential for the transmission of informa- Jow pass filtered signal is sampled at a rate of frequency slightly the Nyquist rate, x(t) = §,(100 x1) transform, we get“Go The given signal is, i xg(l) = ous 100 nt Sais ‘Comparing it with ¥2(0 = com 2rfyt, wehave 2nfy = 100K = fy, = 50 Hz oD r i a Now, disorote time signal r9(n) is obtained by substituting, t= 7 ‘Thus, equation (iv) becomes, On :(n) = ens 2 20h Hu(m) = eos 2x 28 ibe x(a) = cos a(S )h ae Zz ont) o soy = 2022 (1-2 na cos( tenet} Now, we have cos (21n-+6)=c0s 8, Therefor, equatian (2) becomes, x(n) = conde. Comment: Given sampling frequency, f, = 10 Hz. Hence, the frequency contained in “nlgnat should be tess than or equ! 19 4, that means < 20 He, But ia not the case in this “example Therefore, aliasing Aen Hory, buth the sequencesx(uJandx4n) are equal; die to aliasing effect, ‘Exumple 6.14. An analog signal is given as follows: x(t) = 3 cos 50xt + 10 sin 300nt — cos 100:t. Find Nyquist rate, Solution: The given equation ean be written as under: (0. = 3 cos(2n x 251) + 10 cos(2x x 1508) — cos (2x * 50!) AD Now we can write, x_(@) = 3.c0s (2af,t) + 10 cos (2rfat)—cos (2x f,¢) oi) ‘Comparing equations (i) and (i) we get, fy = 25 He, fy = 150 Ha and /, = 50 He, Fonx = 150 Ha. Nquist rate = 2/,,,.= 2% 150 Hz “Nyquist rate = 300 Hz, Ans. 5, A continuous time sinusoidal x,(#) with fundamental period sampled at the rate + ta produce discrete-time sinusoid fa ; x(n) is periodic it~ = Zwhere fund Nare integers, the discrete time signal, the normalized frequeney fy is given by, fundamental frequency (/,,) ‘sampling frequency (f,) @1, = & wnero i sampling time. ‘Thus, equation (#) becomes ae MT, 7 (li) oS IT 7, Now, the discrete time sequence can be expressed as under: xin) = A cos(2nf,n +9) (iii) Here fy = Normalized frequency and 0 = Phase shift. ‘We know that a discrete time sequence is periodic if, y x(n) = x(n +N) for alla ced) Now, replacing 'n’ by m + Nin equation (iii), we have {n+ M) = A cox (2nfo(n. +N) +9) me x(n +N) = Acos (2nfyN + 2xfqr +8) Av) For periodicity, we want x(n) =2(n +A). ‘Thus, equating equations (ii) and (v) wo get, Accos (2nf.n +0) = A cos (2a/yN + 2x/.)) +8) (vi) Equation (v1) is satisfied if 2nf,N'is interger multiple of 2x. ‘That means 2nfgN= xk; where kis an integer or h=t vii) ‘Hence from equations (i) and (vii), we have ee Tr (i) Now, the fundamental period will be 1_N aaa eee fy = W ‘bit rate = samplesisec x bits/samplo frequency = 20 samplesisec. L-1 : =O ‘of levels in the quantization process which is related to number of ‘bE log Lt Hots; B= 8 bits per lev since @ bit Ano Pie at Considering equality sign wo ae, isased, b= BOM eeu ay : feuti atc = dynamic range =1V given Substituting these veluesin Equation (@ we get, 1 A Os oreo 7882 10s Ans. {HD The maximum range of frequencies that can be represented by a discrete-time Lares ote Thus highest frequency isgiven by fox ™ 4 =2 =10 samplesisec. Ans. Example 6.17.4 digital communication link carries binary coded words repre- senting samples of input signal (f) = 3 cos 6007t +2 cox 1800 xt ‘The link is aperated at 10,000 bits’s and each input sample is quantized into 1024 different voltage levels. (®) Whatis the sampling frequency and foliding frequency in Hz? Gi) Whatis Nyquist rave of sampling for x(t) in Hz ? (ili) Whatis resolution of quanitzation ? Solution : (?) Given that aX) = 3.cos 600 ni + 2 com 1800 mi ld xf, = 600rand nj,= 1800 x = f, =3001z and f, = 9X0 Hz. = ‘Therefore, Maxinvam frequency =/,,, <=900 Ilz P ©. Sampling frequency = 2f,,,.= 2% 900 Hz or f, = 1800 He Caloulation of folding frequency: Given levels af quantization 024 levels. We have number of bite per sample = 6 = log, logy, 1024 = pete b= log, 100 2 b= TG 6 = 10 bite bit rato = samplesisec x bisisample bit mate = 10,000 bitaser, (ziven) lgample = b=10 iles'sec = OG = 1000 He,