Fluid Mechanics and Hydraullic Machines Lab Manual

INDUR
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

SIDDIPET, Medak DIST. – 502277
LABORATORY MANUAL
FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULIC

MACHINES LAB
2nd Year 2nd Sem. MECH.
Academic Year 2016-2017
Prepared and verified by
1. Mr.M.UDAYA KUMAR. (Associate Professor)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
INDUR Institute of Engineering & Technology 1

2/2 MECH-FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULIC MACHINES Lab Manual Dept. of Mechanical Engg
PREFACE
The objective of this laboratory is to study the operating characteristics of hydraulic machines
and flow devices. The laboratory is important for Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering
and Electrical Engineering students. The major equipment focuses on the study and calibration of
gauges, triangular notch, rectangular notch, Orifice meter ,Venturi meter and determination of
Chezy's constant and Darcy's coefficient. In addition the performance test on hydraulic machines
like centrifugal pump, Reciprocating pump, Pelton Wheel, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine
are also conducted. Experiments also include the study of stability of floating body, hydraulic
ram and experimental determination of frictional head losses in pipes. All the experimental set
up are available as self contained units. Besides there are many helpful laboratory
demonstrations
The problems, man encountered in the fields of water supply, irrigation, navigation and water
power resulted in the development of Fluid Mechanics. Some two hundred years ago man
kind’s centuries of experience with the flow of water began to crystallize in scientific form.
Experiments in this field are intended to make the students understand the different methods of
flow rates in pipe flow and open channel flows, conversion of hydraulic energy possessed by the
water in running turbines and how pumps are used to increase the hydraulic energy of the water
etc. The Laboratory for FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULICMACHINERY
complements the learning experience of the lecture. Laboratory exercises provide opportunities
for direct study of fluid behavior. All of the laboratory experiments reinforce material presented
during lecture. Some of the experiments will also expose material that is not presented during
lecture. A student is responsible for the union of the laboratory and lecture experience, not their
intersection. The laboratory must be used as a chance to enhance understanding of FLUID
STATICS and DYNAMICS.
The main aim of this lab is to know about basics of hydraulic machines which generally they are
using in Hydro-electric power plants. At the Plants they had to work with the aid of turbines,
flow measurement apparatus etc. So what the mechanical and electrical engineer can get the
idea of knowledge regarding those machines in the fluid mechanics and hydraulic machinery lab.
These lab sessions are intended to make the students understand the different methods of flow
rates in pipe flow and open channel flows, conversion of hydraulic energy possessed by the
water in running turbines and how pumps are used to increase the hydraulic energy of the water
etc.

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
The purpose of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery laboratory is to reinforce and
enhance understanding of the fundamentals of Fluid mechanics and Hydraulic machines. The
experiments here are designed to demonstrate the applications of the basic fluid mechanics
principles and to provide a more intuitive and physical understanding of the theory. The main
objective is to introduce a variety of classical experimental and diagnostic techniques, and the
principles behind these techniques. The list of equipments are tabulated below.
Some of the objectives are given below.
 Students will able to learn about different types of flows and fluid properties.
 Students will able to learn about different pressure measuring instruments and
flow measuring instruments.
 Students will able to learn some basic principles of flow and its applications.
 Students will able to learn about different flow types hydraulic machines.
 Different types of turbines used in hydro electric power plants and its operation ,
applications.
 Different types of pumps used in hydro electric power plants and its operation ,
applications.
COURSE OUTCOMES:
FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES lab is intended to make the students
understand the different methods of flow rates in pipe flow and open channel flows, conversion
of hydraulic energy possessed by the water in running turbines and how pumps are used to
increase the hydraulic energy of the water etc. Fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines lab
focuses on basic concepts of fluid flows and principles of fluid flow, some of the outcomes are
given below.
o Conceptual knowledge behind fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines.
o Determination of major (frictional losses) and minor losses (losses due to sudden
enlargement, contractions, bend in a pipe and various pipe fittings) in a pipe flow.
o Basic idea about the hydro electric power plants.
o Functions, components and purpose of different turbines.
o Basic idea about the pressure measuring devices.
o Function and purpose of different pumps
o Conversion of energies in turbines and pumps.
o Idea about the force exerted by jet on different types of vanes.
o Basic principles like Bernoulli’s theorem , continuity equation.

LAB CODE
1. Students should report to the concerned labs as per the time table schedule.
2. Students who turn up late to the labs will in no case be permitted to perform the
experiment scheduled for the day.
3. After completion of the experiment, certification of the concerned staff in-charge in the
observation book is necessary.
4. Staff member in-charge shall award marks based on continuous evaluation for each
experiment out of maximum 10 marks and should be entered in the notebook
5. Students should bring a note book of about 100 pages and should enter the
readings/observations into the note book while performing the experiment.
6. The record of observations along with the detailed experimental procedure of the
experiment performed in the immediate last session should be submitted and certified by
the staff member in-charge.
7. Not more than three students in a group are permitted to perform the experiment on a
setup.
8. The group-wise division made in the beginning should be adhered to, and no mix up
of student among different groups will be permitted later.
9. The components required pertaining to the experiment should be collected from stores
in-charge after duly filling in the requisition form.
10. When the experiment is completed, students should disconnect the setup made by them,
and should return all the components/instruments taken for the purpose.
11. Any damage of the equipment or burn-out of components will be viewed seriously
either by putting penalty or by dismissing the total group of students from the lab for the
semester/year.
12. Students should be present in the labs for the total scheduled duration.
13. Students are required to prepare thoroughly to perform the experiment before coming
to Laboratory.
14. Procedure sheets/data sheets provided to the students’ groups should be maintained
neatly and to be returned after the experiment.

INDEX
Sl. No. Name of the Experiment Page No.
1 VENTURIMETER 06-08
2 ORIFICEMETER. 09-11
3 SINGLE STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP. 12-14
4 MULTI STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP. 15-17
5 IMPACT OF JET ON VANE. 18-19
6 RECIPROCATING PUMP. 20-22
7 FRICTION FACTOR FOR A GIVEN PIPELINE. 23-24
8 PELTON TURBINE. 25-27
9 FRANCIS TURBINE. 28-30

10 KAPLAN TURBINE, 31-33
List of Experiments beyond the Syllabus

Sl. No. Particulars Page No.
1 VERIFICATION OF BERNOULIS THEOREM. 34-35
2 EXPERIMENT ON LOSS OF HEAD (MINOR LOSSES)IN PIPE 36-39
FITTINGS.
3 V-NOTCH. 40-42

Experiment 1:- VENTURIMETER

AIM :- To determine the co-efficient of discharge of a Venturimeter .
APPARATUS :- 1.Venturimeter
2. Differential manometer
3. Measuring tank
4. Sump
5. Stopwatch
FORMULA AND DATA :-
Diameter of Venturimeter pipe (d1)=25 mm
Throat diameter (d2)=14.79 mm
Area of measuring tank=0.3×0.2 m²
Area of Venturimeter pipe (a1)=π/4*d1²
Area of throat(a2)=π/4*d2²
Acceleration due to gravity (g)=9.8 m/sec²
Theoretical discharge (Qth)= (Q1*Q2√2gh)/√a12-a22 m3/sec
Here, h-differential head in meters
MANOMETER READINGS :-
At inlet (h1) =
Throat (h2) =
Δh =(h2-h1)
Differential head=h= ((ρm – ρf )/ρf) Δh
ρm =density of mercury (heavier fluid)=13.6 *1000 kg/m³
ρf = density of water (lighter fluid)=1000 kg/m³
OBSERVATIONS :-
S.NO Manometer Readings Time/100mm rise

t(sec)
h1(cm) h2(cm) Δh=(h2-h1) (cm)

S.NO Differential Water Actual discharge Theoretical Co-efficient of

head h(cm) height (Q) discharge (Q) discharge (Cd)
H(cm)
GRAPH:-
Q theoretical Vs Q actual
ACTUAL DISCHARGE :-
It is defined as quantity water collected in the measuring tank in unit time
=AH/t
A=Area of measuring tank
H=100 mm of water
T=Time taken for H meter rise of water
Co-efficient of discharge = (actual discharge)/(theoretical discharge)
THEORY :-
The basic principle on which venturimeter works is that reducing the cross sectional area of
flow passage ,pressure difference is created between inlet & throat ”.this pressure difference
enables the determination of discharge through pipe .It consists of a rapidly converging and
diverging section there will be throat whose diameter is less than the original diameter, but about
same axis.
By measuring the pressure difference discharge can be calculated, this is a particularly
accurate method of flow measurement on energy loss of very small.
PROCEDURE:
 Keep the delivery pipe in closed positions .
 Close all the manometers tappings.
 Switch on the pump and open the delivery valve.
 Adjust the control valve to a desired flow rate and maintain the flow steadily.
 While taking the readings close all the cocks in the pressure feed pipe except the two
(down to up streams) cocks which directly connect the manometer to free required
venturimeter for which the differential head is to be measured.
 Read and record all the measured readings and measure the time of flow into the
measuring tank.
 Repeat the above procedure for different flow rates.
 Switch of the pump.
CALCULATIONS:-
1. a1=π/4*d1²

2. a2=π/4*d2²
3.Δh= (h2-h1)
4.h=((ρm – ρf )/ρf) Δh=
5. Qactual=AH/t
6. Qth=(Q1*Q2√2gh)/√a12-a22 m3/sec
PRECAUTIONS :-
1).Check whether all the joints are leak proof and water weights.
2).Choose all the cooks on the pressure feed pipes and manometer to prevent damage and over
leading of the manometer.
INFERENCE:
When a venturi meter is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate is to be measured, a
pressure drop occurs between the entrance and throat of the venture meter. This pressure drop is
measured using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated this pressure drop becomes a
measure of flow rate. Venturi meters are used to measure the airflow in jet engines to calculate
the velocity of airplanes. A venturi meter is also called a venturi flowmeter. It is used to calculate
the velocity of fluids in running through a pipeline. The fluid may be a liquid or a gas. The meter
consists of a pipe with a narrowing throat that expands back to it's original diameter on the other
side of the choke point. The venturi meter calculates velocity by measuring the pressure head at
both points before and after the narrowed throat
SKETCH:
APPLICATIONS:
 It is used where high pressure recovery is required.
 Can be used for measuring flow rates of water, gases, suspended solids, slurries and dirty
liquids.
 Can be used to measure high flow rates in pipes having diameters in a few meters.
EXTENSIONS:
 Flow measurement techniques in gas turbine power plant.
 Flow computer testing and verification.
 Flow measurement techniques in heat transfer analysis.
QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by discharge and its units?
2. Explain the purpose of differential manometer?
3. What meant by co-efficient of discharge?
4. What is the principle of venturimeter?

5. Why mercury is used as higher liquid in manometer?

6. Give the constructional difference between venturimeter and orifice meter?
7. Give the practical applications of venturimeter?
RESULT:- Co-efficient of discharge of given venturi meter is = ____________________
Experiment 2:-
ORIFICEMETER
AIM:- To determine the co-efficient of discharge of an orifice meter
APPARATUS:-
 Orifice meter
 Differential manometer
 Piping system
 Measuring tank.
 Sump
 Stopwatch
THEORY:-
The basic principle on which orifice meter works is the device used for measuring
discharge of a fluid in a pipe. It also works on principle of Bernoulli’s equation. It consists of a
flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edged hole called orifice which is concentric with
pipe.
In the case of orifice meter the transition is sudden and hence the flow within meter
experiences greater loss due to contraction and expansion of fluid flowing through orifice.
It discharge co-efficient ( has a much lower value [ 0.6-0.63]than in case of venture
meter.
Observations:-
S.NO Manometer Readings Time/1000mm
rise t(sec)
h1(cm) h2(cm) Δh=h1-h2(cm)
1
2
3
4
Differential Water Actual discharge Theoretical Co-efficient of
S.NO head h(m) height H(m) (m³/sec) discharge discharge
(m³/sec)
GRAPHS:-
Q theoretical Vs Q actual
PROCEDURE:
 Keep delivery pipe (or)control valve closed

 Close all the manometer tappings.

 Switch on the pump and open delivery valve.
 Adjust the control valve to a desired flow rate and maintain flow steadily.
 While taking readings close the cocks in the pressure feed pipe except [up &
down streams]cocks with directly connect the manometer to required orifice
meter for which differential head is to be measured.
 Read and record all the manometer readings and measure the time of flow into
measuring tank.
 Repeat the above procedure for differential flow rates.
 Switch off the pump.
FORMULA AND DATA:-
Diameter of the orifice meter (d1)=25mm
Diameter of core(d2)=16.77mm
Area of the orifice meter (a1)=π/4*d1²
Area of the core (a2)= π/4*d2 ²
Measuring area of collecting tank =0.3×0.2 m²
Acceleration due to gravity (g)=9.8m/s²
h=((ρm – ρf )/ρf) Δh
ρm =density of Hg =13.6*1000 kg/m³
ρf =density of fluid (H2O)=1000 kg/m³
Actual discharge=AH/t
A=Area of measuring tank
H=100 mm of water
T=Time for rise of H meter of water
Co-efficient of discharge = (actual discharge)/(theoretical discharge)
Calculations:
1.a=π/4*d²
2.a=π/4*d²
3.Δh=(h2-h1)
4. h=((ρm – ρf )/ρf) Δh=
5. Qactual=AH/t
6. Qth=(Q1*Q2√2gh)/√a12-a22 m3/sec
INFERENCE:
An orifice plate is a device used for measuring flow rate, for reducing pressure or for restricting
flow (in the latter two cases it is often called a restriction plate). Either a volumetric or mass
flow rate may be determined, depending on the calculation associated with the orifice plate. It
uses the same principle as a Venturi nozzle, namely Bernoulli's principle which states that there
is a relationship between the pressure of the fluid and the velocity of the fluid. When the velocity
increases, the pressure decreases and vice versa.
APLLICATIONS:
 It is used where high pressure recovery is required.
 Can be used for measuring flow rates of water, gases, suspended solids, slurries and dirty
liquids.
 Can be used to measure high flow rates in pipes having diameters in a few meters.
EXTENSIONS:
 Flow measurement techniques in gas turbine power plant.

 Flow computer testing and verification.

 Flow measurement techniques in heat transfer analysis
 .
QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by discharge and its units?
2. Explain the purpose of differential manometer?
3. What is meant by co-efficient of discharge?
4. What is the principle of orifice meter ?
5. Why mercury is used as higher liquid in manometer?
6. Give the constructional difference between venturi meter and orifice meter?
7. Give the practical applications of orifice meter ?
RESULT :- Co-efficient of discharge of given orifice meter is =……………………

EXPERIMENT 3:-
SINGLE STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
AIM:- To steady the performance characteristics of a centrifugal pump at constant speed.
APPARATUS:-
 Impeller
 Section pipe
 Delivery pipe
 Casing
 Measuring tank
 Pressure and vacuum gauge meters
 Sump
 Stop watch
THEORY:- The following are main parts of centrifugal pump
 Impeller
 Casing
 Section pipe with a foot valve and Strainer
 Delivery pipe
1)Impeller:-The casing of a centrifugal pump is called impeller.It consists of a series of back
ward curved vanes .The impeller is mounted on a shaft which is connected to the shaft on electric
motor
2)Casing :-The casing of a centrifugal pump is similar to the casing of a reaction turbine. It is an
air tight passage surrounding the impeller &is designed in such a way that kinetic energy of
water discharged at the outlet of the impeller converted into pressure energy before the water
leaves the casing & enters the delivery pipe
3)suction pipe with foot valve & strainer :-A pipe whose end is connected to inlet of the pump &
other end into water in a sump is known as section pipe. A foot valve which is a non-return
valve (or)one way type of valve is fitted at the lower end of section pipe
4)Delivery pipe:-A pipe whose one end is connected to the outlet of the pump & other end
delivers the water at a required height is known as delivery pipe.
PROCEDURE:-
 Keep the delivery pipe in closed position and gauge cocks also.
 Switch on the pumps and slowly and open the delivery valve and adjust it to the required
head.
 The total head is measured with the help of pressure and vaccum gauges.
 Time required for 100 mm rise of water level in measuring tank is calculated.
 Time required for ‘n’revolutions is noted.
 Vary the position of delivery valve in delivery pipe.
 Repeat the above procedure for different flow rates.

OBSERVATIONS:-
S.NO Total head Discharge i/p power o/p power Efficiency
H(m) Q() (kw) (kw)
1
GRAPHS:-
 Output power Vs Input power.
 Head Vs . Discharge
 Efficiency Vs Discharge.
CALCULATIONS:-
H= (p+v) m of water
P=2 kg/=2 *10 m of water=20 m.
V=50 mm of Hg = 50 m of water =0.68m
Q=Ah/t(m³/sec)
h=100 mm of water
i/p power = (n*36000*0.8)/(N*T) KW.
o/p power =(ρgQH)/1000
(ŋ)efficiency = (output power)/(input power)
FORMULA AND DATA :-
Area of measuring tank =0.5*0.4m²
Efficiency of motor=80%
1 kg/cm²=10 m of water
760 mm of Hg =10.336 of water
Total head (H)=(P+V)m
Discharge (Q)=Ah/t /sec
i/p power (pi)=(n*3600*0.8)/(NT) kw
where ,n =no. of revolutions
T =time taken for ‘n’revolutions.
N=750 rev/kw hr
o/p power=ρgQH/1000KW
Here ρ =density of water =1000 kg/m³
INFERENCE:

Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluids by the conversion of rotational kinetic energy to
the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow. The rotational energy typically comes from an engine
or electric motor. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is
accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward into a diffuser or volute chamber (casing),
from where it exits. Common uses include water, sewage, petroleum and petrochemical
pumping. The reverse function of the centrifugal pump is a water turbine converting potential
energy of water pressure into mechanical rotational energy.
APPLICATIONS:
 Power Generation in hydro electric power plant:
 In Refinery & Petrochemical industries.
 In gas turbine power plant.
EXTENSIONS:
 Multi stage centrifugal pumps.
 Reciprocating pumps.
QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by centrifugal pump?
2. What is the difference between turbine and centrifugal pump?
3. Explain the main parts of centrifugal pump?
4. Give the different efficiencies of centrifugal pump?
5. Give the expression of minimum speed for starting a centrifugal pump?
6. What is meant by priming of a centrifugal pump?
7. Give the characteristic curves of centrifugal pump?
8. What is meant by cavitation?
9. Explain the effect of cavitation in centrifugal pumps?
RESULT :-
A test on centrifugal pump is conducted.
Graph between various characteristics are drawn.
Efficiency is determined and found to be_________________________.

Experiment:- 4 MULTI STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

AIM: To study the performance characteristics of multistage centrifugal pump
APPARATUS: 1) Impeller
2) Measuring tank
3) suction pipe
4) Delivery pipe
5) Stop watch
6) Casing
7) Pressure & Vacuum gauge meters
THEORY:
Multistage centrifugal Pump means connecting number of impellers in either in series or in
parallel flow high head no. of impellers are mounted in series or n the same shaft for high
discharge no. of impellers are mounted in parallel.
In impeller connecting in series the water from the section pipe enters the first impeller
at inlet & its discharged at the outlet with Increased pressure from the outlet of the first impeller
is taken to the inlet of ŋ the second impeller with the help of a connecting pipe at the outlet of the
second impeller .The pressure of water will be more than same shift of the pressure at the outlet
will be increased further.
PROCEDURE:
1) First prime pump and start motor.
2) While starting close the delivery valve & gauge.
3) Then ,slowly open the delivery valve and adjust cocks it to the required
total head.
4) Total head is measured with the help of pressure & vaccum gauge
5) Time required for some 100mm rise of water, level in the measuring tank is calculated.
6) Calculated the time required for ‘n’revolutions.
7) Vary the position of delivery valve in the pipe.
8) Repeat the above procedure for different flow rates.
FORMULA AND DATA :
Energy meter constant (N)=200 rev/ kw hr
Area of measuring tank (A)=0.5*0.4 m²
Efficiency of motor )=80%
1 kg/cm² =10m of water
Pressure gauge reading (p) =
760mm of Hg=10.366 of m of water,
P(in H in water)=10m of Hg
Vacuum gauge reading (v)=
V (in H of water)=10.336/(760*V)
Total Head (H)=(P+V)m
Discharge (Q)=Ah/t /sec

h=100 mm rise of in measuring tank

t=time taken to rise 100 mm of
Output Power = ρgQH/1000
Ρ=density of water =1000 kg/m³
g=acceleration due to gravity =9.8 m/s²
Input power (KW)=(n*3600*0.8)/(NT)
n= no of revolutions
T=time taken for n-revolutions
N=energy meter constant.
Efficiency of pump (ŋ)=(o/p power) / (i/p power.)
GRAPHS:
 Input power Vs output power.
 H Vs Q.
INFERENCE:
A centrifugal pump with a single impeller that can develop a differential pressure of more than
150 psid between the suction and the discharge is difficult and costly to design and construct. A
more economical approach to developing high pressures with a single centrifugal pump is to
include multiple impellers on a common shaft within the same pump casing. Internal channels in
the pump casing route the discharge of one impeller to the suction of another impeller. The
illustration below, shows a diagram of the arrangement of the impellers of a four-stage pump.
The water enters the pump from the top left and passes through each of the four impellers in
series, going from left to right. The water goes from the volute surrounding the discharge of one
impeller to the suction of the next impeller. A pump stage is defined as that portion of a
centrifugal pump consisting of one impeller and its associated components. Most centrifugal
pumps are single-stage pumps, containing only one impeller. A pump containing seven impellers
within a single casing would be referred to as a seven-stage pump or, or generally, as a multi-
stage pump.
APPLICATIONS:
 Power Generation in hydro electric power plant:
 In Refinery & Petrochemical industries.
EXTENSIONS:
 Reciprocating pumps.
 Low power consuming centrifugal pumps.
QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by centrifugal pump?
2. What is the difference between turbine and centrifugal pump?
3. Explain the main parts of centrifugal pump?
4. Give the different efficiencies of centrifugal pump?
5. Give the expression of minimum speed for starting a centrifugal pump?
6. What is meant by priming of a centrifugal pump?
7. Give the characteristic curves of centrifugal pump?
8. What is meant by cavitation?
9. Explain the effect of cavitation in centrifugal pumps?

10. Give the difference between single stage and multi stage centrifugal pump?
RESULT:
Efficiency is found to be approximately is equal to_________________________.

Experiment:-5
IMPACT OF JET ON VANE
AIM:-To find the co-efficient of impact of jet on vane .
APPARATUS:- 1) Nozzle housing
2) Nozzle
3) Vanes
4) Weighing Mechanism
5) Transparent tank
6) Collecting tank.
THEORY:-
A jet of fluid emerging from a nozzle has some velocity and hence it poses a certain amount of
kinetic energy. If this jet strikes an obstruction placed in its path, it will exert a force on the
obstruction. This impressed force is known as impact of jet and is designated by hydrodynamic
force. Since the dynamic force is exerted by virtue of fluid motion .it always involves change in
momentum principle may be utilized to evaluate the dynamic force exerted on the body by a
fluid jet.
In evaluating force exerted by jet on the plate we have different cases
1) when plate is stationary.
2) when plate is moving .Also vanes of different shapes are available.
PROCEDURE:-
1) First balance the lever mechanism to horizontal position
2) Start the motor
3) Allow some time to flow the water on the plane .
4) As the water coming from the jet impact on the vanes the lever mechanism goes to upward
direction .
5) Again balance the lever mechanism by loading weights on the other side of lever mechanism.
6) Take the time required for 100 mm rise in water level in measuring tank.
7) Repeat the above procedure for different discharges.
MODEL CALCULATIONS :-
Measuring area of tank(A)=0.5*0.4m²
Discharge diameter of jet (d)=15 mm
Type of vane =flat
Type for 100mm rise of water =t
Co-efficient of contraction ==0.97
Actual force =Fa
Actual discharge (Q)=AH/t
A=measuring area of the tank
H=100mm=0.1m

t=time for 100mm rise of water

Theoretical force =(ρav²)/(cc*g)
Where, ρ=density of water
a=area of the nozzle
v=velocity =Q/a
Q=actual discharge
=Co-efficient of contraction =0.97
Co-efficient of impact=Fa/Ft
OBSERVATIONS:-
S.N Diameter of Actual force (kgf) Theoretical force Time/100mm Co-efficient of
o nozzle (mm) (kgf) rise of water impact
(sec)
EXPECTED GRAPH :
 Theoretical force Vs actual force.
CALCULATION:-
1.g=9.81m/s²
2.a=π/4*d²
3. Q=AH/t
4. V=Q/a
INFERENCE:
Impact of jet apparatus enables experiments to be carried out on the reaction force produced on
vanes when a jet if water impacts on the vane. The study of these reaction forces is an essential
step in the subject of fluid mechanics which can be applied to hydraulic machinery such as
pelton wheel and impulse turbines.
APPLICATIONS:
Mainly used in the hydro electric power plants to estimate the force exerted by jet on vane.
EXTENSIONS:
 Pelton wheel.
 Kaplan turbine.
 Francis turbine.
QUESTIONS:
1. Define the terms (a) impact of jets. (b) jet propulsion.

2. Give the expressions for the force exerted by a jet of water on stationary plate in the
direction of jet?
3. Give the expressions for the force exerted by a jet of water on moving plate in the
direction of jet?
RESULT:-By evaluating the force exerted by the jet of water on plate in both theoretically and
practically we found Co-efficient of impact i.e, the average co-efficient of impact is
_____________________.
EXPERIMENT:6
RECIPROCATING PUMP
AIM: To study at the performance characteristics of reciprocating pump constant speed.
APPARATUS:-
1) Piston
2) Cylinder
3) Piston rod
4) Crank
5) Connecting rod
6) Measuring tank
7) Piping system (Suction& Delivery)
8) Sump
9) Stop watch
10) Pressure & vacuum gauges.
THEORY:
In the pump, if the mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy(Pressure
energy)by sucking the liquid into the cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating which exerts
thrust on liquid increase its hydraulic energy .Then the pump is known as reciprocating pump.
In reciprocating pump crank is rotated at uniform speed by the driving engine a
motor to which the pump is coupled. The connecting rod converts the rotatary motion of the
crank into reciprocating (to & fro) motion of the plunger. When the plunger moves outwards
right words partial vaccum is created inside the cylinder inside the cylinder .This outward stroke
of the plunger is, therefore known as ‘suction stroke’.
On the outward stroke, the plunger moves leftwards suction valve is closed ,and delivery
valve is opened and water is forced out of the barer through delivery pipe. This inward stroke is
therefore called as delivery stroke (or)working stroke.
PROCEDURE:
1) Open the control valve in the delivery valve.
2) Fill the air vessel with water to the required level.
3) Start the motor.
4) Through out the delivery valve to get the required head(0.5 kg/)
5) Note down the following reading.
a) Vacuum gauge reading.
b) Pressure gauge reading.
c) Time required for ‘n’ revolutions of energy disc.
d) Time required for some 100 mm rise of water level in measuring tank.

e) Repeat the above procedure for different delivery heads.
OBSERVATIONS:
S.NO Pressure gauge(p) Vacuum Time /100mm Time/3
readings reading(v) rise of water t(sec) revolutions
Kg (mm of Hg) T(sec)
1
2
3
4
5
CALCULATIONS:
S.NO Total head Discharge i/p power o/p power Efficiency
H(cm) Q(m3/sec) (kw) (kw)
1)H=(P+V)m
P=Pressure gauge reading
V=Vacuum gauge reading
Q=Ah/t
Input power= (n*3600*0.8)/(NT) KW
Output power= (ϼg Q H)/1000
ŋ =output power/input power______________
FORMULA AND DATA:-

Energy meter constant(N)=1200 rev/kw hr.

Area of measuring tank (A)=0.3*0.2 m²
Efficiency of motor=80%
1 kg/cm²=10 m of water
Pressure gauge reading (p)=P(in m of water)
760 mm of Hg=10.336m of water
V=10.336/(760*V) meters of water
Total head(H)=(P+V)m
Discharge (Q)=Ah/t m³ /sec
h=100mm rise of water
t=time taken for 100 mm of water
O/p power= ( n*3600*08)/(NT) in KW.
n=no. of revolutions
T=time for n revolutions
N=1200 revolutions/Kw.hr
Efficiency of pump(ŋ)=O/p power / i/p Power
GRAPHS:
1. Head Vs Discharge
2. Head Vs Power
3. Head Vs Efficiency
INFERENCE:A reciprocating pump utilizes a crankshaft-connecting rod mechanism identical
to internal combustion engines. The crankshaft-connecting rod mechanism converts the rotary
movement of the crankshaft to a reciprocating linear movement of plungers or pistons. The
plunger/piston movement creates volume changes. As a cavity opens when a plunger/piston
retracts, the fluid is admitted through an inlet check valve. When the plunger/piston reverses, the
inlet check valve closes, and the cavity reduces when the plunger/piston extends. The outlet
check valve opens and the fluid is forced out by the plunger/piston. The discharge volume is
fixed for each crankshaft revolution, regardless of the fluid being pumped. Pressure is
determined by the system flow resistance and pump construction Speed reduction is needed for
decreasing high speed from the driver to low pump shaft speed.
APPLICATIONS:
 Hydro electric power plants.
 In Refinery & Petrochemical industries.
 In gas turbine power plant.
EXTENSIONS:
High capacity reciprocating pumps.
QUESTIONS:
1. What is priming? Why it is necessary?
2. What is cavitation? Explain its effect on reciprocating pump?
3. Give the difference between centrifugal and reciprocating pump?
4. Explain the working of reciprocating pump in detail?
5. Explain about different components of reciprocating pump?
6. What is meant by slip? Explain about slip in case o reciprocating pump?
7. Give the classification of reciprocating pump?

RESULT:-The performance characteristics of Reciprocating pump are studied at constant speed

and the average efficiency is found to be__________________
EXPERIMENT:7
FRICTION FACTOR
AIM: To determine the friction factor for a given pipe line.
APPARATUS:
1) U-Tube manometer.
2) collecting tank.
3) stop watch.
4) pipe of various diameter.
FORMULAE:
 Head loss due to friction (hf)= (4flV²)/(2gd).
f-friction factor, l-length of pipe
d-diameter of pipe , V- velocity-acceleration due gravity
THEORY:
This experiment set up consists of a large number of pipes of different diameter .The pipes
having tapping at certain distance so that U-tube manometer is connected in between them.
 The flow of water through a pipe line is regulated.
 By operating control valve which is provided in a main supply line for measuring .The
head loss.
 The length of line of the pipe is considered as a distance between 2-pressure tapings to
which U-tube mercury manometer is filled.
PROCEDURE:
1) Note down the diameter of pipe(d).
2) Note down the density of manometer liquid (Pm) & that of the fluid flowing through pipe(Pw)
3) Connect the U-tube manometer to pipe in between two pressure taping
4) Start the flow and adjust the control valve in pipe line for required discharge ,measure the
pressure difference at two points A&B of a pipe by means of U-tube manometer
5) By collecting the water in collecting tank for a particular period of time
6) Determine the velocity of flow(V) and frictional head loss(hf) by using appropriate equations
7) Determine the friction factor in a pipe by using Darcy’s weisbach formula
Observations:
Manometer Diameter of Frictional Time Actual Velocity Friction
s.no Readings(cm) pipes(mm) Head loss (sec) Discharge () al factor
0.1*∆h (hf) (Q) (f)

h1 h2
INFERENCE:
Pipe flow under pressure is used for a lot of purposes. Energy input to the gas or liquid is needed
to make it flow through the pipe or conduit. This energy input is needed because there is
frictional energy loss (also called frictional head loss or frictional pressure drop) due to the
friction between the fluid and the pipe wall and internal friction within the fluid. The Darcy
Weisbach Equation, which will be discussed in this article, is commonly used for a variety of
calculations involving frictional head loss, pipe diameter, flow rate or velocity, and several other
parameters. The friction factor, which is used in the Darcy Weisbach equation, depends upon the
Reynolds number and the pipe roughness.
EXTENSIONS:
Losses due to minor losses such as sudden enlargement, contraction and various pipe fittings.
APPLICATIONS:
 In hydro electric power plant to estimate the losses,
 In different petro chemical industries.
 In a pipe carrying some fluid to estimate the losses.
 In thermal power plants.
QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by laminar, turbulent and transition flow?
2. What is meant by reynolds number?
3. What is meant by loss of energy in pipes?
4. Give the classification of energy losses in a pipe flow?
5. Give the minor energy losses in a pipe flow?
6. Define hydraulic gradient line, total energy line?
RESULT:
Friction factor for a given pipe line is
For 25mm diameter pipe is=………………………..
For 20mm diameter pipe is=…………………………..
For 15mm diameter pipe is=………………………………..

Experiment: 8 PELTON TURBINE

AIM: To find out efficiency of the peloton turbine
APPARATUS:
1) Pressure gauge
2) Manometer
3)Venturimeter
4)weights
5)Rope
6)Sump tank
7)Brake drum
8)Tachometer
THEORY:
It is one of the impulse turbines and the pelton wheel is also suitable for working
under higher heads. The runner of Pelton wheel consists of the blades which are evenly placed at
its periphery and the shape of these blades is semi-circular/cup shaped.
The water coming out from the nozzle the centre of the vane tangentially and these vanes
are so designed that the angle at the outlet tip is 10 to 20 degree, so that the jet of water cuts
deflected through 168 to 170 degree.
In order to control the quantity water striking the vanes (or)runner of the end of a
pen stock with a sphere whose operation is based upon the hand wheel.
PROCEDURE :-
1) Before starting the turbine make sure that the gate valve should be closed.
2) Switch on the motor and the gate valve is open gradually.
3) Take the following readings by varying the discharge and adding the loads.
a) Pressure gauge readings
b) Manometric readings
c) Turbine shaft speed
d) Break drum weights
e) Spring balance readings.

5) Tabulate the readings neatly.

Observations :-
S.No Pressure Venturimeter Reading Speed Wt. on Spring
gauge (cm of Hg) (rpm) hinges balance
reading (H) N w1(kg) w2(kg)
kg/cm²
h1(cm) h2(cm) h2-h1 (cm)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
CALCULATIONS:
Differential head Discharge (Q)= o/p power (w) i/p power (w) Efficiency
(h) in meters. m³/sec=k
1.h= 12.6*(h2-h1)/100 m
2.discharge Q=k√h
3.o/p power =(2πNRe*9.8*W)/60*1000
4.i/p power =ρgQH/1000
5.ŋ =(output power)/(input power)
MODEL CALCULATIONS:
Brake drum diameter(D) =0.1 m.
Rope diameter(t)=0.01 m
Effective radius of brake drum (Re)=D/2+t
Wt.of rope on hanger= 500 grams.
Discharge (Q)=k√h
K=flow constant=7.95*10-3
h=(h2-h1)12.6 mm of water
I/P power =ρgQH (kw)
Net load =(W1+weight of hanger)-W2

Turbine o/p =(2πN Re*9.8*W)/60*1000 KW

Efficiency ŋ=output power/input power
GRAPHS:
 Input power Vs pressure gauge reading.
 Head Vs Discharge.
INFERENCE:
The Pelton wheel is a impulse type water turbine. It was invented by Lester Allan Pelton in the
1870s. The Pelton wheel extracts energy from the impulse of moving water, as opposed to
water's dead weight like the traditional overshot water wheel. Many variations of impulse
turbines existed prior to Pelton's design, but they were less efficient than Pelton's design. Water
leaving those wheels typically still had high speed, carrying away much of the dynamic energy
brought to the wheels. Pelton's paddle geometry was designed so that when the rim ran at ½ the
speed of the water jet, the water left the wheel with very little speed; thus his design extracted
almost all of the water's impulse energy—which allowed for a very efficient turbine.
APPLICATIONS:
 In hydro electric power plants.
 In steam power plants.
EXTENSIONS:
 Reaction turbines.
QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by turbine?
2. Give the heads and efficiencies of a turbine?
3. Give the brief classification of hydraulic turbines?
4. Explain about different parts of pelton turbine?
5. Give the condition for maximum efficiency of pelton turbine?
6. What is the difference between impulse and reaction turbine?
7. What is the exact purpose of nozzle?
RESULT: The efficiency of pelton turbine is found to be________________.

EXPERIMENT :9
FRANCIS TURBINE
AIM: To find out efficiency of a Francis turbine
APPARATUS: 1.manometers
2. Pressure gauge
3. Vacuum gauge
4. Orifice meter
5. Brake meter
6. Weights
7. Rope
8. Sump tank
9. Tachometer
THEORY:
A Francis turbine is a mixed flow type of reaction turbine in which water enters the
runner radially at its periphery and leaves axially at its centre.
The water flow in penstock enters a scroll casing (spiral casing)with completely
surrounded the runners .the purpose of casing is to provide an even distribution of water
around the circumference of the turbine runner an approximately constant velocity for
the water so disturbed.
From the scroll casing the water passes through a speed ring (or)stay ring . The speed
ring consists of a lower and upper ring held together by series of series of fixed vane
called stay vanes .The speed ring the water enters into the series of guide vanes. The
function of guide vanes is to regulate the quantity of water supplied to the runner.
The runner of the turbine consists of series of curved vanes .The vanes so shaped flat
water the runner at the outlet periphery and leave it axially at the inner periphery.
The water after passing through the runner flows to the tail race through a draft tube.
PROCEDURE:
1)Before starting the pump gate value should be closed.
2) Switch on the motor, after that gate valve is open gradually.
3) Take the following reading by varying the discharge and adding the loads.
a)Pressure gauge reading.
b)Manometer readings.
c)Turbine shaft Speed.
d)Break drum weight.
e)Spring balance reading.
4) Repeat the above procedure for different loads so that the speed will be varied.
5) Tabulate the readings neatly.

Observations:
S.No Pressure Orifice meter head Reading Speed Wt.on Spring
kg
(cm) (cm)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Calculations:
Differential head Discharge (Q)= o/p power (kw) i/p power (kw) Efficiency
(h) in meters. m³/sec=k
h=12.6*(h2-h1)/100 m
Q= k√h =KW
K= flow constant=1.564*10-2
W1=weight of hanger.
W2 =weight of spring balance.
o/p power =(2πNRe*W*g)/60*1000 KW
i/p power =ρgQH/1000 KW
ŋ = output power / input power
MODEL CALCULATIONS:
Brake drum diameter(D)=0.3 m
Rope diameter(t)=0.051 m
Effective radius of brake drum (Re)=D/2+t

Wt.of rope on hanger=1kg

Discharge (Q)=k√h
K=flow constant=1.5644*10-2
Differential head of manometer(H)=(h2-h1)12.6 mm of water
I/P power =ρgQH(kw)
Net load(W) =(W1+1)-W2
Turbine o/p =(2πN ReW*g)/60*1000kw
Efficiency ŋ=output power/input power
GRAPHS:
INERENCE:
Reaction turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluid's pressure or mass. The pressure
of the gas or fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades. A pressure casement is
needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the turbine stage(s) or the turbine must be fully
immersed in the fluid flow (such as with wind turbines). The casing contains and directs the
working fluid and, for water turbines, maintains the suction imparted by the draft tube. Francis
turbines and most steam turbines use this concept. For compressible working fluids, multiple
turbine stages are usually used to harness the expanding gas efficiently. Newton's third law
describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines.
EXTENSIONS:
Low head and high discharge turbines.
APPLICATIONS:
QUESTIONS:
1. Define turbine?
2. Define inward and outward radial flow reaction turbine?
3. What is the purpose of using draft tube? What is meant by turbine?
6. Explain about different parts of Francis turbine?
7. Give the condition for maximum efficiency of francis turbine?
10. What is meant by radial flow reaction
RESULT: The efficiency of Francis Turbine is found to be________________.

Experiment:10
KAPLAN TURBINE
AIM: To find out efficiency of a Kaplan turbine.
APPARATUS:
 Manometer.
 Pressure gauge.
 Vacuum gauge.
 Orifice meter.
 Brake drum
 Weights.
 Rope.
 Stump tank.
 Tachometer.
THEORY:
Kaplan Turbine is an axial flow turbine, which is suitable for relatively low heads, hence
requires a large quantity of water develop large amount of power . It is also a reaction type of
turbine.
The main components of Kaplan Turbine are scroll casing ,stay ring, arrangement of
guide and the draft tube are similar to those of Francis turbine .Between the runner a
guide vanes the water in the turbine turns a right angle into the axial direction and then
passes through the runner.
The runner of kaplan turbine has four or six blades which are attached to a hub or
boss. These blades [vanes ]are so shaped that the water flows axially through the runner.
Kaplan turbine blades can be turned about while turbine is in motion .When both guide –
vanes angle may be varied ,a high efficiency can be maintained over a wide range of
operating conditions.
PROCEDURE:
1)Before starting the pump,after that butterfly valve is closed.
2)Switch on the motor, after butterfly valve is opened gradually.
3)Take the following readings by varying the discharge and adding the loads.
a)pressure gauge readings.
b)Manometer readings
c)Turbine shaft speed.

d)Break balance reading.

e)spring balance reading
4)repeat the above procedure for different loads so that the speed will be varied.
5)Tabulate the readings neatly.
Observations:
S.No Pressure Orifice meter head Reading Speed Wt.on Spring
kg
h1(cm) h2(cm) h2-h1 (cm)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
CALCULATIONS:
Discharge (Q) Net load o/p power (kw) i/p power (kw) Efficiency
m³/sec (W1+1)-W2
H=(h2-h1)*12.6

Q=K*√h
W1=weight of hanger.
W2 =weight of spring balance.
o/p power =(2πNRe W*g)/60*1000 KW
i/p power =ρgQH/1000 Kw
ŋ = output power / input power
MODEL CALCULATIONS:
Brake drum diameter(D)=0.3m
Rope diameter(t)=0.015m
Effective radius of brake drum (Re)=D/2+t=
Wt.of rope on hanger=1kg
Discharge (Q)=k√h
K=flow constant=2.6487/100
Differential head of manometer(H)=(h2-h1)12.6 mm of water
I/P power =ρgQH/1000kw
Net load(W) =(W1+1)-W2
Turbine o/p =(2πN ReWg)/60*1000kw
Efficiency ŋ=outpour power/input power
GRAPHS:
INFERENCE:
Reaction turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluid's pressure or mass. The pressure
of the gas or fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades. A pressure casement is
needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the turbine stage(s) or the turbine must be fully
immersed in the fluid flow (such as with wind turbines). The casing contains and directs the
working fluid and, for water turbines, maintains the suction imparted by the draft tube. Francis
turbines and most steam turbines use this concept. For compressible working fluids, multiple
turbine stages are usually used to harness the expanding gas efficiently. Newton's third law
describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines.
EXTENSIONS:
Low head and high discharge turbines.
APPLICATIONS:
QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by turbine?
4. Explain about different parts of kaplan turbine?
7. What is meant by radial flow reaction?
8. What is meant by axial flow reaction turbine?

9. Give the characteristic curves of hydraulic turbines?

10. Define the term governing of a turbine?
11. What is meant by specific speed of a turbine?
RESULT: The average efficiency of kaplan Turbine is found to be________________.
EXPERIMENT-11
VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM
AIM: To verify Bernoulli’s theorem for a given pipeline.
APPARATUS:
1.Sump.
2. collecting tank.
3.Stop watch.
4.Pipes (Piezometer glass tubes)
5. measuring tank.
6.Motor.
BERNOULIS THEOREM:
It states that, in a continuous flow, steady flow, irrotational flow, the total head at any
point along the flow is some of pressure head, velocity head and datum head.
Pressure head= P/ρg
Velocity head= V2/ 2g.
Datum head= Z.
PROCEDURE:
1.The apparatus is fitted with piezometer tubes and scales at seven cross sectional points.
2. Piezometer glass tubes are provided at suitable intervals for the measurement of pressure
head at various points.
3. A flow control valve is provided at exit of receiving chamber for adjusting & keeping
different flow rates through the operation .
4. Collecting tank is provided for the measurement of rate pf flow.
5. The area of flow section is written on each one of these seven sections.
6. The velocity of flow can be calculated.
V=Q/A
i.e, Velocity head= V2/ 2g.
TABULAR FORM:
Cross Time /100mm Discharge V=Q/A Velocity h= Total Total
sectional rise Q=AH/t head(V²/2g) P/ρg head(P/ρg energy

area 1 2 Avg. +V²/2g+Z)
INFERENCE:
An idealized algebraic relation between pressure, velocity, and elevation for flow of an inviscid
fluid. Its most commonly used form is for steady flow of an incompressible fluid, and is given by
the equation below,
where p is pressure, &rgr; is fluid density (assumed constant), V is flow velocity, g is the
acceleration of gravity, and z is the elevation of the fluid particle. The relation applies along any
particular streamline of the flow. The constant may vary across streamlines unless it can be
further shown that the fluid has zero local angular velocity.The above equation may be extended
to steady compressible flow (where changes in &rgr; are important) by adding the internal
energy per unit mass, e, to the left-hand side. See Compressible flowThe equation is limited to
inviscid flows with no heat transfer, shaft work, or shear work. Although no real fluid truly
meets these conditions, the relation is quite accurate in free-flow or “core” regions away from
solid boundaries or wavy interfaces, especially for gases and light liquids.
APPLICATIONS:
Practical applications of Bernoulli’s equation are
 Thus Bernoulli's theorem is commonly used to analyze flow outside the boundary layer,
flow in supersonic nozzles, flow over airfoils, and many other practical problems. See
Aerodynamics, Boundary-layer flow
 Venturi meter.
 Orifice meter.
 Pitot-tube.
QUESTIONS:
1. Explain Bernoulli’s theorem?
2. Give the practical applications of Bernoulli’s equation?
3. Give the assumptions of Bernoulli’s equation?
RESULT: Hence Bernoulli’s theorem is verified.

EXPERIMENT-12.
EXPERIMENT ON LOSS OF HEAD(MINOR LOSSES) IN PIPE FITTINGS
AIM:
To determine the head loss due to friction in Pipe Fittings and hence, to
determine the “ Head Loss Co-efficient ”.
APPARATUS:
Pipe fitting apparatus, stop watch
SPECIFICATIONS:
* Pump Capacity : 1 HP, 1 Ph.
* Collecting (Measuring) Tank Area : 0.0772 m2.
* Nominal Dia of Pipe : 1” NB (27mm ID).
* Fittings Used:
1) Bends & Elbows I Line.
2) Valves II Line.
3) Collar, Union, Contraction,
Expansion. III Line.
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of pipe lines in three different branches containing; (i)
Valves in one line, (ii) Bends & Elbows in second line, (iii) Collar, Union,
Contraction & Expansion in the third line.A U-Tube Manometer is connected
across each fittings with change-over valves. A constant steady supply of water is provided using
Centrifugal Pump with Valve for varying the flow rate.
A Measuring Tank with Stop Clock is provided for measurement of flow rate.
A Sump Tank is mounted below the Collecting Tank. A Butterfly Valve is
provided for instantaneous dumping of collected water into the Sump tank and the
overflow pipe to facilitate to run the equipment on Closed circuit basis.
THEORY:
Like the straight pipes produce the friction to the flow of fluid due to

its inside roughness, the pipe fittings such as Valves, Bends, Elbows, Reducers /Expanders, etc
also offer Resistance / Friction to the flow of fluid. While the head loss due to friction in straight
pipes is expressed by the standard formulae:
hf =(f l V^2)/(2gd)
hf = ------ . .. . (a)
the head loss due to friction in pipe fittings is expressed by
KV2
similar equation : - -- ---- .... (b) 2g
By equating (a) and (b), we get the factor K = f l/d where K is the local head loss
co-efficient of pipe fittings (non-dimensional) expressed in terms of the friction factor (f), length
(l) and diameter (d) of the pipe to which the particular type of fitting is fitted.
In the equations where the branches of pipes are used for flow
analysis, all the resistances offered by the fittings are expressed in “equivalent
length” of pipe to which they are fitted, namely; L = Kd/f .This is to be added
to the length of the straight pipe of diameter ‘ d ’ with the friction factor ‘ f ’ (
0.025 generally assumed ), and the analysis is done further. Note that the valve of ‘K’ is to be
evaluated from the formulae hf ( pipe fitting ) =KV2/ 2g where
V is the velocity of fluid flowing in the pipe line of diameter d to which the pipe fitting is fitted.
Further, it is also be noted that, if in a branch of pipe lines, where the
various diameter pipes are involved, the similar kind of method is used for
converting all the other pipe of different diameters to the equivalent length of one particular
diameter. This way the analysis becomes simpler. In such cases, the equivalent length is
calculated from the formulae;
L/ d= ( L1/ d1) +( L2/ d2) + ( L3/ d3)
PROCEDURE:
1. Fill-in the sump tank with clean water.
2. Keep the delivery valve closed.
3. Connect the power cable to 1 Ph, 220V, 10 Amps
with earth connection.
4. Switch-ON the Pump & open the delivery valve.
5. Open the corresponding ball valve of the pipe line.
6. Adjust the flow through the control valve of the pump.
7. Open the corresponding ball valves.
8. Note down the differential head reading in the Mano-meter. (Expel if any air
is there by opening the drain cocks provided with the Manometer)
9. Operate the Butterfly Valve to note down the collecting tank reading
against the known time and keep it open when the readings are not
taken.
10. Change the flow rate & repeat the experiment for different diameter
of pipe fittings.
CALCULATIONS:
Area of Measuring Tank ‘A‘ = 0.0772 m²

Acceleration due to Gravity ‘g‘ = 9.81 m/sec²

Diameter of Bigger pipe ‘D‘ = 27 mm

Diameter of Smaller pipe ‘d‘ = 10 mm
1. Actual Discharge (Q):
A *R where,
Q = ------------- m3/Sec 1000 is the conversion factor
1000 *t from mm to m.
A = Area of Measuring Tank
= 0.0772 m2
R = Rise of water level in mm
(Collecting Tank)
= 100mm
t = Time for R mm of rise in
water in Secs.
=
2. Loss of Head due to Fitting (hf) :
hf =12.6 H
hf = ----------- meters
Where,
H = Difference in Mercury column in mm of Hg in double column Manometer.
12.6 & 1000 are conversion factors.
3. Velocity Head (V):
Discharge Q Where,
V =Q/A= ----------------------------- = ------- m/sec a1 = Area of pipe to which the
Area of Inlet Section a1 fitting is fitted
=π D²/4 m2
= 5.72 x 10 -4m²
4. Additional Friction Loss (K):
Loss of Head
K = --------------------
Velocity Head
hf=(V2/2g)=---------------------
Note: Additional frictional loss (K) for sudden contraction and sudden expansion is
calculated from the formula as given below:
5. Additional Frictional Loss for sudden expansion (K) :
K =(V1– V2)²/2g=----------------------
a2 = area of the smaller diameter = πd²/4 = 7.85x10 -5m ².
d = 10mm
TABULAR FORM:
SI.NO TYPE OF PIPE MANOMETER READINGS TIME TAKEN
FITTING FOR 10 MM
Intial Final difference RISE OF
height height WATER
1 SUDDEN
CONTRACTION
25 - 10mm

2 SUDDEN
EXPANSION
10 - 25mm
3 90° LONG
BEND
4 90° LONG
BEND
5 45° LONG
BEND
INFERENCE:
Like the straight pipes produce the friction to the flow of fluid due to
its inside roughness, the pipe fittings such as Valves, Bends, Elbows, Reducers /Expanders, etc
also offer Resistance / Friction to the flow of fluid.
APPLICATIONS:
 Heat transfer calculations in duct.
 In hydro electric power plant to estimate the losses,
 In different petro chemical industries.
 In a pipe carrying some fluid to estimate the losses.
 In thermal power plants.
RESULTS:
SI. NO TYPE OF PIPE HEAD LOSS
FITTING COEFFICIENT
1 SUDDEN
CONTRACTION
25 - 10mm
2 SUDDEN
EXPANSION
10 - 25mm
3 90° LONG
BEND
4 90° LONG
BEND
5 45° LONGBEND


Experiment No.13
V- NOTCH
Aim: To determine the co-efficient of discharge of a V- notch
Apparatus: Triangular Notch fixed to channel, collecting tank, stop watch, pointer
gauge.
Inference: notch may be defined as a sharp edged obstruction over which flow of a
liquid occurs. The sheet of water discharged by a notch is called vein. Notches are used
for measuring the flow of water from a reservoir and are generally rectangular,trapezoidal or
triangular in shape.The most common shape is triangular, since it has the
advantage of greater accuracy at reduced flow rates compared with other shapes. The co
-efficient of contraction will be constant for all heads. A triangular notch is called V-notch.
Procedure:
1. Check the experimental setup for leaks. Measure the dimensions of collecting tank and
the notch.
2. Observe the initial reading of the hook gauge and make sure there is no discharge.
Note down the sill level position of the hook gauge.
3. Open the inlet valve of the supply pipe for a slightly increased discharge. Wait for
sometime till the flow become steady.
4. Adjust the hook gauge to touch the new water level and note down the reading.
Difference of this hook gauge reading with initial still level reading is the head over the
notch (h).
5. Collect the water in the collecting tank and observe the time t to collect H Raise/Height
of water.
6. Repeat the above procedure for different flow rates by adjusting the inlet valve
opening and tabulate the readings.
7. Complete the tabulation and find the mean value of Cd.
8. Draw the necessary graphs and calibrate the notch.
Observations:
Initial Hook gauge reading = mm
Model Calculations:
Q a= C d. Q th
Q a = A. H /t
A = Area of collecting tank in Sq. cm
H = Rise of water in collecting tank in cm
T = Time taken for H cm rise of water in sec.
Q t h = (8/15) √(2g). Tan (θ/2). H5/2
Where g = Acceleration due to gravity cm/sec2
h = Head of water causing flow in cm
θ = Apex angle = 600
C d = Q a/Q t h

TABULAR FORM:
Sl. Sill Reading Head Rise Time Q th Q a ct Coefficient
No. level of head over (cm) taken (m3/s) (m3/s) of
reading over the the sill (t) discharge
Mm sill mm h (sec) Cd
cm

Graphs:
The following graphs are drawn.
Q a Vs h ,
5/2
Q a Vs h and
log Q a Vs. log h
Cd from Graph:
Slope n = dy / dx
Q a = K hn
Log Q a = log K + n log h
Log K = Log Q a – n log h
Therefore k = Antilog (log Q a – n log h)
Q t h = (8/15) √2g. Tan (θ/2) h5/2
Therefore K = (8/15) C d √2g. Tanθ/2
C d = K/((8/15) √2g. Tan (θ/2))
Result:
Coefficient of discharge of the given V- notch from
1. observations
2. graph
APPLICATIONS:
1. For measuring low discharge.
2. For measuring low heads(H).
3. It is used in open channel flow.
QUESTIONS:
1. Why should the geometrical shape of a notch be well defined and regular?
2. What is meant by end contractions? Do they occur in all types of notches?
3. Comment on the form of calibration curve.
4. Is the value of Cd universal? If not, what factors may it depend upon?
5. Explain the terms “suppressed weir” and ‘Ventilation” of the nape

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INDUR

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULIC

1. Mr.M.UDAYA KUMAR. (Associate Professor)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

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8 PELTON TURBINE. 25-27

9 FRANCIS TURBINE. 28-30

List of Experiments beyond the Syllabus

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Experiment 1:- VENTURIMETER

S.NO Manometer Readings Time/100mm rise

h1(cm) h2(cm) Δh=(h2-h1) (cm)

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S.NO Differential Water Actual discharge Theoretical Co-efficient of

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5. Why mercury is used as higher liquid in manometer?

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 Close all the manometer tappings.

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 Flow computer testing and verification.

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Experiment:- 4 MULTI STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

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h=100 mm rise of in measuring tank

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t=time for 100mm rise of water

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e) Repeat the above procedure for different delivery heads.

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Energy meter constant(N)=1200 rev/kw hr.

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RESULT:-The performance characteristics of Reciprocating pump are studied at constant speed

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Experiment: 8 PELTON TURBINE

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5) Tabulate the readings neatly.

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Turbine o/p =(2πN Re*9.8*W)/60*1000 KW

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Wt.of rope on hanger=1kg

RESULT: The efficiency of Francis Turbine is found to be________________.

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d)Break balance reading.

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9. Give the characteristic curves of hydraulic turbines?

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area 1 2 Avg. +V²/2g+Z)

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Turbine o/p =(2πN Re9.8W)/60*1000 KW