The different tenses and the verb forms used in each tense

Name of Tenses Verb form used in Tenses with Example

Verb / verb + s/es (V1/V5)

Present simple / indefinite She writes a paper

Is/am/are + verb + ing (V4)

Present continuous / Progressive She is writing a paper

Has / have + V3
Present perfect She has written a paper

Has / have + been + V4

Present perfect continuous She has been writing a paper

V2
Past simple / indefinite She wrote a paper

Was / were + V4
Past continuous / Progressive She was writing a paper

Had + V3
Past perfect She had written a paper

Had been + V4
Past perfect continuous She had been writing a paper

Shall / will + V1
Future simple / indefinite She will write a paper

Shall / will + be + V4
Future continuous / Progressive She will be writing a paper

Shall / will + Have + V3

Future perfect She will have written a paper

Shall / will + have been + V4

Future perfect continuous She will have been writing a paper

Uses of Simple Present Tense

Verb Forms: Verb / verb+s/es
1. To express a habitual action.
For example:
 I get up every day at five o’clock.
2. To express general truths
For example:
 Fortune favours the brave.
3. In vivid narrative, as substitute for the simple past.
For example:
 Immediately the Sultan hurries to his capital.
4. To indicate a future event that is part of a fixed programme or timetable.
For example:
 The train leaves at 5:20 am.
Note: We can also use will leave in place of leaves.
5. It is used to introduce quotations.
For example:
 Keats says, ‘A thing of beauty is a joy forever.
6. In exclamatory’ sentences beginning with here and there to express what is actually taking place in the
present.
For example:
 Here comes the bus!
7. When two actions of the future are being talked about, one dependent on the other, the former action is
represented by present simple and the latter by future simple.
For example:
 We shall go when the child comes back home.
Uses of Present Continuous Tense
Verb Forms: is/am/are + verb + ing
1. For an action going on at the time of speaking.
For example:
 The boys are playing cricket in the ground.
2. For a temporary action that may not be actually happening at the time of speaking but was happening in the
recent past and is still happening in the recent future.
For example:
 I am reading Sidney Sheldon now a days.
3. To express changing or developing situations.
For example:
 India is progressing day by day.
4. For an action that is planned or arranged to take place in the near future.
For example:
 I am going to cinema tonight.
Note: But it is not good to use the present continuous for slightly distant future. So, don’t say “I am going to
cinema next week.”
Rather, use the future simple.
So, it is better if you say “I will go to the cinema next week.”
5. When the reference is to a particularly obstinate habit, the present continuous is used instead of present
simple. An adverb like always, continually, constantly is also used.
For example:
 It is no use scolding him; he always does what is forbidden. (Incorrect)
Note: that his doing what is forbidden has become a die-hard habit. The habit persists in spite of advice or
warning. So, we should use the present continuous.
For example:
 It is no use scolding him; he is always doing what is forbidden. (Correct)
Uses of Present Perfect Tense
Verb Forms: Has / have + third form of verb
1. To indicate the completed activities in the immediate past.
For example:
 He has just gone out.
2. Action completed in the immediate past or an action of the past whose effect lingers in the present.
For example:
 I wrote three books. (Incorrect)

The given sentence appears to be incomplete. The reader of the sentence immediately queries- “When did you
write three books?” It would be a different case if you said

For example:
 I wrote books.
Then the reader would infer that you wrote books in the past as a profession or hobby. But when you are being
so specific as to say “three books”, we immediately feel the need of a time frame.
Since no time frame is mentioned, we assume it to be ‘by now’. So, we have something to the effect.
For example:
 I have written three books by now.

This ‘by now’ is implied and need not be written.

So, for example:
 I have written three books. (Correct)
3. The present perfect is never used with adverbs of past time. In such cases, the past simple should be used.
For example:
 India has won the match last week (Incorrect)
“Last week” is not immediate past. You may therefore be tempted to use the present perfect. But remember that
the immediate past here does not go unindicated. Last week is being used as an adverb of past time.
So, For example:
 India won the match last week. (Correct)
4. To express past actions whose time is not given and not definite – actions with their effect continuing in the
present.
For example:
 I have never known him to be angry.
 Have you read ‘Gulliver’s Travels’?
5. To describe the past events when we think more of their effect in the present than of the action itself.
For example:
 I have cut my finger.
6. For long actions and situations which started in the near past and went on until very recently.
For example:
 I have read three chapters since this morning.
Uses of Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Verb Forms: Has / have + been + verb + ing
For an action, which began at some time in the past and is still continuing. With the present perfect
continuous tense an adverb or phrase that expresses time is used.
For example:
 I have been reading this book since morning.
 They have been building the bridge for several months.
Uses of Simple Past Tense
Verb Forms: Second form of verb only
1. To indicate an action completed in the past. Generally, adverbs or adverb phrases of past time are used in
the past simple tense.
For example:
 The steamer sailed yesterday.
 He went home some time back.
2. To express imaginary present situations or imaginary future events that may not happen.
For example:
 If I had longer holidays, I would be very happy.
 If I got rich, I would travel all over the world.
3. When this tense is used without an adverb of time, then time may be either implied or indicated by the
context.
For example:
 I didn’t sleep well. (i.e., last night)
4. For past habits ‘used to’ is added to the verb.
For example:
 She used to carry an umbrella.
Uses of Past Continuous Tense
Verb Forms: Was / were + verb + ing
1. To denote an action going on at some time in the past. The time of the action may or may not be
indicated.
For example:
 It was getting darker.
 We were listening to the radio all evening.
2. When a new action happened in the middle of a longer action. In this case Past simple and Past
continuous are used together. Past simple is used for the new action.
For example:
 The light went out while I was reading.
3. For persistent habits in the past.
For example:
 She was always chewing gum.
Uses of Past Perfect Tense
Verb Forms: Had + third form of verb
When two actions happened in the past. In this case it is necessary to show which action happened
earlier than the other. Here past perfect is used for the action, which happened earlier.
For example:
 When I reached the station the train had started.
 I had done my exercise when Hari came to see me.
Past perfect continuous Tense
Verb Forms: Had been + verb + ing
An action that began before a certain point of time in the past and was continuing at the given point of time in
the sentence. A time expression like since last year, for the last few days is generally put after perfect
continuous tense.
For example:
 At that time he had been writing a novel for two months.
Here, At that time is the given point of time and for two months is the point of time in the past.
Uses of Simple Future Tense
Verb Forms: Shall / will + verb
For an action that has still to take place.
For example:
 I shall see him tomorrow.
 Tomorrow will be Sunday.
Uses of Future Continuous Tense
Verb Forms: Shall / will + be + verb + ing
1. Represents an action as going on at sometime in the future.
For example:
 I shall be reading the paper then.
2. Represents the future events that are planned.
For example:
 He will be meeting us next week.
Uses of Future Perfect Tense
Verb Forms: Shall / will + Have + past participle
To indicate the completion of an event by a certain future time.
For example:
 I shall have written my exercise by that time.
Uses of Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Verb Forms: Shall / will + have been + verb + ing
1. The future perfect continuous tense indicates an action represented it being in progress over a period of
time that will end in the future. Generally, the time period is mentioned along with it.
For example:
 By next July we shall have been living here for four years.
2. Event occurring at the same time must be given in the same tense.
For example:
 When he fainted his brother was with him.
3. Will or Shall cannot be used twice in the same sentence even if both the actions refer to the future tense.
For example:
 I shall come if he will call me. (Incorrect)
 I shall come if he calls me. (Correct)
4. With the phrases as if and as though the past tense and plural form of the verb should be used.
For example:
 He behaves as if he is a king. (Incorrect)
 He behaves as if he were a king. (Correct)
5. With the word ‘wish’ four verbs are used namely were, had, could and would.
‘Were’ is used when the wish seems to be unrealisable.
For example:
 I wish I were a king.
6. ‘Had’ is used when our wish is a lament over the past happening.
For example:
  I wish I had accepted that job.
7. ‘Would’ is used when we refer to the future.
For example:
 I wish I would get a ticket.
8. ‘Could’ is used when we wish that something that has happened already should have happened otherwise.
For example:
 He did not go because he was busy yesterday. I wish he could go with you.
9. ‘For’ is used for a period of time.
For example:
 He has been working for two hours.
10. ‘Since’ is used with a point of time.
For example:
 He has been working since morning.
11. In case of conditional sentences ‘had’ and ‘would have’ are used.
For example:
 If I had met him I would have invited him.

What is Voice?

Voice is the quality of a verb that indicates whether its subject acts (active voice) or is acted upon (passive
voice).

For Example, when the subject of the verb is doing the action of the verb (e.g., The dog bit the police), the verb
is said to be in the active voice.
When the subject of the verb is being acted upon (e.g., The police was bitten), the verb is said to be in
the passive voice.

Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is
performing the action.

For example, My bike was stolen.

In this example, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it.

Uses of Passive Voice

1. Passive voice is used when the actor needs to know the job. In this case “by” is used in the passive voice.
Example: “Love addicted” was sung by Vamps.
2. Passive voice is used if it doesn’t need to know the perpetrator work.
Example: the streets are cleaned every day.
 3. Passive voice is used if we don’t know or forget who the perpetrator work.
Example: The police was murdered.
4. Passive voice is used if we are more interested in the job than the actors who work.
Example: A new departmental store is being built.
5. Passive voice is used to avoid an awkward sentence or inappropriate with grammar.
Example: When she arrived home police arrested her — it’s better: when she arrived home she was arrested
(by the police).
When a sentence has one auxiliary verb, such as am, are, is, been, being, be, and past participle of verbs like written, driven, drawn,
known, learned, broken, discovered; the sentence is a passive voice.
The Rules to Change the Sentences from Active to Passive Form
1. The places of subject and object are interchanged i.e. the object shifts to the place of subject and subject shifts to the
place of object in passive voice.

Example:
 Active voice: I write a letter.
 Passive voice: A letter is written by me.

Subject (I) of sentence shifted to the place of the object (letter) and object (letter) shifted to the place of the
subject (I) in passive voice.

2. Sometimes subject of the sentence is not used in passive voice. The subject of a sentence can be omitted in passive
voice, if without subject it can give enough meaning in passive voice.

Example:
 Passive voice: cloth is sold in yards
3. 3rd form of verb (past participle) is always used as main verb in sentences of passive voice for all tenses. Base form of
verb or present participle will be never used in passive voice. The word “by” is used before subject in sentences in passive
voice.

Example:
 Active voice: He sings a song.
 Passive voice: A song is sung by him.
4. The word “by” is not always used before the subject in a passive voice. Sometimes words “with, to, etc” may also be
used before the subject in passive voice.

Examples:
 Active voice: The water fills the tub.
 Passive voice: The tub is filled with water.
 Active voice: He knows me.
 Passive voice: I am known to him.
5. Auxiliary verbs are used in passive voice according to the tense of the sentence.
Changes of Pronouns

The following are the changes occurred in the pronouns while converting a sentence from active to passive
voice:

Active Voice Passive Voice

I me

we us

you you

he him

she her

it it

they them

The Form of Active Voice and Passive Voice in

Tenses
Passive voice in Simple Present Tense
Active Voice Passive Voice

Formula: Subject + infinitive + object Formula: S + to be + past participle + by object

Examples:
Simson cares the lion The lion is cared by Simson

Ana does the homework The homework is done by Ana

They sell that house That house is sell by them

Jessica always plays the piano The piano is always played by Jessica

She buys a book A book is bought by her

Passive voice in Present Continuous Tense
Active Voice Passive Voice

Formula: Subject + to be (is, am, are) + present Formula: S + to be (is, am, are) + being + past
participle + object participle + by object

Examples:
She is doing her homework The homework is being done by her

He is waiting for Dewi Dewi is being waited by him

They are giving the present The present is being given by them

Bobby is drawing a nice scenery A nice scenery is being drawn by Bobby

Ratna is writing the letter The letter is being written by Ratna

Passive voice in Present Perfect Tense

Active Voice Passive Voice

Formula: Subject + have/has + past participle + Formula: S + have/has been + past participle + by

object object

Examples:
Kerrie has paid the bill The bill has been paid by Kerrie

We have cycled five miles Five miles have been cycled by us

They have not read the book The book has not been read by them

We have not agreed to this issue This issue has not been agreed to by us

Has she phoned him? Has he been phoned by her?

Passive voice in Simple Past Tense

Active Voice Passive Voice

Formula: Subject + past participle + object Formula: S + was/were + past participle + by object

Examples:
She cleaned the house The house was cleaned by her

Jeffri bought a new car A new car was bought by Jeffri

The teacher called the students The students were called by the teacher

She saved her money Her money was saved by her

Rina paid all her purchase Her purchase were paid by Rina

Passive voice in Past Continuous Tense

Active Voice Passive Voice

Formula: S + was/were + present participle + Formula: S + was/were + being + past participle + by

object object

Examples:
I was waiting for Dina Dina was being waited by me

She was reading a novel A novel was being read by her

Andi was learning an English An English was being learnt by Andi

They were building the house The house was being built by them

He was playing a kite A kite was being played by him

Passive voice in Past Perfect Tense

Active Voice Passive Voice

Formula: Subject + had + past participle + object Formula: S + had been + past participle + by object

Examples:
He had left that place That place had been left by him

I had finished my work My work had been finished by me

She had missed the last bus The last bus had been missed by her
  He had posted the letter The letter had been posted by him

Rudi had completed his speech His speech had been completed by Rudi

Passive voice in Simple Future Tense

Active Voice Passive Voice

Formula: Subject + will + infinitive + object Formula: S + will + be + past participle + by object

Examples:
I shall read a newspaper A newspaper will be read by me

She will sing a beautiful song A beautiful song will be sung by her

Budi will repair his bicycle His bicycle will be repaired by Budi

They will pay the tax The tax will be paid by them

We shall start this meeting This meeting will be started by us

Passive voice in Future Continuous Tense

Active Voice Passive Voice

Formula: Subject + will be + present participle + Formula: S + will + be + ing + past participle + by

object object

Examples:
He will be doing a test tomorrow A test will be being done by him tomorrow

They will be watching movie on next Saturday The movie will be being watched by them on next Saturday

Mita will be increasing her value next time Her value will be being increased by Mita next time

She will be applying a job tomorrow A job will be being applied by her tomorrow

Sinta will be learning her lesson next week Her lesson will be being learnt by Sinta
Passive voice in Past Future Tense
Active Voice Passive Voice

Formula: Subject + would + infinitive + object Formula: S + would + be +past participle + by object

Examples:
I would buy a book tomorrow A book would be bought by me

They would play football next time Football would be played by them next time

Mita would wash her shoes tomorrow Her shoes would be washed by Mita tomorrow

My father would use Blackberry tomorrow Blackberry would be used by my father tomorrow

I would sell my laptop next week My laptop would be sold by me next week

Sentences which cannot be changed into passive voice

Tenses which cannot be changed into passive voice

The sentences of following tenses cannot be converted into Passive Voice:

1. Present Perfect Continuous Tense

2. Past Perfect Continuous Tense
3. Future Perfect Continuous Tense
4. Future Continuous Tense
Intransitive verb cannot be changed into passive voice
What is Transitive and Intransitive Verb?

A verb can be either transitive or intransitive. A transitive verb needs an object (in sentence) to give complete
meaning while intransitive verb does need an object (in sentence) to give complete meaning.

Example of Transitive and Intransitive Verb:

Transitive verb: He sent a letter. (Here sent is a transitive verb as it needs an object i.e. letter to express full
meaning.)
Intransitive Verb: He laughs. (Laugh is an intransitive verb and it does not need an object for expressing full
meaning.)

e.g. Sleep, go, reach, sit, die, are examples of intransitive verbs.
The sentences having intransitive verbs (belonging to any tense) cannot be changed into passive voice. The
reason is that there is not any object in such sentences and without object of sentence passive voice is not
possible.
Examples:
 He is sleeping.
 He has gone.
 He died in 2005.

Active and Passive voice using Modals

Active and Passive voice using Can

This modal applies to all subjects. The sentence patterns are:

Active Voice Passive Voice

S + can + infinitive + object S + can be + past participle + by object

Examples:
She can sell the car every time. The car can be sold by her every time.

Can she play a violin? Can a violin be played by her?

To change the above sentence into a negative sentence, then place the word not after can. The sentence
patterns are:
S + can not + infinitive + object S + can not be + past participle + object

Risky can not buy this car every time. This car can not be bought by Risky every time.

Active and Passive voice using May

This modal applies to all subjects. The sentence patterns are:

Active Voice Passive Voice

S + may + infinitive + object S + may be + past participle + by object

Examples:
He may sell the house. The house may be sold by him.

May I buy the computer? May the computer be bought by me?

To change the above sentence into a negative sentence, then place the word not after may.
I may not buy the computer. The computer may not be bought by me.

Active and Passive voice using Must

This modal applies to all subjects. The sentence patterns are:

Active Voice Passive Voice

S + must + infinitive + object S + must be + past participle + by object

Examples:
He must finish his duty in a week. His duty must be finished by him in a week.

To change the above sentence into a negative sentence, then place the word not after must.
Dewi must not open the gate every morning. The gate must not be opened by Dewi every morning.

Active and Passive voice using Might

This modal applies to all subjects. The sentence patterns are:

Active Voice Passive Voice

S + might + infinitive + object S + might be + past participle + by object

Examples:
He might meet Dewi. Dewi might be met by him.

To change the above sentence into a negative sentence, then place the word not after might.
Guests might not play chess. Chess might not be played guests.

Passive voice for “May Have, Might Have, Should Have, Must Have,
Ought To Have”
Active voice: MAY HAVE Active voice: MAY HAVE BEEN

You may have availed the opportunity. The opportunity may have been availed by you.

You may not have availed the opportunity. The opportunity may not have been availed by you.

Active voice: MIGHT HAVE Active voice: MIGHT HAVE BEEN

 He might have eaten meal. Meal might have been eaten by him.

He might not have eaten meal. Meal might not have been eaten by him.

Active voice: SHOULD HAVE Active voice: SHOULD HAVE BEEN

You should have studied the book. The book should have been studied by you.

You should not have studied the book. The book should have not been studied by you.

Active voice: MUST HAVE Active voice: MUST HAVE BEEN

He must have started job. Job must have been started by you.

He must not have started job. Job must not have been started by you.

Active voice: OUGHT TO HAVE Active voice: OUGHT TO HAVE BEEN

You ought to have helped him. He ought to have been helped by you

Verbs Followed by Modals (Can, could, may, might, would, should,

ought)

The form of the verb is the same as that of a verb in the Simple Future Tense, i.e., modal auxiliary + be + III
form.

Active Voice Passive Voice

You can do this work. This work can be done by you.

Police could not catch the thief. The thief could not be caught by police.

You may read this book. This book may be read by you.

He might suffer a great loss. A great loss might be suffered by him.

You should respect your parents. Your parents should be respected by you.

 She would teach us today. We would be taught by her today.

We must help the poor. The poor must be helped by us.

We ought to respect our elders. Our elders ought to be respected by us.

Passive Voice Active Voice

A scholarship may be won by her. She may win a scholarship.

Could this sum be solved by you? Could you solve this sum?

Should cards be played at by us? Should we play at cards.

By whom could he be helped? Who could help him?

Imperative Sentences

A sentence that expresses a command, or a request or an advice, or an entreaty is called an Imperative Sentence
or Desire.

Characteristics of Imperative Sentences

1. The object you is generally missing in Imperative Sentences. The structure of such sentences in Passive
Voice is: Let + object + be/not be + V3
2. In sentences which express request, advice and order, such phrases as, You are requested to/advised to
/ordered to are used.
3. Word kindly/please are dropped.
Active Voice Passive Voice

Do it. Let it be done.

Call in the doctor. Let the doctor be called in.

Never tell a lie. Let a lie be never told

Shut the door. Let the door be shut.

Do not starve the cow. Let the cow not be starved

Stand up. You are ordered to stand up.

 Kindly lend me some money. You are requested to lend me some money.

Work hard. You are advised to work hard

Don not do it. You are forbidden to do it. or Let it be not done

Passive Voice Active Voice

You are ordered to open the door. Open the door.

You are requested to come here. Come here please.

Let the light be witched on. Switch on the light.

Let your parents be obeyed. Obey your parents.

Change of Voice in the Infinitive Verbs

Active Voice Passive Voice

to + V1 to + be + V3

I have to do this work. This work has to be done.

I want to buy this book. I want this book to be bought.

Women like men to flatter them. Women like to be flattered by men.

There is no shop to let. There is no shop to be let.

Verbs/phrases
I made him stand up. He was made to stand up by me.

I saw him cross the road. He was seen to cross the road (by me).

It is time to
It is time to do this work. It is time for this work to be done.
 It is time to call the roll. It is time for the roll to be called.

Passive Voice Active Voice

I expect her to be brought round. I expect to bring her round.

A pen is to be written with. A pen is to write with.

It is time for the race to be run. It is time to run the race.

They should be invited by us. We should invite them.

What are Modal Verbs?

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs (also known as helping verbs). Normally modal verbs cannot work alone and
must work with the main verb.

Modal Verbs are used with ordinary verbs to express see meanings such as possibility, permission, certainly,
etc.

List of the Modal Verbs in English:

can could may might will

would must shall should ought to

Modal verbs Rules and Uses with Examples

1. Can and May
‘Can’ usually expresses ability or capacity.

Example:
 I can swim across the river.
 Can you lift this table?
‘Can’ is also used to express permission.

Example:
 You can go now.
‘May’ is a more formal modal used to express permission or possibility.
Example:
 You may come in.
 May I leave the room now?
‘May’ is also used to suggest possibility in an affirmative sentence.

Example:
 He may be at home.
 It may rain tomorrow.
‘Can’ is used to suggest possibility in negative/interrogative sentences.

Example:
 Can this be true?
 It cannot be so.
‘May’ when used in a negative sentence suggests an improbability whereas ‘can’ suggests impossibility.

Example:
 He may not come today.
 She cannot sing.
‘May’ suggests less possibility than ‘can’.

Example:
 He can hold his breath for 30 seconds (means He is able to hold his breath for 30 seconds).
 He may hold his breath for 30 seconds (means It is possible that he will hold his breath).
2. Could and Might
‘Could’ and ‘might’ are used as past forms of ‘can’ and ‘may’ respectively.

Example:
 I could swim across the river when I was young.
 I thought he might be at home.
‘Might’ suggests less possibility or probability than ‘may’.

Example:
 I may go to Mumbai next week (means I probably will go to Mumbai).
 I might go to Mumbai next week (means it’s unlikely that I’ll go to Mumbai).
‘Could’ is used as a polite form of seeking permission or making a request.

Example:
 Could you pass me the plate?
 Could I please talk to Mr. Grover?
3. Shall and Will
‘Shall’ is used with first-person and ‘will’ in all the persons to denote future action.
Example:
 I shall need the money tomorrow.
 When will you come next?
‘Shall’ is used with the second and third person to express command, promise, or threat.

Example:
 You shall never come near my child.
 You shall be punished for this.
 We shall go for a picnic this Sunday.
‘Will You’ indicates an invitation or request.

Example:
 Will you dine with us tonight?
 Will you lend me your car for a week?
4. Should and Would
‘Should’ and ‘would’ are used as past forms of ‘shall’ and ‘will’ respectively.

Example:
 I expected that I would get a first class.
 She would sit for hours listening to the radio.
‘Should’ is used to express duty or obligation.

Example:
 We should obey the laws.
 You should keep your promise.
‘Should’ is used to express a supposition.

Example:
 If it should rain, they will not come.
‘Should’ can also be used to express probability.

Example:
 He should be in the library.
5. Must
‘Must’ is used to express necessity.

Example:
 You must improve your spelling.
‘Must’ is also need to express obligation, and is a stronger word than ‘should’.

Example:
 We must follow the law.
‘Must’ is also used to express logical certainty.

Example:
 Living alone in such a big city must be difficult.
6. Ought
‘Ought’ is used to express moral obligation and is stronger than both ‘should’ and ‘must’.

Example:
 We ought to love our parents.
‘Ought’ is also used to express probability sometimes when the probability is very strong.

Example:
 The book ought to be very useful.

What is a Conjunction?

A conjunction is a part of speech that is used to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.

There are mainly two types of conjunctions – coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.

1. Coordinating Conjunctions
A coordinating conjunction connects elements of the same kind.
Commonly used Conjunctions List: and, or, but, for, therefore, yet, etc.

Examples:
1. It stands on the hill and overlooks the plain.
2. I say this but she says that.
3. That coat cannot be mine, for it is too big for me.
4. This must not happen again, or you will be dismissed.
5. He is rich, yet he is not happy.
2. Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction connects a subordinate clause to the main clause.
Commonly used Conjunctions List: when, while, where, though, although, till, before, unless, as, after, because, if, that,
since, etc.

Examples:
1. Since it stands on the hill it overlooks the plain.
2. Although I say this she says that.
3. When Gawain saw the Green Knight he did not show that he was afraid.
 4. We were happy when we received the first prize.
5. She began to cry because she had lost her golden chain.

Important Rules and Uses of Conjunction

1. ‘Since‘ as conjunction means:
A) From and after the time when.

For example:
 Many things have happened since I left the school.
 I have never seen him since that unfortunate event happened.
B) Seeing that (considering the fact that)

For example:
 Since you wish it, it shall be done.
 Since that is the case, I shall excuse you.
2. ‘Or‘ is used:
A) To introduce an alternative.

For example:
 You must work or starve.
 You may take this book or that one.
 He may study law or medicine or engineering or he may enter into trade.
B) To introduce an alternative name or synonym.

For example:
 The violin or fiddle has become the leading instrument of the modern orchestra.
C) To mean otherwise.

For example:
 We must hasten or night will overtake us.
3. ‘If‘ is used to mean:
A) On the condition or supposition that.

For example:
 If he is here, I shall see him.
 If I had a million dollars, I’d be content.
B) Admitting that.

For example:
 If I am blunt, I am at least honest.
C) Whether
For example:
 I asked him if he would help me.
D) Whenever

For example:
 If I feel any doubt I enquire.
4. ‘That‘ is used:
A) To express a reason or cause.

For example:
 Not that I loved Caesar less but that I loved Rome more.
 He was annoyed that he was contradicted.
B) To express a purpose and is equivalent to in order that.

For example:
 He kept quiet that the dispute might cease.
C) To express a consequence, result, or effect.

For example:
 He bled so profusely that he died
5. Lest
‘Lest‘ is used to express a negative purpose and is equivalent to ‘in order that… not’, ‘for fear that’.

For example:
 He lied lest he should be killed.
 I was alarmed lest we should be wrecked.
6. ‘While‘ is used to mean:
A) During that time, as long as

For example:
 While there is life there is hope.
B) At the same time that.

For example:
 While he found fault, he also praised.
7. Only
‘Only’ means except that, but, were it not that:

For example:
 A very pretty woman, only she squints a little.
 The day is pleasant, only rather cold.
8. After, before, as soon as, until
The conjunctions ‘after‘, ‘before‘, ‘as soon as‘, ‘until‘ are not followed by a clause in the future tense. Present Simple or
Present Perfect tense is used to express a future event.

For example:
 I will phone you after I arrive here.
 I will phone you after I have arrived here.
9. As if
‘As if‘ used in the sense of presence and express the unreal behavior of a person. It would be is generally followed by
a subject + were + complement.

For example:
 He loves you as if you were his own child.
 Sometimes she weeps and sometimes she laughs as if she were mad.
The clause that begins with as if should be put into the past simple tense, if the preceding clause expresses a past action.
But if it expresses a past action it should be followed by the past perfect tense.

For example:
 He behaves as if he were a lord.
 He behaved as if he had been a lord
10. As long as and Until
While ‘as long as’ is used to express time in sense of how long, ‘Until‘ is used to express time in sense of before.

For example:
 Until you work hard you will improve. (Incorrect)
 As long as you work hard you will improve. (Correct)
 He learnt little as long as he was 15 years old. (Incorrect)
 He learnt little until he was 15 years old. (Correct)
11. No sooner
‘No sooner‘ should be followed by verb + subject, and ‘than’ should begin another clause.

For example:
 No sooner had I reached the station than the train left.
 No sooner did the bell ring than all the students rushed in.
12. As well as
When ‘as well as‘ is used, the finite verb should agree in number and person with the first subject.

For example:
 He as well as us is innocent.
‘As well as‘ should never be used in place of ‘and‘, if the first subject is preceded by the word ‘both’.

For example:
 Both Rani as well as Kajol came. (Incorrect)
 Both Rani and Kajol came. (Correct)
13. Because, Since and for
‘Because‘ is generally used when the reason is the most important part of a sentence.

For example:
 Some people like him because he is honest and hard-working.
‘Since‘ is used when the reason is already known or is less important than the chief statement.

For example:
 Since you refuse to cooperate, I shall have to take legal steps.
‘For‘ is used when the reason given is an afterthought.

For example:
 The servant must have opened the box, for no one else had the key.

‘For’ never comes at the beginning of the sentence and ‘for’ is always preceded by a comma.

14. Scarcely
‘Scarcely‘ should be followed by ‘when’ and not by ‘than.’

For example:
 Scarcely had he arrived than he had to leave again. (Incorrect)
 Scarcely had he arrived when he had to leave again. (Correct)
15. Either.. or and neither.. nor
Conjunctions such as either.. or, neither.. nor, not only.. but also, both.. and, whether, or etc. always join two words
or phrases belonging to the same parts of speech.

For example:
 Either he will ask me or you. (Incorrect)
 He will ask either me or you. (Correct)
 Neither he reads nor write English (Incorrect)
 He neither reads nor writes English. (Correct)
 Either you shall have to go home or stay here. (Incorrect)
 You shall have either to go home or stay here. (Correct)
 He neither agreed to my proposal nor to his. (Incorrect)
 He agreed neither to my proposal nor to his. (Correct)
16. Although
‘Although‘ goes with ‘yet’ or a comma in the other clause.

For example:
 Although Manohar is hardworking but he does not get a job. (Incorrect)
 Although Manohar is hardworking, yet he does not get a job. (Correct)
17. Nothing else
‘Nothing else‘ should be followed by ‘but’ not by ‘than’.

For example:
 Mr. Bureaucrat! This is nothing else than red-tapism. (Incorrect)
 Mr. Bureaucrat! This is nothing else but red-tapism. (Correct)
18. Indeed… but
The correlative conjunctions ‘indeed… but‘ are used to emphasise the contrast between the first and the second parts of
the statement.

For example:
 I am indeed happy with my school but it produces famous men. (Incorrect)
 I am indeed happy with my school but it does not produce famous men. (Correct)
 I am indeed happy with my school that it produces famous men. (Correct)
19. Not only… but also
In a ‘not only … but also‘ sentence, the verb should agree with the noun or pronoun mentioned second, that is; the one
after ‘but also’, because this is the part being emphasised.

For example:
 Not only the students but also the teacher were responsible for what happened in the class. (Incorrect)
 Not only the students but also the teacher was responsible for what happened in the class. (Correct)
20. Such.. as and such.. that
‘Such … as‘ is used to denote a category whereas ‘such … that‘ emphasises the degree of something by mentioning its
consequence.

For example:
 Each member of the alliance agrees to take such action that it deems necessary. (Incorrect)
 Each member of the alliance agrees to take such action as it deems necessary. (Correct)
Here “it deems necessary” is not a consequence of “such action”. The sentence wants to imply that the action belongs to
the category “as it deems necessary”. In other words, what kind of action? Such action as it deems necessary.

 She looked at him in such distress as he had to look away. (Incorrect)

 She looked at him in such distress that he had to look away. (Correct)

Here, “he had to look away” is a consequence of “she looked at him in such distress”. In other words, the degree
of the distress of looking at him was such that (not as) he had to look away.
A conjunction is not used before an interrogative adverb or interrogative pronoun in the indirect narration.

For example:
 He asked me that where I stayed. (Incorrect)
 He asked me where I stayed. (Correct)

What is Preposition?

A preposition is a word or group of words used before a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to show direction, time,
place, location, spatial relationships, or to introduce an object.

Some very common prepositions are: in, of, on, for, with, at, by, etc.

Examples:
 The book is on the round table. (relationship in space)
 We will meet in November. (relationship in time)
 I sent the information by email. (relationship of method)

Rules of Prepositions
‘In’ is used with the names of countries and large towns; ‘at’ is used when speaking of small towns and villages.

For example:
 I live in Kathmandu.
 I live at Kirtipur in Kathmandu.
‘In’ and ‘at’ are used in speaking of things at rest; ‘to’ and ‘into’ are used in speaking of things in motion.

For example:
 He is in bed.
 He is at the top of the class.
 He ran to school
 He jumped into the river.
 The snake crawled into its hole.
‘On’ is often used in speaking of things at rest, and ‘upon’ for the things in motion.

For example:
 He sat on a chair.
 The cat sprang upon the table.
‘Till’ is used for time and ‘to’ is used for place.

For example:
 He slept till eight o’clock.
  He walked to the end of the street.
‘With’ often denotes the instrument and ‘by’ the agent.

For example:
 He killed two birds with one shot.
 He was stabbed by a lunatic with a dagger.
‘Since’ is used before a noun or phrase denoting some point of time and is preceded by a verb in the perfect tense.

For example:
 I have eaten nothing since yesterday.
 He has been ill since Monday last.
‘From’ is also used before a noun or phrase denoting some point of time but is used with non-perfect tense.

For example:
 I commenced work from 1st January.
 He will join the school from tomorrow.
‘For’ is used for a period of time.

For example:
 He has been ill for five days.
 He lived in Bombay for five years.
Use of ‘in’ before a period of time means at the end of the period, but the use of ‘within’ before a period of time means
before the end of the period.

For example:
 I shall return in an hour. (means I shall return at the end of an hour).
 I shall return within an hour. (means I shall return before the end of an hour).
‘Scarcely’ should be followed by ‘when’ and not by ‘than’.

For example:
 Scarcely had he gone when (not than) a policeman knocked at the door.
The phrase ‘seldom or ever’ is wrong ‘Seldom or never’ is right.

For example:
 Such goods are made for export and are seldom or never used in this country.
‘Beside’ means at the side of while ‘besides’ means in addition to.

For example:
 Beside the ungathered rice, he lay.
 Besides being fined, he was sentenced to a term of imprisonment.
‘Above’ and ‘Below’ merely denote a position, while ‘over’ and ‘under’ also carry a sense of covering or movement.

 The bird flew above the lake. (Incorrect)

  The bird flew over the lake. (Correct)

Here ‘over’ is used to denote upward position and movement also.

‘During’ is used when reference is made to the time within which something happens. ‘For’ is used when we are talking
about how long something lasts.

 There are few incidents of irregularity for the emergency years. (Incorrect)

 There are few incidents of irregularity during the emergency years. (Correct)
Compare is followed by ‘to’ when it shows that two things are alike. It is followed by ‘with’ when we look at the ways in
which two things are like and unlike each other.

For example:
 Rohit Sharma’s batting may be compared to the sales of a useful book; they score right from the
beginning. (Incorrect)
 Rohit Sharma’s batting may be compared with the sales of a useful book; they score right from the
beginning. (Correct)
 If we compare Delhi University with the regional ones, we find the former to be much more efficient.
(Incorrect)
 If we compare Delhi University to the regional ones, we find the former to be much more efficient.
(Correct)
Examine the following sentences:
1. This is as good, if not better than that. (Incorrect)
2. This is as good as, if not better than, that. (Correct)
3. This is as good as that, if not better. (Correct)

What is an Article?

Articles are used to indicate whether a noun refers to a specific or a general item.

There are two types of articles, definite and indefinite.

However, in your choice about whether to use an article, or which one to use, you have four possible choices:
‘a‘, ‘an‘, ‘the‘ or ‘no article‘.

‘a’ and ‘an’ are Indefinite Articles and ‘the’ is known as the Definite Article.

For example, if I say, “Let’s read the book,” I mean a specific book. If I say, “Let’s read a book,” I mean any
book rather than a specific book.
Uses of the Indefinite Articles – ‘a’ and ‘an’
‘a’ is used before a word beginning with a consonant, or a vowel with a consonant sound.

For example:

 a man, a hen, a university (vowel with a consonant sound), a European (vowel with a consonant

sound), a one-way street (vowel with a consonant sound), etc.
‘an’ is used before words beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or words beginning with a mute ‘h’.

For example:

 an apple, an island, an uncle, an egg, an onion, an hour (beginning with a mute ‘h’), etc.

‘an’ is used before individual letters spoken with a vowel sound.

For example:

 an L-plate, an MP, an SOS, an ‘X’, etc.
Uses of a/an
Before a singular noun which is countable (i.e. of which there is more than one) when it is mentioned for the first time and
represents no particular person or thing.

For example:
 I need a visa.
 They live in a flat.
 He bought an ice-cream.
Before a singular countable noun which is used as an example of a class of things.

For example:
 A car must be insured
 All cars/Any car must be insured.
 A child needs love
 All children need/Any child needs love.
With a noun complement. This includes names of professions.

For example:
 It was an earthquake.
 She’ll be a dancer.
 He is an actor.
In certain expressions of quantity.

For example:
 a lot of a couple
  a great many
 a dozen (but one dozen is also possible)
 a great deal of
With certain numbers.

For example:
 a hundred
 a thousand
Before half when half follows a whole number.

For example:
 1 ½ kilos = one and a half kilos or a kilo and a half
 But ½ kilo = half a kilo (no a before half)
Though a + half + noun is sometimes possible.

For example:
 a half-holiday
 a half-portion
 a half-share
With 1/3, ¼, 1/5, etc. ‘a’ is usual.

For example:
 a third, a quarter, etc., (But one is also possible).
In expressions of price, speed, ratio, etc.

For example:
 5p a kilo
 Re 1 a metre
 sixty kilometre an hour
 10 p a dozen four times a day (Here a/an = per)
In exclamations before singular, countable nouns.

For example:
 Such a long queue!
 What a pretty girl! But Such long queues!
 What pretty girls! (Plural nouns, so no article).
‘a’ can be placed before Mr/Mrs/Miss + surname, if the speaker does not actually know.

For example:
 a Mr Smith
 a Mrs Smith
 a Miss Smith
Note: ‘a man called Smith’ and implies that he is a stranger to the speaker. Mr Smith, without ‘a’, implies that
the speaker knows Mr Smith or knows of his existence.
‘a/an’ and ‘one’ (adjectives and pronouns)
When counting or measuring time, distance, weight, etc. we can use either ‘a/an‘ or ‘one‘ for the singular.

For example:
 £1 = a/one pound
 £1,000,000 = a/one million pounds

But note that in:

 The rent is £100 a week (‘a’ before ‘week’ is not replaceable by ‘one’).

In other types of statement ‘a/an‘ and ‘one‘ are not normally interchangeable, because one + noun normally means ‘one
only/not more than one’ and a/an does not mean this.

For example:
 A shotgun is no good. (It is the wrong sort of thing.)
 One shotgun is no good. (I need two or three.)
‘one‘ is the pronoun equivalent of ‘a/an‘.

For Example:
 Did you get a ticket? — Yes, I managed to get one.
The plural of ‘one‘ used in this way is ‘some‘.

For Example:
 Did you get tickets? — Yes, I managed to get some.
‘a’ and ‘an’ are used with words ‘few’ and ‘little’ if they refer to a small number or a small amount. Words ‘few’ and
‘little’ without the articles means almost none.

For example:
 We have little time to spare. (means almost no time)
 We have a little time to spare. (means some time)
 Few persons were present at the meeting. (means almost no one was present)
 A few persons were present at the meeting. (means some were present)

Uses of the Definite Article – The

‘The‘ points out a particular person or thing or someone or something already referred to.

For example:
 I saw the doctor. (means I saw some particular doctor)
 The apple you ate was rotten.
 Did you lock the car?
  The books are expensive. (not all books are expensive, just the ones I’m talking about.)
 Books are expensive. (All books are expensive.)
You should also use ‘the‘ when you have already mentioned the thing you are talking about.

For example:
 She’s got two children; a girl and a boy.
 The girl’s eight and the boy’s fourteen.
‘The‘ is used with names of gulfs, rivers, seas, oceans, groups of islands, and mountain ranges.

For example:
 The Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, the British Isles, the Alps, the Ganga, the North
Pole, the equator, etc
‘The‘ is used before the names of things unique of their kind.

For example:
 The sun, the sky, the ocean, the sea, the rain, the wind, the world, the earth, the Parliament, etc.
‘The‘ is used before the name of certain books.

For example:
 The Quran, The Vedas, The Bible, The Puranas, The Ramayana, etc.

But we never say ‘The Valmiki’s Ramayana’. The is not used when the name of a book is mentioned along with
the author’s name. So, ‘Valmiki’s Ramayana’ is correct.

‘The‘ is used before a plural common noun if it refers to a particular group among the class and not the whole class.

For example:
 Drive away the cows from the field.
‘The‘ is used before a proper noun only when it is qualified by an adjective.

For example:
 The great Rani of Jhansi.
 The immortal Kalidas.
‘The‘ is used before the superlatives.

For example:
 Rohit Sharma is the best batsman in the world today.
 The best person should win.
‘The‘ is used before an adjective when the noun is understood.

For example:
 The poor are always with us. (Here poor mean poor people, which is understood.)
 The weak and the strong. (Here weak means weak people and strong means strong people.)
‘The‘ is used with ordinals.

For example:
 He was the first student to finish his homework.
 The second chapter of the book is very interesting.

Omission of the Articles – Rules with Examples

No article is used before a common noun when it refers to all the members of the class.

For example:
 Man is mortal.
 Fish has high protein content.
 What kind of flower is it?
No article is used before the names of materials such as gold, stone, wine, iron, wheat, wood, cloth. etc.

For example:
 Gold is a precious metal.
 Wheat grows in Uttar Pardesh, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh.
 Iron is a useful metal.

Note: But it is correct to say:

 An iron is a useful gadget.

Because here we are not talking about material iron, but the object which is used to make clothes smooth.

No article is used before proper nouns.

For example:
 Delhi is the capital of India.
 Newton was a great philosopher.
But consider the following examples where an article is used before a proper noun:

 This man is a second Newton.

 Nepal is the Switzerland of southern Asia.

Here Newton and Manchester is not used as a proper noun but a common noun.

No articles are used before a common noun used in its widest sense.

For example:
 The Science has developed much in the past hundred years. (Incorrect)
 Science has developed much in the past hundred years. (Correct).
No article is used before the noun following ‘Kind of’.
For example:

What kind of a hobby is this? (Incorrect)

What kind of hobby is this? (Correct)

No article is used before abstract nouns.

For example:
 Wisdom is the gift of heaven.
 Honesty is the best policy.
But consider the following examples where an article is used before an abstract noun:

 The wisdom of Solomon is famous.

 I cannot forget the kindness with which he treated me.

Here the article is used before the abstract noun as the abstract noun has been qualified by an adjective or
adjectival clause.

No article is used before languages, subject of arts and science.

For example:
 We are studying English.
 Geometry is the toughest subject I have ever studied.
No article is used before words such as school, college, church, bed, table, hospital, market, prison, etc.

For example:
 I went to school till last year.
 I have never been to hospital.

But an article is used before these words when reference is made to a definite place.

No article is used before the name of relations like father, mother, aunt, uncle, etc.

For example:
 Mother would like to see you.
But If someone else’s mother is being talked about then ‘the’ should be used.

For example:
 The mother would like to see you. (someone else’s mother)
Article should not be used before positions that are held at one time by one person only.

For example:
 Donald Trump was elected the president of the USA. (Incorrect)
 Donald Trump was elected president of the USA. (Correct)
Please consider the following sentences.
 1. I have a black and white cat.
2. I have a black and a white cat.
Here in sentence 1, I mean that I have one cat that is partly black and partly white. In sentence 2, I mean that I
have two cats one is black and the other white.

Hence the rule is that when two or more adjectives qualify the same noun, the article is used before the first
adjective only. But when they qualify different nouns, the article is used before each adjective separately.

Consider one more example:

1. The President and Chairman is absent.

2. The President and the Chairman are present.
Sentence 1 means that only one person is acting as president as well as chairman. Sentence 2 means that two
different persons are acting as the President and the Chairman and both the persons are absent.