Geography Module 1 Van

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ILP-2022
(Integrated Learning Program)
Value Add Notes (VAN)
GEOGRAPHY
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IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 3
Geography ....................................................................................................................................... 7
Four Great Earth Realms ............................................................................................................ 8
Systems in Physical Geography ................................................................................................ 11
Location on a Globe .................................................................................................................. 13
The International Date Line ...................................................................................................... 17
Universe ........................................................................................................................................ 19
Origin of Universe ..................................................................................................................... 20
The Solar System........................................................................................................................... 25
Sun:............................................................................................................................................ 25
The Planets:............................................................................................................................... 26
Asteroids and Asteroid Belt ...................................................................................................... 33
Comets ...................................................................................................................................... 34
Meteorites................................................................................................................................. 36
Previous Year Questions ........................................................................................................... 37
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH .............................................................................................................. 39
Extrapolation from meteorites: ............................................................................................... 40
Seismic Wave Model................................................................................................................. 43
Classification based on chemical composition and density (Also known as Static Model): .. 45
Classification based on Mechanical Properties (Also known as Dynamic model): ................ 46
Continental Drift ....................................................................................................................... 49
Sea – floor Spreading ................................................................................................................ 54
Plate Tectonic Theory ............................................................................................................... 56
Plate margins or boundaries and related landforms: ............................................................. 60
Divergent Boundaries ............................................................................................................... 63
Convergent Boundaries ............................................................................................................ 65
Causes of plate tectonics .......................................................................................................... 66
ROCK SYSTEM................................................................................................................................ 67
Igneous Rocks ........................................................................................................................... 68
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Sedimentary Rocks ................................................................................................................... 72

Metamorphic Rocks .................................................................................................................. 74
ROCK CYCLE ............................................................................................................................... 76
TYPES OF FORCES ...................................................................................................................... 78
Endogenic Forces ...................................................................................................................... 78
Exogenic Forces ......................................................................................................................... 79
Landforms ..................................................................................................................................... 80
Folding ....................................................................................................................................... 81
Faults ......................................................................................................................................... 83
VOLCANOES............................................................................................................................... 87
Classification of Volcanoes ....................................................................................................... 89
Landforms associated with Vulcanic Activities ........................................................................ 91
Landforms of Igneous Intrusions .............................................................................................. 92
Extrusive Landforms ................................................................................................................. 94
The Distribution of Volcanoes in the World .......................................................................... 103
Geysers and Hot Springs ......................................................................................................... 105
Mountains – ................................................................................................................................ 107
EARTHQUAKES ............................................................................................................................ 109
Tsunamis ................................................................................................................................. 111
Tertiary landforms ...................................................................................................................... 114
PROCESSES DUE TO EXOGENIC FORCES ................................................................................. 114
Mass Wasting .......................................................................................................................... 122
Erosion..................................................................................................................................... 128
Erosional Landforms: .............................................................................................................. 133
Depositional Landforms: ......................................................................................................... 137
Karst Erosion & Landforms: .................................................................................................... 142
Erosional Features: ................................................................................................................. 144
Depositional features: ............................................................................................................ 146
Arid Cycle of Erosion and Landforms: .................................................................................... 148
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Erosion landforms ................................................................................................................... 156

Depositional Landforms ......................................................................................................... 157
Glacial Cycle of Erosion and Landforms: ................................................................................ 158
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INTRODUCTION
Hello Friends,
Note - Before we start our beautiful journey of Geography you need to understand that
we have tried to create a complete document for geography for your better
understanding of the concepts. We not only want you to read and understand the
concepts but also to experience and visualise the geography.
In order to understand Geography (or any other subject for that matter), it is important
for us to understand why do we have to study Geography? Or a better question, why is it
included in the syllabus of UPSC?
If you have observed, Geography as a subject is clubbed with History and Indian
Sociology in GS Paper 1. This clearly shows that UPSC wants you to relate these subjects
together.
As a civil servant, your primary job is to be a link or a kind of interface between the
Government (Elected Executive) and the people. Suppose, you are from Karnataka, and
you have got Haryana cadre. In order to implement any policy or scheme you will have to
understand the local people. That is only possible when you have a sound understand
that society. The society of a region is the direct result of the history and geography of a
place.
Geography of a place is important as it defines the culture, values, habits, food, dressing,
economy etc. UPSC wants you to understand and internalise the geography of India and
not just read it.
You should be able to know India as your home. As in, you should be able to tell what is
where, and why is it there.
If you think that UPSC’s questions can be solved by memorizing the names and places on
maps, you will be surprised to find that geography as a subject is something else.
You must appreciate this subject by having a personal interaction with the natural
environment. Try to study the location and distribution of things—tangible things such as
rainfall, mountains, and trees, as well as less tangible things such as language, migration,
and voting patterns. (Yes, Human Geography ☺)
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You need to realise that whatever you can see under the sun is a part of geography?
These are the kind of things you can see whenever you take walk outside:
• Clouds in the sky - you will be surprised to see the variation in clouds, which cloud
brings rain, what is the name of the cloud that creates thunderstorms and why?
Etc.
• Mountains, hills and valleys - their nature, distribution and role in the
environmental set up.
• Ocean, rivers, lakes and ponds - their role in climate change, in ecosystems etc.
• The plants and animals that inhabit the landscape.
• Climate, Monsoon, Weather, Temperature etc. why does it rain on a sunny day?
• Events such as hurricanes, earthquakes, and floods affect our lives and the world
around us, as well as how human activities are increasingly altering our
environment.
The more you feel them around, the more clarity you will have on them.
Must Do: Every aspirant must understand the nature of questions asked from Prelims
and Mains perspective. If not, kindly look at the previous year’s questions of geography,
Prelims and Mains both. Reading textbooks and notes would be a futile exercise if one
is not aware of “how UPSC is framing questions from there”.
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Refer to following questions for reference
Prelims
Q.1) The property of magnetism in the Earth is due to the presence of
a. Mg and Fe silicates in the mantle

b. Si and Mg rich rocks in the crust
c. Fe in the core
d. olivine and pyroxeno in upper mantle
Q.2) Earth’s Crust is thinner below the
a. Continents
b. Oceans
c. Similar everywhere
d. None of these
Q.4) The sun’s rays fall vertically on Tropic of Cancer on 21st of June. It is known as
a. Summer Solstice
b. Winter Solstice
c. Equinox
d. Heat Island
Q.5) Sundarbans delta is the largest delta of the world. What type of delta is
Sundarban?
a. Arcuate
b. Cuspate
c. Bird foot
d. None of the above
Q.6) Consider the following statements regarding Aravallis:
1. It is the oldest mountain range of India.

2. The height of these mountains is still rising.
3. It is a type of Block Mountain.
Which of the above statements are not correct?
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a. 1 only
b. 2 and 3
c. 2 only
d. All of the above
Mains
Q.1) Landslides have become frequent hazards in the Himalayan regions. Examine
the causes of these landslides and measures needed to mitigate them.
Q.2) Examine the importance of Tibetan Plateau in influencing the climate. Why has
it been a subject of intense meteorological studies in recent times? Discuss
Q.3) Discuss the concepts of volcanism and earthquakes. Also identify the major
regions of the world that are affected by these phenomena.
Q.4) Discuss the onset, progress and retreat of monsoon in India. Why there are
breaks in monsoon? Why do they occur?
Q.5) Vegetation of a region adapt to its climatic conditions. Illustrate with the help of
suitable examples.
Q.6) Examine the global significance of petroleum resources of the Middle East.
Q.7) What are rare earth metals? What are their applications? Also discuss their
distributional patterns and associated global politics.
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GEOGRAPHY
One of the earliest maps made by Greeks
Geography is one of the oldest subjects studied by humans. The early man used to study
stars and naturals cycles to seek direction and for survival. Inherent curiosity of humans
leads them to seek answers of natural phenomenon which they could not explain. Later
Greeks started a systematic study of landscape started cartography (map making).
Voyages and trade later lead to new discoveries and findings.
Earlier writers did not differentiate between Geography and History. As Greeks used to
win battles, there were writers who were writing about the events in their chronological
order and then there were writers who were writing the account of the region and terrain.
Out of this time and space, the writing of timeline became histography and the detailed
description of region and landform became geography.
Eventually the spectrum and ambit of geography expanded and not only the natural
features but the reasons of their formations were also studied. As we got developed, we
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started shaping and changing our environment. This influence of human on environment
and vice versa is studied under human geography. This is how the dichotomy of Physical
and human geography was developed.
In modern times, four dimensions of earth are studied under physical geography.
1. Geomorphology
2. Climatology
3. Oceanography
4. Biogeography
Now after the realization of the impact of humans on the physical environment,
Environment geography has also become an integral part of physical geography.
FOUR GREAT EARTH REALMS

The natural systems that we study, occurs in four great realms or spheres – atmosphere,
lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.
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THE ATMOSPHERE: It is the

gaseous layer that surrounds the
earth. It receives heat and moisture
from the surface and redistributes it
returning some heat and all moisture
to the surface. It also supplies vital
elements- carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen-that are needed to
sustain life forms. Atmosphere and
all atmospheric phenomenon are
studied under climatology.
THE LITHOSPHERE: it is the outer

most solid layer of the earth. It
provides platform to most earthly life
forms. The solid rock of lithosphere
bears a shallow layer of soil in which
nutrient elements become available
to the organisms. The surface of
lithosphere is sculpted into different
landforms-mountains, valleys, plains
etc. providing various habitats to living
organisms. The lithosphere and its structure, is studied under Geomorphology.
THE HYDROSPHERE: It is the liquid

realm, principally the mass of water in
oceans. It also includes the solid ice of the
mountains and continental glaciers. In
atmosphere the water is found as vapours
and ice crystals. In lithosphere the water is
found in the upper most layers of soil and
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underground water. It is studied under Oceanography.
THE BIOSPHERE: It encompasses all the

living organisms of the earth. Life forms on
earth utilize the gases of atmosphere,
water of hydrosphere and nutrients of
lithosphere. Hence it is dependent on all
other three great realms.
SCALES IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
The process of four realms occurs at various scales-
• Global scale: it considers the planet and its global energy balance as a whole and
view the sun and the earth from a vantage point far from the earth itself.
• Continental scale: the suns energy is not absorbed uniformly by the earth’s land
and water surface. Unequal solar heating produces currents of water and air.
These currents continue the global atmospheric and oceanic circulation system.
To study this system we need to look at it at continental scale, where we can
distinguish continents and oceans and track winds and ocean currents.
• Regional scale: study of different climates of the world.
• Local scale: regional climate influences the natural vegetation but the exact
pattern is determined by the local factors.
• Individual scale: landscape features, type of soils, moss covered bank of rivers etc.
can be studied on individual scale.
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Note: Sometimes a subject becomes difficult when we don’t know how to approach it
properly. Many books including NCERTs are not written in a lucid and scientific manner.
We, at IASbaba, not only want you to learn a subject, but enjoy and appreciate the beauty
of it. So from now on in Geography try to relate things from a perspective of above
scales.
SYSTEMS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Systems approach is very important for a scientist who studies natural processes –
geographers, geologists etc. as their ability to conduct experiments is limited. They must
do their work largely by treating earth as their lab, as even the smallest ecosystem is too
complex to be replicated in a lab. Using a system approach they can understand the
components and connections with in the systems and can understand and predict the
systems as whole. Following diagram shows the hydrological cycle as a system:
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“System” typically means a set or collection of things that are somehow related or
organized. E.g. Solar system etc. however, a specific type of system is referred as a flow
system in which matter, energy or both move through time from one location to another.
Understanding flow system is important as it explains how things are connected and that
is how they are related and influence each other.
After understanding how we need to approach Geography as a subject, it is now

important for us to understand some basics in Geography that will help you as a tool in
reading geography.
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LOCATION ON A GLOBE
For a very long time it was believed that earth is flat and locations were marked on a
two dimensional plane. However, things became too complicated when it was realized
that earth is practically a sphere and normal two-dimensional X-Y coordinates will not
be enough to mark a location there.
As voyages started, it became even more important to make proper maps of the earth
so that it can be explored further.
For this a Global coordinate system was developed. A geographic coordinate system is a
coordinate system that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of
numbers, letters or symbols.
There are two major global coordinate systems, known as the “Geographic Coordinate
System” (i.e. latitude and longitude) and the “Universal Transverse Mercator System”
(i.e. UTM coordinates).
The most well-known coordinate system is the Geographic Coordinate System (GCS),
which uses measures of latitude and longitude to determine your location.
LATITUDES:
Lines of latitude run north and south parallel to the equator, with positive numbers
representing the northern hemisphere, negative numbers representing the southern
hemisphere, and the equator representing 0 degrees latitude.
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LONGITUDES:
Lines of longitude run east and west parallel to the prime meridian, with positive
numbers representing the eastern hemisphere and negative numbers representing the
western hemisphere, with the prime meridian representing 0 degrees longitude. This
may be understood by looking at this grid in relation to a map of the world.
Combining the two we get following grid system:
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IMPORTANT LATITUDES:
The seven important lines of latitude are

the equator at 0 degrees, Tropic of
Capricorn at 23.5 degrees south, Tropic of
Cancer at 23.5 degrees north, Antarctic
Circle at 66.5 degrees south, Arctic Circle
at 66.5 degrees north, South Pole at 90
degrees south and North Pole at 90
degrees north.
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LONGITUDES AND STANDARD TIME
Initially an imaginary line was decided between US and Canada to decide a standard
time in North America.
In October 1884, International Meridian Conference was held so that a global

standardized time could be established.
The Greenwich Meridian is a north-south line selected as the zero-reference line for
astronomical observations. The line in Greenwich in London, UK represents the world’s
prime meridian – longitude zero degrees. Every place on Earth is measured in terms of
its distance east or west from this line.
The present system employs 24 standard meridians of longitude (lines running from the
North Pole to the South Pole, at right angles to the Equator) 15° apart (360o/24), starting
with the prime meridian through Greenwich, England. These meridians are theoretically
the centres of 24 Standard Time zones, although in practice the zones often are
subdivided or altered in shape for the convenience of inhabitants; a notable example of
such alteration is the eastward extension of the International Date Line around the
Pacific island country of Kiribati. Time is the same throughout each zone and differs
from the international basis of legal and scientific time.
You need to understand that horizontal distance between 15o Longitudes is a lot
especially near the equator. Hence in order to maintain the timeline, the standard
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timelines taken by countries are in a multiple of 7.5o. i.e. between each time zone there
is a difference of half an hour. Hence Indian Standard timeline is taken as 82.5oE
longitude. It is 5 hours and 30 min ahead of Greenwich Mean Time.
THE INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE
The world is divided into 24 time zones, planned so that noon is basically when the sun
is crossing the meridian, or line of longitude, of any given location.
But there has to be a place where there is a difference in days, somewhere a day truly
"starts" on the planet. Thus, the 180-degree line of longitude, exactly one-halfway
around the planet from Greenwich, England (at 0 degrees longitude), is approximately
where the international date line is located.
Cross the line from the east to the west, and you gain a day. Cross from west to the east,
and you lose a day.
Without the international date line, people who travel west around the planet would
discover that when they returned home, it would seem as though an extra day had
passed.
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WORKING OF IDL:
Here's how the international date line works:
Let's say you fly from the United States to Japan, and suppose you leave the United
States on Tuesday morning. Because you're traveling west (Across Pacific), the time
advances slowly thanks to time zones and the speed at which your airplane flies. But as
soon as you cross the international date line, it's suddenly Wednesday. Hence you have
suddenly lost a day. You didn’t get to live Tuesday and suddenly you are in Wednesday.
On the reverse trip home, you fly from Japan to the United States. You leave Japan on
Monday morning, but as you cross the Pacific Ocean, the day gets later quickly as you
cross time zones moving eastward. However, as soon as you cross the international date
line, the day changes to Sunday. Hence you have gained a day. You’ll get to live your
Sunday one more time.
(Try to visualize this with a globe or the map that has been given above.)
We hope that with this module, you have understood the basics of Geography and the
way how to approach the subject. Keep these minute things in mind as we will move
forward. We hope that we’ll make your learning experience not only enriching but
enjoyable.
All the best.
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UNIVERSE
Einstein said that the most incomprehensible thing about the world is that it is
comprehensible. We are made of starstuff, so is it our pure mission to understand the
universe because the universe wants to understand itself?
It is a mystery which is still unsolved and every single day we get to find something new
about it. So, let’s see what we already know.
What is Universe? (The very basic question)
Universe contains everything that we can see and cannot see. It is all of space and time
and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and
energy.
HOW BIG IS IT?
The size of Universe cannot be estimated. Atleast not by present technology. And it is
due to a very simple reason that Universe is constantly expanding. All the bodies are
constantly accelerating away from each other increasing the extent of Universe.
According to the general theory of relativity, far regions of space may never interact
with ours even in the lifetime of the universe due to the finite speed of light and the
ongoing expansion of space. For example, radio messages sent from Earth may never
reach some regions of space, even if the universe were to exist forever: space may
expand faster than light can traverse it.
According to mathematical current estimates, the current distance between earth and
the edge of observable Universe is around 46 Billion Light years or 14 Billion Parsecs.
Making the diameter of the observable universe about 93 billion light-years (28 billion
parsecs).
Note: A Light year is the distance travelled by light in one year.
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Picture of Observable Universe
ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE
As we already discussed Universe is so big that we don’t have a clear idea of its actual
expanse. Naturally, we don’t know everything about what Universe contains and hence
the theories for origin of Universe are just mathematical speculations. However, there
are seven important theories propounded to explain how our Universe came in
existence.
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BIG BANG THEORY:
This is the most famous and most lucid theory to explain the origin. In very simple
words, it says the universe as we know it started with a small singularity, then inflated
over the next 13.8 billion years to the cosmos that we know today.
With the help of sophisticated telescopes like Hubble scientists are now able to see the
expansion of Universe which supports the theory.
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WHITE HOLE:
You must have read about the Black

hole which are centers of infinite
gravity. They do not let any mass or
energy escape from their gravity.
White Holes are just the opposite of

Black Holes. Instead of sucking matter
in, they spit it out.
The white hole is an area of spacetime

which cannot take any matter in from
the outside, only spit it out. Meaning, a white hole could be the birth of a star or a
multitude of them. Of course, this is just a hypothetical theory, created by the idea of
relativity which is from the brain of Albert Einstein.
THEORY OF SLOW FREEZE OR BIG FREEZE THEORY:
This is a recent theory propounded by

a German Physicist Christof Wetterich.
He discards the Big Bang theory.
Heidelberg says the universe sprung

from a very cold and slowly evolving
universe. Over the course of cosmic
timescales, the masses of elementary
particles slowly increased while the
gravitational constant decreased. At
the same time, Newtonian attraction
remained unchanged. The result is
what he's dubbing a simple three-
parameter "crossover model" without
a Big Bang Singularity.
In simple words, Universe is not

expanding. Its just getting fat.
THEORY OF MIRAGE OF A BLACK HOLE:
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The theory is too complex to be discussed in this module.
PLASMA THEORY OF CREATION OF UNIVERSE:
The plasma theory

focuses on
electromagnetism. The
basic idea is that some
kind of electrical process
created everything in
the present universe.
This includes stars,
comets, and the sun.
Many people believe
what surrounds them
are huge filaments of ions and electrons. Forces from electromagnetism warp the
electrons and ions. This theory suggests that the universe has an infinite age and size.
STEADY STATE THEORY:
Steady-state theory, in
cosmology, a view that the
universe is always
expanding but maintaining a
constant average density,
with matter being
continuously created to
form new stars and galaxies
at the same rate that old
ones become unobservable
as a consequence of their
increasing distance and
velocity of recession.
Bottom line is that

according to the theory the
Universe will look the same.
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PULSATING UNIVERSE THEORY:
The Pulsating Universe Theory says that the universe follows self-sustaining cycles such
as expanding and contrasting. The theory also states that after the universe has
contracted to a certain size, explosions will occur and the universe will start expanding.
The Theory is credited to Albert Einstein.
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THE SOLAR SYSTEM
The Solar system in layman terms can be understood as Sun’s System. It includes the
sun, everything that revolves around it and dust in its vicinity. Our Solar system is part of
Milky way Galaxy and is located at a remote corner.
Let’s get to know the members of our Solar System:
SUN:
Sun is an average size star in the Milky Way Galaxy. It is by far the most important
source of energy for life on Earth.
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• Its diameter is about 1.39 million kilometers (864,000 miles), or 109 times that of
Earth, and its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth.
• It accounts for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.
• Roughly three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen (~73%); the rest is
mostly helium (~25%), with much smaller quantities of heavier elements,
including oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron.
• Its period of surface rotation is about 26 days at its equator but longer at higher
latitudes.
STRUCTURE OF SUN:
THE PLANETS:
A planet is an astronomical body orbiting a star.
In order to call a body a planet, three conditions are required –
• The orbit and time of revolution should be relatively constant.

• The body should be big enough to be rounded by its own gravity but not massive
enough to cause thermonuclear fusion.
• The body should have cleared its neighbourhood of small planetsimals by its
gravity.
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Bodies which follow the first two conditions but not the third one are called dwarf
planets like Pluto, Eris, Haumea and Makemake.
Classification:
There are 8 planets in our solar system.
The inner four planets closest to the sun — Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars — are
often called the "terrestrial planets" because their surfaces are rocky.
The four large outer worlds — Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune — are sometimes
called the Jovian or "Jupiter-like" planets because of their enormous size relative to the
terrestrial planets. They're also mostly made of gases like hydrogen, helium and
ammonia rather than of rocky surfaces, although astronomers believe some or all of
them may have solid cores. Jupiter and Saturn are sometimes called the gas giants,
whereas the more distant Uranus and Neptune have been nicknamed the ice giants.
Let’s discuss each planet in detail:
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MERCURY
Mercury is the closest planet to the sun,

and it's also the smallest.
• Period of Revolution around the sun

– 88 days.
• Day Temperature – 450oC
• Night Temperature – - 180oC
• Atmosphere – Mercury has a very
thin atmosphere of oxygen, sodium,
hydrogen, helium and potassium and can't break-up incoming meteors, so its
surface is pockmarked with craters, just like the moon.
Recent Discovery: Water ice and frozen Organic compounds at Mercury’s North Pole
(Discovered by MESSENGER spacecraft of NASA)
VENUS
The second planet from the sun, Venus is

Earth's twin in size.
• Terrain – The surface has mountains

and volcanoes
• Atmosphere - Because of its thick,
toxic atmosphere that's made of
sulfuric acid clouds, Venus is an
extreme example of the greenhouse
effect. It has very high atmospheric
pressure of 92 Bar.
• Temperature – Average temperature
is 465oC which is much higher than
mercury.
• Unique Fact – Venus spins slowly from east to west, the opposite direction of
most of the other planets.
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EARTH
It is the third planet from the sun, Our planet.
• Earth is a waterworld, with two-thirds of

the planet covered by ocean.
• It's the only world known to harbour life.
• Earth's atmosphere is rich in nitrogen and
oxygen.
• We will get to know about the earth in
detail in the later modules.
MARS:
The fourth planet from the sun is Mars, and

it's a cold, desert-like place covered in dust.
• Terrain - It is rocky, has mountains,

valleys and canyons, and storm
systems ranging from localized
tornado-like dust devils to planet-
engulfing dust storms. The dust
contains iron oxide which provides it its
red colour.
• Atmosphere – Atmosphere of mars is
too thin to keep water in liquid form.
Evidence shows that mars had rivers and even oceans.
• Orbit: 687 Earth days
• Day: Just more than one Earth day (24 hours, 37 minutes)
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JUPITER
The fifth planet from the sun.
• It is the second largest object

of the solar system after sun.
• It is twice as massive as all
the other planets put together.
• Its swirling clouds are
colorful due to different types of
trace gases. And a major feature in
its swirling clouds is the Great Red
Spot, a giant storm more than
10,000 miles wide. It has raged at
more than 400 mph for the last 150
years, at least.
• Jupiter has a strong magnetic field, and with 75 moons, it looks a bit like a miniature
solar system.
• Orbit: 11.9 Earth years
• Day: 9.8 Earth hours (Note – It has the shortest day)
SATURN
The sixth planet from the sun,

Saturn is known most for its rings.
• The rings are made of ice and

rock and scientists are not yet
sure how they formed.
• The gaseous planet is mostly
hydrogen and helium and has
numerous moons.
• Orbit: 29.5 Earth years
• Day: About 10.5 Earth hours
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URANUS
The seventh planet from the sun.
• It has clouds made of hydrogen sulphide.

• It rotates from east to west like Venus. But
unlike Venus or any other planet, its equator
is nearly at right angles to its orbit — it
basically orbits on its side.
• Astronomers believe an object twice the size
of Earth collided with Uranus roughly 4 billion
years ago, causing Uranus to tilt. That tilt
causes extreme seasons that last 20-plus
years, and the sun beats down on one pole or
the other for 84 Earth-years at a time.
• The collision is also thought to have knocked
rock and ice into Uranus' orbit. These later
became some of the planet's 27 moons.
• Methane in the atmosphere gives Uranus its blue-green tint.
• It also has 13 sets of faint rings.
• Orbit: 84 Earth years
• Day: 18 Earth hours
NEPTUNE
The eighth planet from the sun, Neptune is about the size of Uranus and is known for
supersonic strong winds.
• Neptune's winds travel at more than 1,500 mph and are the fastest planetary
winds in the solar system.
• The planet is more than 30 times as far from the sun as Earth.
• Neptune is about 17 times as massive as Earth and has a rocky core.
• Orbit: 165 Earth years
• Day: 19 Earth hours
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PLANET NINE
In 2016, Scientist proposed the

existence of a ninth planet.
They inferred its existence by its

gravitational effects on other
objects in the Kuiper Belt, a
region at the fringe of the solar
system that is home to icy rocks
left over from the birth of the
solar system.
This hypothetical planet has

been named Planet Nine or
Planet X.
The planet is estimated to be

about 10 times the mass of
Earth and to orbit the sun
between 300 and 1,000 times
farther than the orbit of the
Earth.
Planets are not the only entities in Solar System. Let’s discuss about some more
components. You need to understand that questions are frequently asked on these
topics as well.
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ASTEROIDS AND ASTEROID BELT
Asteroids are small rocky objects that orbit the sun. They are the remnants from the
beginning of the universe that couldn’t turn into planets. They can be helpful in
understanding the origin of Universe and the solar system.
• Most of these asteroids orbit between Mars and Jupiter in a grouping known as
the Main Asteroid Belt.
• The Main Asteroid Belt lies more than two-and-a-half times as far as Earth does
from the sun. It contains millions of asteroids, according to NASA.
• Most of these are relatively small, from the size of boulders to a few thousand
feet in diameter.
• Some asteroids are large, solid bodies — there are more than 16 in the belt with
a diameter greater than 150 miles (240 km).
• The largest asteroids, Vesta, Pallas and Hygiea, are 250 miles (400 km) long and
bigger.
• The region also contains the dwarf planet Ceres. At 590 miles (950 km) in
diameter, or about a quarter of the size of our moon, Ceres is round yet is
considered too small to be a full-fledged planet. However, it makes up
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approximately a third of the mass of the asteroid belt. While most of the
asteroid belt is made up of rocky objects, Ceres is an icy body.
COMETS
Comets are small celestial bodies that orbit the Sun. Primarily made of dust and ice, they
are thought to be remnants of the formation of the Solar System.
A common nickname for comets is "dirty snowball." They are a mixture of ice, gas and
dust that didn't absorb into planets or asteroids when the solar system was formed.
Comets have extremely elliptical orbits that bring them close to the sun and swing them
deeply into space, often beyond the farthest planets in the solar system.
ORIGIN:
Comets are thought to come from 2 places in the Solar System:
• The Oort Cloud is a region almost a light year from the Sun. Oort Cloud comets
have very long orbital periods, spanning several million years, and are known as
long-period comets.
• The Kuiper Belt is a region beyond the orbit of the planet Neptune. Kuiper Belt
comets tend to have a short orbital period, usually around 200 years, and are
therefore also known as short-period comets.
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PARTS OF A COMET:
• Nucleus: The nucleus of a comet is also known as the core. It contains mostly ice
and dust covered with a dark organic material like Carbon dioxide, Ammonia,
Carbon monoxide and Methane.
• Coma: The spherical envelope of gas that surrounds a comet's nucleus is called a
coma. When combined with the nucleus, it forms the comet's head. The coma is
roughly a million kilometers across and is comprised of dust and gases that have
sublimed from the comet's nucleus.
• Dust Tail: A dust tail is formed by radiation from the sun that forces dust
particles away from the coma. Because dust tails are shaped by the solar wind,
they point away from the sun.
• Ion Tail: Charged solar particles convert some cometary gases into ions, forming
an ion tail. The ion tail is less massive than the dust tail and accelerates much
faster so that the tail is nearly a straight line extending away from the comet.
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Diagram showing Parts of a Comet
METEORITES
A meteoroid is a chunk of space rock. If it burns up while entering the Earth’s

atmosphere it’s called a meteor and if a piece lands, it’s called a meteorite.
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• Millions of meteoroids travel through the Earth’s atmosphere every day, but most are
small and burned up quickly. Very few reach the ground.
• A meteorite that is seen or detected as it lands are called “falls”, with those that are
discovered later being referred to as “finds”. Meteoroids more than 10 metres in
diameter are classified as asteroids.
From UPSC point of these many details are more than enough. Let’s see what type of
questions have already been asked from this section?
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
Q.1) In order of their distances from the sun, which of the following planets lie between
Mars and Uranus?
a) Earth and Jupiter

b) Jupiter and Saturn
c) Saturn and earth
d) Saturn and neptune
Q.1) Solution (b)
Q.2) Which one of the following planets has the largest number of natural satellites or
moons?
a) Jupiter
b) Mars
c) Saturn
d) Venus
Q.2) Solution (a)
Q.3) What is difference between asteroids and comets?
1. Asteroids are small rocky plane-toids, while comets are formed of frozen gases
held together by rocky and metallic material.
2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and mars, while comets
are found mostly between Venus and mercury.
3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.
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Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 and 2 only.
b) 1 and 3 only.
c) 3 only.
d) 1,2 and 3.
Q.3) Solution (b)
Q.4) A person stood alone in a desert on a dark night and wanted to reach his village
which was situated 5 km east of the point where he was standing. He had no
instruments to find the direction but he located the polestar. The most convenient way
now to reach his village is to walk in the
a) direction facing the polestar

b) direction opposite to the polestar
c) direction keeping the polestar to his left
d) direction keeping the polestar to his right
Q.4) Solution (c)
From the solar system and atmosphere, lets land on our planet Earth. Earth as we
discussed is unique in its composition, atmosphere, air pressure and temperature. With
all these coincidences, earth is the only planet known to us which can sustain life.
So, let’s start our beautiful journey the know our planet a little better.
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INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
Humans are very curious beings and this quest to know more led to great discoveries.
For a very long-time scientists have been trying to find the exact information about the
interior of the earth. What is its physical state, chemical composition, density,
temperature etc. But till now exact answers of these questions are not known.
Before we read about internal structure of the earth, we need to know why is it
important to study that?
The reasons are –
• It will help us in understanding the nature of earth material.

• We’ll have a better understanding of phenomenon like earthquake, volcanoes,
plate tectonics etc.
• It can help us harness the earth’s energy and other resources.
• It will help us in finding other planets of same nature in the Universe, where life
can be possible.
To know about the interior of the Earth, two approaches have been used-
• Direct
• Indirect
DIRECT METHODS include physically observing the internal layers of earth.
It includes drilling, mining, volcanic, eruption, oil rigs etc.
You need to know that none of these methods are conclusive. The reason of its
inconclusiveness can be understood by following example - The deepest hole in the earth
surface (a drill hole) is only about 12km deep at the Akola peninsula near the White Sea
in Russia. This is nothing as compared to the radius of the earth which is estimated to be
6371km.
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Akola peninsular super hole
Similarly, the lava which comes out from the interior of earth also comes out from the
depth of hardly 200 – 300 km which is again negligible as compared to radius of earth.
Hence the information received from the direct methods is very limited.
INDIRECT METHODS means extrapolating the interior of the earth by indirect study. It
includes study of meteorites and seismic waves.
EXTRAPOLATION FROM METEORITES:
Our Earth is made up of the same material of the cosmos, the chemical structure and
compounds found in the meteor can help in understanding the structure of earth or how
was the structure of earth in the early period of its formation. This method also can tell
only about the chemical properties and elements in the earth but about its physical state.
Hence the most important and reliable method to understand and predict the interior of
earth is through the study of ‘Seismic Waves’.
SEISMIC WAVES: Seismic waves are generated due to release of energy during an
earthquake. They behave differently in different physical mediums and provide a good
idea how the interior of earth must be.
Broadly three types of waves are generated during an earthquake-
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• Primary (P) waves

• Secondary (S) waves
• Surface waves
Before we study the action of seismic waves, let’s understand what exactly waves are!!
The most common example of waves observed by us is the waves on the surface of Water.
If we hit surface of water (which is at rest) in a swimming pool with our hand, waves are
generated on the surface. This happens as energy is transferred from our hand to the
water. This energy is transferred from a medium in the form of waves. Hence, we can
conclude that through any medium energy is transferred in the form waves.
Also, in this case if we put some paper pellets on the surface of the water, we will observe
that the particles are moving up and down with crest and trough of wave but they are not
moving forward with the wave. This shows that in propagation of wave the actual
particles of the medium are not transported. They merely oscillate at their own place
and transfer the energy.
In similar fashion when an earthquake occurs, a large amount of energy is released. It

comes out in the form of sound and seismic waves. The seismic waves transport the
energy in the earth from one point to other.
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Primary waves: (P) – Waves are longitudinal waves. i.e. The motion (oscillation) of
particles is in the direction of the propagation
of the wave. These waves are the fastest of
the three and are detected first. They have
the shortest wavelength and highest
frequency. They can travel in solid, liquid and
gaseous medium. Their speed is almost
double the speed of S – Waves.
Secondary waves: (S) - They are transverse

waves i.e. the motion (Oscillation) of the
particles is perpendicular to the direction of
the propagation of the waves. They are
slower than P –waves. They have relatively
longer wavelength and lower frequency than P – waves. These waves can travel only in
solid medium.
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The comparative penetration of P and S waves in earth can be understood with the help
of following speed graph.
You can observe

that at any given
depth, the speed of
P- waves is almost
double that of the S-
waves. Also, beyond
Mantle, the S –
waves are not
found. This shows
that beyond that
depth the matter is
in liquid state. We’ll
discuss about it in
detail.
Surface waves: they are the slowest and are detected quite late. They travel only in upper
layer or earth surface. They are the most destructive of the three waves. Even the surface
waves are of two types – the one travelling in upper crust are called LOVE waves and the
one travelling in lower crust are called RAYLEIGH waves.
SEISMIC WAVE MODEL
Following points show how seismic waves contributed to our current model of layered
earth (This is the reasoning which you need to understand properly):
• If the earth were homogenous throughout, seismic waves would travel in straight
line paths at constant speed. But as it is observed the waves travel in a curved path
showing an increase of density as we move in. Also, the waves travel much faster
than the predicted speed, again showing the increase in density.
• The earth has a dense core producing a shadow zone in which no seismic wave is
detected. Shadow zone of P- waves are detected from 103 to 143 degrees, while
shadow zone for S-waves is detected above 103 degrees as shown in the figure.
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• The pattern of the reflection and refraction of waves shows the presence of layers
of different discontinuities of different densities and states. They also show
marked discontinuities. Because of the discontinuity you can see that there is a
sudden change in the speed of the P – waves in the speed graph above.
Analysing the above results, model of earth is predicted.
The Following Video will help you understand the interior of earth nicely. Do watch it.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sKZELJDr-4k
Note: Before we get to the classification, you need to understand that whenever we are
taking about classifying anything, we need to ask a very basic question, that on what
basis are we classifying. Based on that the classifications can differ. So, if you get a
question is asked in exam, think about the basis of classification first rather than just
start writing what you know.
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CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND DENSITY (ALSO

KNOWN AS STATIC MODEL):
Crust: The outer most layer or shell of the earth is known as earth’s crust. On an average
it is 30km deep. It can be up to 70km under high mountains and up to 8km under ocean.
It represents less than 1% of earth’s total volume and its average density is 2.7 gm/cm 3.
It is known as ‘sial’ because of abundance of silicon and aluminium. It is also divided into
upper and lower crust divided by Conrad discontinuity.
Mantle: The second layer of earth is called mantle. It is separated from crust by
Mohorovicic discontinuity. Its density ranges from 3.3 to 5.7gm/cm3. It is made of dense
and rigid rocks which have the predominance of magnesium and silicon. It is also
separated as upper mantle up to 700km and lower mantle from 700 to 2900 km. The
upper and lower mantle is separated by Repetti discontinuity.
Core: The innermost layer is called core. It is separated from mantle by Gutenberg
discontinuity. It lies from 2900 km to 6371 km. The density of core varies from 9.5 to
14.5gm/cm3. It contains alloy of Nickle and iron. It also has two parts – a liquid outer core
separated by inner solid core at 5150km by Lehman discontinuity.
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CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES (A LSO KNOWN AS

DYNAMIC MODEL):
• Lithosphere: The top most solid layer is called lithosphere. It is up to 100 km deep
including crust and some portion of upper mantle.
• Aesthenosphere: It is the second plastic layer under lithosphere. It stretches from
100 km to 400km. It is also present in upper mantle. Often students get confused
while solving MCQs and think that Lithosphere contains part of upper mantle and
asthenosphere the lower mantle. However, if you observe both are present in
Upper mantle only.
• Mesosphere: It is an intermediate layer lying from 400km to 700km in depth.
• Pyrosphere: It includes semi solid lower mantle and outer liquid crust. Because of
very high temperature it gets its name. ‘Pyros’ means fire.
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• Barrysphere: It is the inner most solid core of the earth stretching from 5150km
to 6371km.
Revise
Some important points –
Type of wave Property Deduction

P Waves Longitudinal wave. Can Curving waves show change
pass through solid, liquid in density with depth.
and gas. P wave shadow zone
Body wave. discontinuity in the interior
of earth.
S Waves Transverse wave. Can pass S wave shadow zone shows
only through solid. discontinuity as well as
presence of a liquid layer in
the interior of earth.
Surface Waves Moves on the surface. Most Shows a discontinuity
destructive. between upper crust and
lower crust.
Internal structure can be based on chemical composition as well as mechanical
properties.
LAYERS ACCORDING TO CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
Layer Sub layer Discontinuities

Crust (Average depth Upper crust and lower Conrad discontinuity
35km) crust
Mohorovicic Discontinuity
(between Crust and mantel)
Mantle (upto 2900 km) Upper mantel and lower Repetti discontinuity
mantel Gutenberg discontinuity
(between Mantel and core)
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Core (2900 – 5371km) Outer core(Liquid) and Lehman discontinuity

Inner core (Solid)
INTERNAL STRUCTURE BASED ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Layer Depth
Lithosphere 100 – 200 km (includes crust
and upper mantle)
Aesthenosphere 200 – 400 km (includes upper
mantel)
Mesosphere Upto 2900 km
Barrysphere Upto 5150 km
Pyrosphere Upto 5371 km
Note: Barrysphere and pyrosphere are sometimes used interchangeably so we don’t

think a tricky question will be asked on this.
SHAPE OF THE CONTINENTS
After the interior of earth, the second thing that caught the attention of
scientists/geologists/ geographers was the shape of the continent and location of
landforms.
They could find a pattern and hence they started proposing different theories as to how
the continents might have been shaped.
As all those theories are not a part of our syllabus, we will be focusing on three
important theories.
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CONTINENTAL DRIFT
The theory of continental drift was put forth by Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist,
polar explorer, astronomer and a geologist. He is in fact known as the father of continental
drift.
In a lecture in 1912, Wegener proposed a startling theory of ‘continental drift’.
POSTULATE:
He postulated that all the earth’s land had once been joined into a single supercontinent
surrounded by an ocean. He named this land mass “Pangaea” (Pan = all, gaea = earth)
and the ocean “Panthalassa” (pan = all, thalassa = ocean). According to the theory this
continental mass started breaking up about 200 million years ago. Since then the pieces
had moved to their present positions and are still moving.
Wegener was drawn to this idea because of the puzzling questions he had in his mind.
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• How could tropical ferns have grown in London, Paris, Bonn and even in
Greenland?
• Why are the coal belts found in extremely cold regions of tundra?
• How are glacial evidences found in tropical regions of Brazil, Indian peninsula,
Australia and Congo basin.
While pondering over these points he came up with two possibilities:
• The climatic zones might have shifted from one region to another while the
continents stayed at their places.
• If the climatic zones stayed stationary but the continents changed their places.
As it was difficult for the climatic belts to shift as they are controlled by the position of
the sun i.e. tilt of the earth, it appeared more probable that the land masses were
shifted.
Direction of drift
According to Wegener, the continents drifted in two directions:
• Towards the equator

• Towards the west
Towards the Equator: The reason of the equator ward drift was attributed to the rotation
and the equatorial bulge of earth while the westward movement was due to the
gravitation pull of the moon and the sun.
On account of equator ward drift, Africa and Eurasia were pushed closer together and the
Tethys sea deposits located in between the two were raised in the form of folded
mountains of Alps, atlas, Tianshan, Zagros, Hindukush and Himalayas. The peninsula of
India and Africa was separated from Australia and Antarctica.
Towards the west: On account of the westward drift, north America and south America
got separated from Europe and Africa and Atlantic Ocean came into existence.
EVIDENCES IN SUPPORT OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT
“Jig saw” fit- Wegener was struck by the geographical similarity between the opposite
coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. The outlines of the two coasts appears to be the detached
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portion of the other ie. The east coast of north and South America can be exactly fit into
the left coast of Africa and Europe.
Fig: showing the Jig – saw fit
Geological structure - there is remarkable similarity in geological structure along the two
coasts of Atlantic. The best example is provided by the Appalachian Mountains of North
America which come right up to the coast and continue their trend across the ocean in
old Hercynian Mountains of south west Ireland, Wales and central Europe. The opposite
coasts of Africa and Brazil display even greater resemblance in their structure and rocks.
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Fig: Similar Geological structure
Permo-carboniferous glaciations- it presents a strong proof that at one point of time

these land masses were assembled together, since the evidences of this glaciation are
found in Brazil, Falkland island, South Africa, Indian peninsula as well as Australia. It is
difficult to explain these extensive glaciations on the basis of existing distribution of
landmass and water. According to Wegener at the time of Pangaea, the South Pole was
situated near Durban of the present coast of South Africa.
Similar Fossil remains of terrestrial animals are found on both coasts of the Atlantic. This
cannot be possible if the two landmasses were not joined as it quite impossible for these
animals to swim across the Atlantic.
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Note: Here the term ‘terrestrial’ is important. Had they been marine they would have
swam across the ocean. But it is hardly possible for a terrestrial animal to swim across
the ocean to die on the other coast.
The migratory pattern of some animal species also hints towards the joined land mass.
For example, the entire lemming (a rodent) population crosses the North America and
falls in the Atlantic. This is estimated that they have not forgotten their route, when the
landmasses were joined, they might have travelled to Europe and central Asia.
CRITICISM OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT
The continental drift theory was undeniably convincing. But so much of the theory was
based on speculation and inadequate evidence. It provoked a lot of criticism and
controversy. Also, since Wegener was a meteorologist, it was difficult for the geological
fraternity to accept and digest a theory given by him.
The greatest criticism of this theory was due to the controversial forces which were stated
to have caused the drift.
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• According to experts had the gravitational force of moon or sun was so strong to
cause the landmass to break, then it would have stopped the rotations of the earth
and made it stationary.
• Also, in order to cause a drift in landmass the rotations required should be at such
a high speed that it would have thrown the atmosphere (the gases) and everything
else in the outer space away from the earth’s gravitational pull.
A beautiful Video to understand the Continental Drift:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wq9kLzm36h0
SEA – FLOOR SPREADING
The hypothesis of sea floor spreading was put forward by H. Harry Hess in 1960. This was
a new development which again proved the theory of continental drift.
Note: Before you read further, just think of an answer to this question. Where do you
think you will find the oldest rocks, continent or the Ocean floor?
90% of you will think that they are found on the ocean floor.
It was believed that the age of the rocks of the ocean bed is greater than the age of the
rocks found on continents. But in reality, it was the other way round. The age of the oldest
rock has been estimated to be 3.9 billion years in Canada. On contrary, the age of the
oldest rock in the sea bed has been found to be not more than 200 million years which is
relatively very young.
Also, a remarkable feature of the oceanic surface was the interconnected mountain
ranges (ridges) whose formation was not explained till then.
In the opinion of Hess, the submarine ridges or the mid oceanic ridges were the direct
result of the upwelling flows of the magma from hot areas in the upper mantle and
perhaps deeper sources. When the mantle convection brings magma up to the crust, the
crust is fractured and magma spills out and cools to form a new sea floor, building the
ridges and spreading laterally.
Some important facts were established by the geologists about the floors of the ocean-
• The crust below the ocean floor was found only 7-8 km thick.
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• The existence of mid Atlantic ridge was known, but it was found that mid oceanic
ridges are present in every ocean and they are subjected to earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions.
• The rocks of the ocean floor were found not older than the cretaceous period
anywhere (about 200 million years).
• The normal and reverse magnetic anomalies are found in alternate manner on
either side of the mid- oceanic ridges.
• The youngest crust is at the mid oceanic ridge. With increasing distance from these
centers, earth’s surface is increasingly older. The oldest seafloor is found near
Japan in western pacific called the Pigafetta basin.
On the basis of the above discoveries, Hess postulated that the ocean floor is moving.
The hot magma rises up along the mid oceanic ridges due to convection currents and
the floor moves away on either side of the ridges and finally gets lost in the ocean
trenches situated along the continental margins. It is through this process of spreading
that the ocean floor has been built. In other words, the ocean floor is relatively new
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feature which is constantly being built, regenerated, and subjected to constant lateral
spreading and finally is destroyed in trench systems and becomes re-incorporated in
to the mantle.
A conversation between a Trench and a Ridge:
Trench: Hey Ridge!! Watsupp dude??
Ridge: Nothing.. same old.. same old.
Trench: What are you up to these days?
Ridge: As usual.. I am making new oceanic crust. See I am getting taller every day.
What are you doing?
Trench: Nothing dude.. I am busy eating the old crust.. You see it has to be recycled..
to maintain the balance. Sometimes when I am not able to digest it, I throw it out from
a Volcano.
Ridge: Ohh you are doing a brilliant job!! What are people doing these days??
Trench: Well, 99.99% of them, those who have got a life, they don’t care about us. The
rest who are burning their jawani for UPSC are reading our conversation… :P :P
PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
The term plate tectonics was first used by Tuzo Wilson, of the University of Toronto but
the theory of plate tectonics was first published by W.J Morgan of the Princeton
University in 1962. This theory is based on the concept of ‘seafloor spreading’ advocated
by Hess. It is an improvement over the Wegener’s continental drift theory and has been
considered as the most sophisticated and comprehensive theory about the drift of
continents and expansion of sea floors.
HYPOTHESIS:
According to this theory the lithosphere is believed to have been broken into fragments
which are in constant movement with respect to each other. The movement of these
plates is attributed to the convention currents being generated in upper mantle. The
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margins of the plates are the sites of considerable geologic activity such as sea floor
spreading, volcanic eruptions, crustal deformation, mountain building and continental
drift.
Tectonics is derived from the world tektonikos (greek), meaning building or construction,
refers to deformation of the earth’s crust as a result of internal forces.
LITHOSPHERIC PLATES:
A plate is a broad segment of the lithosphere (crust + rigid upper mantle), that floats on
the underlying asthenosphere and move independently of the other plates. Broadly they
can be classified into continental plates and oceanic plate. La Pichon divided the earth
into seven major and nine minor plates.
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Major Plates Minor Plates

African Plate Arabian plate
North American plate Bismark plate
South American plate Caribbean plate
Antarctica Plate Carolina plate
Australian plate Cocos Plate
Eurasian plate Juan de Fuca Plate
Pacific plate Nazca plate
Philippines plate
Persian Plate
Anatolian Plate
China plate
Fiji plate
Fig: showing the global plates
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Most of the plates include both continental and oceanic crusts. The area of the places is
fairly large in comparison to their depth and thickness. It has also been established that
the depth of the plates is even less under the oceanic crust.
Three types of motion are possible between the plates:
• Divergent or constructive plate margins

• Convergent or destructive plate margins
• Transform or conservative plate margin
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PLATE MARGINS OR BOUNDARIES AND RELATED LANDFORMS:
Note: Study the following table and below diagrams very carefully. If you can
understand and remember the following table, you will be able to explain the formation
of all the secondary reliefs.
Plate seafloor Events examples

Plate boundary
movement observed
Ocean - apart Forms by Ridge forms at Mid
Divergent
Ocean seafloor spreading Atlantic
plate
spreading centre. Plate ridge, east
boundaries
area increases. pacific rise
Many small
volcanoes and
earthquakes
Continent New ocean Continent drifts East
-Continent basin may apart, ocean African
form as the may intrude. rift.
continent Formation of
split rift valleys and
block
mountains
Ocean - together Destroyed Dense oceanic Western
Convergent
Continent at lithosphere South
plate
subduction plunges America
boundary
zones beneath less
dense
continental
crust.
Earthquake
traces path of
down moving
plate as it
descends into
asthenosphere.
A trench is
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formed.
Subducted
plate partially
melts and
magma rises to
form
continental
volcanoes.
Ocean - Destroyed Denser crust Aleutians
Ocean at plunges into
subduction lighter crust
zone and is
subducted
forming a
curved trench
and a volcanic
arc.
Continent- NA Collision Himalayas,
Continent between alps
masses of
gigantic
continental
lithosphere.
Neither mass is
subducted.
Plate edges are
compressed,
folded and
uplifted
Past each Neither A transform San
Transform
other created fault is formed Andreas
plate
nor where plates fault.
boundary
destroyed move past each
other. Strong
earthquakes
along the fault
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National Geographic has come for our rescue once again. Watch the following video.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QDqskltCixA
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DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES
At a Divergent boundary, plate move away from each other. These boundaries are
called the constructive plate boundaries as new crust is formed here.
OCEANIC – OCEANIC DIVERGENCE
When a divergent boundary occurs beneath oceanic lithosphere, the rising convection
current below lifts the lithosphere, producing a mid-ocean ridge. Tension forces stretch
the lithosphere and produce a deep fissure. As the magma tris to rise up it smoothly
reaches the surface and by getting in contact with water it gets solidified rising the
height of the ridge. As more lava tries to rise up it makes space for itself by pushing the
ocean floor.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a classic example of this type of plate boundary. The Ridge is a
high area compared to the surrounding seafloor because of the lift from the convection
current below.
CONTINENTAL – CONTINENTAL DIVERGENCE
Continental-continental divergence causes a continent to separate into two or more

smaller continents when it is ripped apart along a series of fractures. The forces of
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divergence literally tear a continent apart as the two or more blocks of continental crust
begin slowly moving apart and magma pushes into the rift formed between them.
Eventually, if the process of continental rifting continues (it may fail, leaving the
continent fractured but whole), a new sea is born between the two continents.
In this way rifting between the Arabian and African plates formed the Red Sea.
Note: Oceanic – Continental Divergence does not exist in nature.
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CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
At a convergent boundary, plates collide and as such are sometimes called “destructive”
boundaries because they result in removal or compression of the surface crust.
Convergent plate boundaries are responsible for some of the most massive and
spectacular of earthly landforms: major mountain ranges, volcanoes, and oceanic
trenches. The three types of convergent boundaries are: oceanic–continental
convergence, oceanic–oceanic convergence, and continental–continental convergence
OCEANIC–CONTINENTAL CONVERGENCE
Because oceanic lithosphere includes dense basaltic crust, it is denser than continental
lithosphere, and so oceanic lithosphere always underrides continental lithosphere when
the two collide.
The dense oceanic plate

slowly and inexorably sinks
into the asthenosphere in the
process of subduction. The
subducting slab pulls on the
rest of the plate—such “slab
pull” is probably the main
cause of most plate
movement, pulling the rest of
the plate in after itself, as it
were.
OCEANIC– OCEANIC CONVERGENCE
If the convergent boundary is between two oceanic plates, subduction also takes place.
As one of the oceanic plates subducts beneath the other, an oceanic trench is formed,
shallow- and deep-focus earthquakes occur and volcanic activity is initiated with
volcanoes forming on the ocean floor. With time, a volcanic island arc (such as the
Aleutian Islands and Mariana Islands) develops; such an arc may eventually become a
more mature island arc system (such as Japan and the islands of Sumatra and Java in
Indonesia are today).
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CONTINENTAL- CONTINENTAL CONVERGENCE
Where there is a convergent

boundary between two
continental plates, no subduction
takes place because continental
crust is too buoyant to subduct.
Instead, huge mountain ranges,
such as the Alps, are built up. The
most dramatic present-day
example of continental collision
has resulted in the formation of
the Himalayas.
CAUSES OF PLATE TECTONICS
The movement of lithospheric plates is believed to be driven by the convectional

currents formed in the mantle. The convectional currents are formed to dissipate heat
generated in the earth’s interior due to radioactive decay of elements. Another source
of heat is the primordial heat of earth which has been trapped due to solidification of
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earth’s crust. Primordial heat is the heat which is present since the time earth was
formed.
The upward convectional current is called Mantle plume. These mantle plumes when
move under the plates cause a drag/resistance on the lower surface of the plates and
causes them to move driving the whole plate tectonics. The following diagram will help
in better understanding of the concept.
ROCK SYSTEM
Just like various cells made our body, various trees made forests. Similarly, various types
of rocks made earth’s crust.
These rocks differ in –
• Texture - the degree to which something is rough or smooth, or soft or hard
• Structure - the way in which the individual molecules are arranged in the rock. It
defines whether a rock is crystalline or amorphous.
• Mode of occurrence – defined by how a rock has been formed.
• Colour – It is imparted by different minerals present in the rock.
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• Permeability – It defines the ability of rocks to pass water or gas through them.
Permeability can be present due to porosity or due to joints and fractures present
in the rocks. Rocks can be impermeable also.
• Degree of resistance to denudation – It can be shaped by rocks physical and
chemical properties.
We know that types of rocks will decide the type of soil (like colour, texture and use)
vegetation and also land use.
According to origin rocks can be divided into 3 groups –
• Igneous rocks
• Sedimentary rocks
• Metamorphic rocks
IGNEOUS ROCKS
You can remember it by word ignite which means to burn. So, igneous rocks are formed
after cooling and solidifying of molten rock (magma) from beneath the Earth’s crust. They
are called the Primary Rocks.
• Structure – crystalline
• Not occur in strata (layers)
• Not contain fossils
• These rocks can be sub-divided on the basis of mineral composition.
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Acidic Igneous rocks – These rocks are formed by solidification of Acidic lava i.e. the lava
which has high silica content. These rocks are also called Felsic rocks. The characteristics
of these rocks are -
• High proportion of Silica
• Less dense
• Lighter color than basic rocks
• Example – Granite
Basic igneous rocks – These rocks are formed by solidification of basic lava. These are also
called Mafic rocks. This lava rises up from the mantle directly rather than being created
due to subduction. We’ll understand more about subduction later when we will discuss
plate tectonics.
• Low proportion of Silica
• Dark color
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Classification of Igneous rocks on the basis of origin –
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PLUTONIC ROCKS
• Formed – In depth of earth’s crust
• Usually medium to coarse grained
texture due to slow cooling.
• Typically, light color
• Example – Granite, Diorite and Gabbro
• Exposed at the surface by the process
of denudation and erosion.
Figure plutonic rock pic source - geology.com
VOLCANIC ROCKS OR EXTRUSIVE ROCKS

• Molten rocks poured out of volcanoes
as lava.
• Fine grain because of raid cooling.
• Dark color
• Example – basalt
• Places where these are found –
o Antrim - Northern Ireland
o Deccan plateau – India
o Snake plateau – Columbia
• Example of polygonal columns – Columnar basalt of Giant’s causeway in Antrim
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Figure Columnar basalt of Giant’s causeway in Antrim (its really awesome ☺)
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• As the name suggests they are formed from layers of sediments accumulated over
long periods.
• They are also known as stratified rocks.
• Their characteristic layer formation helps in differentiating these rocks with other
rocks.
• Strata thickness may vary from few centimeters to meters.
• Materials which form layers can be brought from Streams, glaciers, winds or even
animals.
Classification of sedimentary rocks according to origin and composition
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MECHANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Formed by –
o Accumulation of materials derived from other rocks.
o Example – Sandstone which are made of Sand grains, quartz fragments.
• You must have observed in Rajasthan and other places that sandstone is used
to build structures.
• Uses of Sandstone –
o Buildings
o Grindstones
• Sandstone types –
Grit – coarser type sandstone
Conglomerate – larger pebbles
firmly cemented to form a rock
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Breccia – when the fragments are angular

• Clay – finer sedimentary materials
o Use – brick making, shale or mudstone
ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Formed of – remains of living organisms (corals or shellfish). They can be broadly classified
into two types -
• Calcareous type rocks – limestone and chalk
o Limestone (called as chunapatthar in hindi) – the one which is used in
Pan and to whitewash home.
• Carbonaceous rocks – formed of vegetative matter
o We know how coal is formed (lot of pressure and heat compacted the
plant remains into carbon which become peat, lignite or coal)
CHEMICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

• Formed of – one kind or another solution which is precipitated chemically.
• Example –
o Rock salt – derived from old sea bed or lakes
o Gypsum – evaporation of Salt Lake.
o Potash and nitrate are also obtained in similar way.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks are those that have been physically, and possibly chemically, altered
by heat, pressure and/or chemically active fluids.
Metamorphic rocks are associated with conditions in the lithosphere where the pressures
and temperatures are greater than those that form sedimentary rocks, but less than those
that can melt the rocks to form magma. Under great heat and pressure, Igneous and
Sedimentary rocks can convert into metamorphic rocks.
• Such heat and pressure can change them in appearance or in other characteristics
• Example – Clay → Slate
o Limestone → Marble
o Sandstone → Quartzite
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o Granite → Gneiss
o Shale → Schist
o Coal → Graphite (one which is in our pencil)
Note: Try to make a list of some common rocks and their igneous forms. Sometimes MCQs
are asked on such matchings.
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ROCK CYCLE
The rock cycle is a basic concept in geology that describes transitions through geologic
time among the three main rock types: sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous. Each
rock type is altered when it is forced out of its equilibrium conditions. For example, an
igneous rock such as basalt may break down and dissolve when exposed to the
atmosphere, or melt as it is subducted under a continent. Due to the driving forces of
the rock cycle, plate tectonics and the water cycle, rocks do not remain in equilibrium
and change as they encounter new environments. The rock cycle explains how the three
rock types are related to each other, and how processes change from one type to
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another over time. This cyclical aspect makes rock change a geologic cycle and, on
planets containing life, a biogeochemical cycle.
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TYPES OF FORCES
Forces
Endogenic Exogenic
Slow Forces Sudden forces Pressure Temperature Humidity
Epeirogenic Orographic
Earthquakes Vulcanism
forces forces
Compression Tension
The above table will make you understand the type of forces acting together to shape
our earth.
Broadly the geomorphic forces are classified as Endogenic forces and Exogenic forces.
ENDOGENIC FORCES
Endogenic forces are the internal forces which are responsible for the formation of new
undulations on the surface of the earth. Since they create new landforms they are also
known as the Forces of Construction.
They are the result of the convectional currents formed in the mantle. The source of
this heat is the primordial heat of the interior and radioactive decay of elements.
They can be broadly classified into slow forces and sudden forces.
Slow forces are of two types – Epeirogenic and Orographic.
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Epeirogenic Forces: These forces act vertically and leads to upwarping and downwarping
of the continents i.e. a large continental mass is pushed upwards and downwards. They
are extremely slow forces. The landforms created by them are called Primary reliefs.
Orogenic Forces: These forces are mountain building forces. They act horizontally
(Compression and tension) and causes folding, faulting and Vulcanism. The landforms
created by these forces are called secondary reliefs. There are three types of mountains
found on earth on the basis of formations, Fold Mountains, Block Mountains and Volcanic
Mountains. Where these features are found and how have they formed can be explained
with the help of plate tectonic theory which has already been discussed. The individual
processes of folding, faulting and volcanism are discussed in the next section of this
module.
EXOGENIC FORCES
These are the external forces which degrades the existing landforms. As the role of
endogenetic forces is to create new undulations, the role of exogenic forces is to remove
them and make the surface planar. Three factors act simultaneously – pressure,
temperature and humidity to break the uplifted areas and fill the low lying areas. The
landforms created by them are called tertiary reliefs. Endogenic and Exogenic forces keep
working together to maintain the equilibrium.
Exogenic Forces are responsible for three types of processes:
• Weathering
• Mass wasting
• Erosion and decomposition
In this module we have discussed about the forces and processes that shape our earth
and landforms. We hope that you enjoyed reading it. In the next module we will be
discussing about individual landforms.
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LANDFORMS
On the basis of cause of formation landforms can be classified as –
1. Primary Landforms
2. Secondary Landforms
3. Tertiary Landforms
Primary Landforms –
They are created by Epeirogenic forces (Hope you remember what epeirogenic forces
are. They are vertical slow endogenic forces).
They are basically two landforms – Continents and Oceans. They provide landscape for
other forces to carve undulations.
Secondary Landforms –
They are formed by Orogenic forces. Secondary landforms are created by the forces of
compression and tension. They include folding mountains, Rift valleys, volcanoes, mid
Oceanic ridges etc. Primarily folding, faulting and vulcanism is involved in the formation
of these landforms.
Tertiary Landforms –
They are formed by the action of exogenic forces. These landforms are formed when
secondary landforms are carved by the action of external forces i.e. the changes in
temperature, pressure and humidity. Examples of these landforms are – gorge, canyon,
V – shaped valley, sand dunes, Deltas etc.
Let’s discuss these processes in detail.
Orogenic Forces can cause three types of processes –
• Folding
• Faulting
• Vulcanism
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FOLDING
Due to heavy compression, the crust bends in a zigzag wavy fashion. This is called a fold.
If the bending is upwards forming a crest it is called anticline. On contrary if it results into
a trough it is called a syncline. It should be noted that folding is found in sedimentary and
igneous rocks and not in metamorphic rocks as they crumble under compressive force.
Well this is where we will take our funkyness to exponential heights :P Watch this
amazing Video.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jy3ORIgyXyk
This is how a folding mountain chain looks like…
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• Anticline – upper part of wave or crest

• Syncline – lower part of wave or trough
• Example- Himalayas, Rockies, Andes, Alps
Complicated forms of folds (Due to increase in the compressional forces)
TYPES OF FOLDS
• Symmetrical fold- it is the most simple kind of fold where both the limbs are
inclined uniformly, making same angle with the horizontal. They are an ideal case
and generally not found. They are formed when equal and gradual force act from
both sides of the crust.
• Asymmetric fold- in this fold one limb dips more steeply than the other i.e. both
the limbs are inclined at different angles.
• Monoclinic fold- in this case one limb inclines steeply at right angle from the
horizontal i.e. the slope is almost vertical.
• Isoclinic fold- they are formed when compressive forces are so strong that both
the limbs of the fold become parallel but not horizontal.
• Recumbent fold- compressive force are so strong that the limbs become parallel
as well horizontal.
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• Nappe- the compressive forces are strong enough that one limb is fractured along
the axis and is thrust upon the other.
• Fan fold or anticlinorium- it is an extensive and broad fold consisting of several
minor anticlines and synclines. Such folds resemble to a fan.
• Synclinorium- it is a folded structure which includes an extensive syncline having
numerous minor anticlines and synclines. They are formed due to irregular
compressive forces.
Figure showing different types of folds
FAULTS
A fault is a fracture in the earth’s crust due to tension force. It can also occur due to
compression in hard and brittle rocks.
• When there is tension the crust ruptures. One block is thrown upwards and the
other downwards. The upthrown block is called Horst while the downthrown
block is called Graben. The line along which the fault occurs is called strike. This
fault is called normal fault and is most common. In case of a normal fault, new
surface is generated in the form of scarp.
• When there is compression, in case of hard rocks instead of folding, the faulting
occurs. The block with hanging wall is thrown upwards while the one with footwall
is thrown downwards. This is called a reverse fault. In case of a reverse fault there
is net destruction of the surface.
• When the forces are acting parallel to each other, along the line of fault the blocks
move past each other without being upthrown or downthrown. This is called
lateral fault.
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The landforms formed due to faulting of land are block mountains, rift valleys, Step
Mountains, hinge faults, scissors fault etc.
Fig: block mountains.
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Fig: Block Mountain ranges
For Better understanding of Faults, watch the following Video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A_ZRtS3QGHw
BLOCK MOUNTAINS
• Folding occurs when the earth’s crust bends while fault occurs when there is crack
in earth’s crust.
• Fault i.e. crack occurs due to tension or compression.
• Tension - stretching
• Compression – force from 2 sides which tried to press something.
Horsts or Block mountains
• Caused by faulting in rocks

• Tensional forces in earth pull the crust apart and faults are developed, if the block
enclosed by faults remains or rise because of subsiding of land on either side, the
upstanding block becomes horst or block.
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• Example – Hunsruck mountains

o Vosges and black forest of Rhineland
The above diagram is also true for Narmada River as well. It also flows between two
Vindhya horst and Satpura horst.
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GRABEN OR RIFT VALLEY
They are also caused by faults. Faults created because of tensional forces can let down
the central portion or block between two adjacent fault blocks. This forms the Graben or
Rift valley.
• Example – East African Rift valley is 3000 miles long.
• Most of the rift valleys are due to tension rather than compression
How to remember horst and graben? – Horsts is your horse and graben is your Gadha
(donkey). Now horse back is on greater height and Gadha’s back has subsided because of
weight so now you will never forget horst and graben ☺
VOLCANOES
Volcano is an opening or vent through which molten lava, ash, gases etc. comes out from
the earth’s interior. Most of the volcanoes are concentrated at convergent and divergent
plate boundaries but others, located in the interior of plates are associated with hot spots.
Here is the most exciting Video which will give you an experience that you have never
had before:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Be7o6BYVOzA
TYPES OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS:

• Icelandic: it flows as fissure eruption. The lava is basaltic and has less viscosity. It
flows quietly and in large quantities forming plateaus. There is no violent activity
or cone formation. ex. Columbia (USA), Deccan plateau (India) etc.
• Hawaiian: there can be fissure, crater or caldera eruptions. It forms small domes
from which mobile lava and gases erupt. It produces fire fountains and only minor
amount of gases.
• Stambolian: they form stratocones, i.e. lava comes out and solidifies in a layered
structure. They have rhythmic to continuous explosions resulting from spasmodic
gas escape. Sometimes clots of lava are ejected producing bombs and scoria. It
can have periodic more intense activity with outpouring of lava.
• Vulcanian: they are also stratocone volcanoes. The associated lavas are more
viscous. Sometimes the lava solidifies over the vent forming a crust resulting into
gas pressure buildup leading to violent explosions. After a long quite period
eruption occurs ejecting bomb, pumice and ash. Lava flows from the top of the
flank after main explosive eruption. Dark ash laden clouds, convulated, cauliflower
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shaped, rises to moderate heights more or less vertical depositing tephra along
the flanks of volcano.
• Vesuvian: it throws extremely violent explosive gas charged magma from
stratocone vent. Eruption occurs after a long period of quite or mild activity. Vent
tend to be emptied to considerable depth. The lava erupts in explosive spray and
gas cloud reaches to great height and deposits tephra.
• Pilian: it is more violent form of visuvian eruption. Last major phase is uprush of
gas that carries clouds rapidly upward in vertical coloumn for miles. It is narrow at
base but expands outward at upper elevations. But the clouds are generally low
in tephra.
• Pelean: it results from high viscosity lava and delayed explosiveness. Conduit of
stratovolcano usually gets blocked by dome or plug , some gas escapes from
lateral opening or by destruction or uplift of plug.
• Katmaian: it is a variant of Pelean eruption characterised by massive outpourings
of fluidized ash flows accompanied by widespread explosive tephra. Ignimbrites
are common end products. Also hot springs and fumaroles are formed
Fig: types of volcanic eruptions.
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CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANOES
ON THE BASIS OF MATERIAL ERUPTED:

1. Basalt cone: basalt cones are very rare. They are low rather than high because of
fluidity of basaltic lava. Ex- Rangitoto (New Zealand) and Skjaldbreit (Iceland) are
most suitable examples.
2. Basalt dome: basalt domes are flat domes formed by fluid basalt lava. They are
less in height and broad. Hawaiian volcanoes are the best example.
3. Ash and cinder cones: these are high volcanoes formed by high viscous lava. Ash
and cinder cones are built where eruptions are explosive type with predominance
of pyroclastic material. Growth of an ash or cinder cone begins around a crater.
4. Composite or strato cone: they are formed by alternate sheets of lava and
pyroclastic material. It is formed by alternate periods of explosive and quite
eruptions. Most of the largest volcanoes of the world falls under this category. Mt
Fujiyama of Japan, Vesuvian of Italy, Cotapaxi and Chimbrazo of Equador are good
examples.
ON BASIS OF PERIODICITY:
• Active volcanoes: volcanoes which constantly eject lava, gases, ash, cinder etc. are
known as active volcanoes. There are about 600 active volcanoes in the world,
most of them being around pacific “ring of fire”. The Stramboli volcano erupts so
much fire that it has been termed as the lighthouse of the Mediterranean.
• Dormant volcano: A volcano which has not erupted for a long time but still has
probability of eruption is called dormant volcano. Mt Kilimanjaro is one such
volcano.
• Extinct volcano: a volcano which functioned in long geological past but is no longer
active is called extinct volcano. They are only the remnants of the volcanoes. In
many of the cases crater lakes are formed by filling of water into craters.
Acancagua of Andes is a typical example of extinct volcano.
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VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS
These mountains are made of volcanoes (made of material ejected from fissures in the
earth’s crust)
The material includes –
o Molten lava
o Volcanic bombs
o Cinders
o Ashes
o Dust and liquid mud
• These materials fell around the vent in successive layers, building up a
characteristic volcanic cone.
• These mountains are often called as mountains of accumulation.
• Example – Mt. Fuji (Japan)
o Mt. Mayon (Philippines)
o Mt. Merapai (Sumatara)
o Mt. Agung (Bali)
o Mt. Catopaxi (Ecuador)
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LANDFORMS ASSOCIATED WITH VULCANIC ACTIVITIES
Vulcanic activities affect Earth’s landforms. Solid, liquid or gaseous materials may ﬁnd
their way to the surface from some deep-seated reservoir beneath. For example – Geyser
and springs, volcanic eruptions, sometimes gas sources are found. Molten magma is
mobile rock. It mostly enters in weak portions of crust.
The resultant landforms depend on many factors like –
o Strength and ﬂuidity of the magma
o Types of cracks, faults and joints penetrated by magma
o Manner in which magma escapes to the surface.
• Intrusive landforms - Magma while thrusting its way up to the surface may cool
and solidify within the crust as plutonic rocks.
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• Extrusive landforms - Magmas that reach the surface and solidify, form extrusive
landforms.
• Rocks formed by either plutonic or volcanic activity are called igneous rocks
LANDFORMS OF IGNEOUS INTRUSIONS
SILL
• Sill – Intrusion of molten
magma horizontally along the
bedding planes of sedimentary
rocks.
• Denudation of overlying
sedimentary strata in sill
exposes the intrusion which
looks like bold escarpment (a
steep slope or cliff, such as one
which marks the edge of a range
of hills)
• Example – Great whin sill of NE England
DYKE
• Dyke – Intrusion of molten
magma vertically
• Denudation results –
Upstanding walls or shallow
trenches
• Example - Cleveland Dyke of
Yorkshire, England
o Isles of Mall and Arran in
Scotland
o Quartzite dyke, North of
Kuala Lumpur
LITHS – IGNEOUS INTRUSIONS ON LARGER SCALE.
Various types of liths – Laccolith, Lopolith, Phacolith, Batholith.
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All of them took place differently in the Earth’s crust and solidified within the upper layers
of the crust.
Laccolith
• Large blister or igneous mound with a dome shaped upper surface and a level base
fed by a pipe like conduit from below.
• Shape similarity – Dome
• Example – Henry mountains, Utah, USA
Lopolith
• A large igneous intrusion which is lenticular in shape with a depressed central

region.
• Shape similarity – Saucer
• Example – Bushveld lapolith of Transvaal, South Africa
Phacolith
• Igneous rocks occupying the crest of an anticline or the bottom of syncline and fed
by conduit which is below it.
• Shape similarity – Lens
• Example – Corndon hill in shropshire, England
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Batholith
• A very large igneous intrusion extending to an unknown depth in the earth's crust.
• Shape similarity – irregular shape
• Example – Wicklow Mountains of Ireland
o Uplands of Britanny, France
o Main Range of West Malaysia
How did Batholith originate?
It is believed that large masses of magma which was going up came into contact with
country rock and metamorphosed them.
These metamorphosed rocks with solidified magma gave rise to extensive Batholiths.
EXTRUSIVE LANDFORMS
How do we get to know whether a landform is extrusive or not?
Nature and composition of Lava and ejected materials which reach the surface of earth.
• As we have already read that basic lava is very fluid and it flows for long distances
resulting in extensive lava plains.
• Example – our Deccan plateau have formed in similar way
o Snake basin, USA
• Basalt plateau example – NW Deccan and also found in Iceland
VOLCANIC CONES
• Highly fluid lava (i.e. Basic lava) forms lava domes or Shield volcanoes (with gently
rising slopes and Broad, flattened tops)
• Example – Hawain volcano (best developed lava domes)
• Mauna loa
• Kilauea (steep walled caldera with lava pit of Halemaumau)
CINDER CONE
• Less fluid lavas (i.e. acid lava) forms – Ash and cinder cones (with large central
craters and steep slopes)
• They are small volcanoes (not greater than 1000 feet height)
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• Example – Mt. nuovo (near naples)

o Mt. Paricutin (Mexico)
• They form – Lava tongue, lava dammed lakes, lava bridges, lava tunnels
COMPOSITE CONES
• Most volcanoes have this kind of cone.
• Built by - Several eruptions of lava, ashes and other volcanic materials (come out
through conduit from the main conduit from magma chamber/reservoir) which
forms lot of layers and increase the height.
• From the main conduit subsidiary pipes or dykes reach to surface as feeder to
parasitic cones (like water pipelines in our house from main big pipeline). From
these subsidiary pipes lava comes out to the sides of cone.
• Example – Mt. Etna (Sicily)
o Mt. Stromboli (Light house of Mediterranean)
o Mt. Vesuvius
o Mt. fuji
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o Mt. popacatapetl
o Mt. Chimborazo
CALDERA CONE OR VOLCANO CONE
Crater formation – during an eruption the material from the top of cone is blown off or
collapses into vent widening the orifice into a large crater
• Greatly enlarged depressions are called Calderas

• These are the result of violent eruptions accompanied by the subsidence of much
of the volcano into the magma beneath.
• Water may collect in the crater or the caldera forming crater or Caldera lakes e.g.
Lake Toba in Sumatra.
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ORIGIN OF VOLCANOES
• We have read that volcanic activities are associated with crustal disturbances and
mostly takes place where crust has weak portion because of faulting or folding
• As we go deep inside crust temperature increases (1°F increase with 65 feet) and
so we can expect interior of earth in semi molten state which could consist of solid,
liquid and gaseous material, collectively called as magma.
• Gases like – carbon dioxide, sulphurated hydrogen and small proportions of
Nitrogen chlorine and other volatile substances charged magma heavily.
• Gases and vapor increases the mobility and explosiveness of Lava.
TYPES OF LAVA
Basaltic lava Acidic lava

Low viscosity High viscosity
Hot and runny Less hot and slow
Lower silica content Higher
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Takes longer time to cool and solidifying Cool and solidifies soon
Gas content retained which makes it
Loses gases quickly and become viscous
mobile
Produces extensive and gentle sloping Produces steep-sided, more localized
landform features
Frequent and gentle eruptions Less frequent and violent
Lava and steam ejected Ash, rocks, gases, steam and lava
Found at constructive plate margins Found at destructive margins where
where magma rises from mantle oceanic crust is destroyed
Example –
Fissures along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Example –
(Heimaey) Subduction zone (Mt. St. Helens)
Over hot spots (Mauna loa, Hawaii) Island arcs (Mt Pelee, Martinique)
SOME VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
Mt. Vesuvius
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• A somma-stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples in Campania, Italy

• Vesuvius has erupted many times since and is the only volcano on the European
mainland to have erupted within the last hundred years.
• Today, it is regarded as one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world because
of the population of 3,000,000 people living nearby
• Vesuvius was formed as a result of the collision of two tectonic plates, the African
and the Eurasian. The former was subducted beneath the latter, deeper into the
earth
Mt. Krakatau
• A volcanic island situated in the Sunda Strait between the islands of Java and
Sumatra in the Indonesian province of Lampung.
• The most notable eruptions of Krakatoa culminated in a series of massive
explosions over August 26–27, 1883, which were among the most violent volcanic
events in recorded history.
• The 1883 eruption ejected approximately 25 km3 (6 cubic miles) of rock (OMG)
• After remaining dormant for almost half a century, an eruption m 1927 pushed up
a cinder cone from the submarine floor.
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• This new volcanic island was named Anak Krakatau, meaning ‘the child of Mt.
Krakatau’.
•
Mt. Pelee
• A semi-active volcano at the northern end of Martinique, an island in the Lesser

Antilles island arc of the Caribbean.
• Its volcanic cone is composed of layers of volcanic ash and hardened lava.
• The volcano is currently in a dormant state.
• Erupted white-hot lava and super-heated steam.
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THE DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES IN THE WORLD
• Volcanoes are mostly located in intensely folded or faulted regions

• Active volcanoes – 500
• Dormant and extinct volcanoes – 1000s
• Occurrence – Costal mountain ranges, off-shore islands and in the midst of oceans,
but there are few in the interiors of continents.
PACIFIC REGION
• Greatest concentration – circum pacific region (Pacific ring of fire) – Includes 2/3rd
world’s volcanoes.
• Western pacific – chain starts from Aleutian Islands, Japan extending in south up
to Philippines, Indonesia (java and Sumatra particularly), pacific islands of
Solomon, New Hebrides, Tease and North Island, New Zealand.
• Eastern pacific – Starting from Andes to Central America (particularly Guatemala,
Costa Rica and Nicaragua), Mexico and right up to Alaska.
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ATLANTIC
• Few volcanoes
• Many dormant or extinct
• Example – Madeira, Ascension, St. Helena, Cape verda Island. And Canary Island
o Active – Iceland and Azores
MEDITERRANEAN
• In alpine – folds – Vesuvius, Etna, Stromboli and Aegean Islands
ASIA
• Mt. Ararat (recall with “are rat” or “Airavat” (indra’s elephant name))
• Mt. Elbruz (elbows or eyebrows)
• It’s interesting and surprising that Himalayas have no active volcanoes.
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AFRICA
• Mt. Killimanjaro and Mt. Kenya (east African rift valley – extinct)
• Mt. Cameroon – only active volcano of west Africa.
• Madagascar – some volcano cones but not active volcanoes
• West Indian islands – Mt. pelee and St. vincet (violent explosion in recent times)
• Lesser Antilles – made of volcanic islnads
• Interior volcanoes in continents – rare
GEYSERS AND HOT SPRINGS
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GEYSERS
• Fountains of hot water and superheated stream.

• Can sprout upto height of 150 feet from under the earth.
How does geysers work?
• Water near volcanic or thermal region is heated beyond boiling point.

• Jet of water emitted with explosion and it is triggered or cause ny gases which
seep out from heated rocks
Where they are found?
• Mostly in 3 areas – Iceland

o New Zealand - Rotorua district of North Island
o USA - Yellowstone Park (old faithful – world’s best-known geyser)
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HOT SPRING
• Can be found anywhere on the Earth where water is sinked deep enough beneath
the surface to be heated by interior forces.
• Rises without any explosion (in geyser explosion is there)
• Contains – dissolved minerals
• Uses – dissolved minerals, heat house, swimming pools and domestic purposes.
• Locations - Honduras, Canada, Chile, Hungary, Iceland, Israel, Japan, New Zealand,
Fiji and the United State
MOUNTAINS –
Classification on the basis of formation:
As we discussed earlier, mountains are created by Orogenic Forces. Since orogeny leads
to three types of landforms, on the basis of formation Mountains can be classified as –
• Folding Mountains
• Block Mountains
• Volcanic Mountains
As these mountains are denuded by exogenic forces, the remnant of these mountains
are called Residual mountains.
Classification on the basis of Age:
According to age, the mountains can be classified as –
• Pre – Cambrian
• Caledonian
• Hercynian
• Alpine
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• Caledonian –
o Time period - 320 million years ago
o Mountains which raised – Scandinavia and Scotland
• Hercynian –
o Time period – 240 million years ago
o Mountains which formed – Ural (Russia), Pennies and welsh highlands
(Britain), Harz (Germany), Appalachians (America), High plateaus of Siberia
and China
• Alpine –
o Time period – 30 million years ago.
o Mountains formed – Young fold mountains – Alps, Himalayas, Andes and
Rockies.
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EARTHQUAKES
Till now we have discussed about the landforms created by slow endogenic forces.
Apart from slow force, the result of sudden endogenic force is an earth quake. So lets
discuss about the earthquakes.
Earthquakes are vibrations of the earth caused by sudden movement of rocks that have
been strained beyond their elastic limit (We discussed about earthquakes while studying
about internal structure of the earth). Main causes of the earthquake are plate tectonics,
volcanic eruption or anthropogenic activities like explosions, reservoir induced seismicity
etc. There is a release of huge amount of energy in the form of sound and seismic waves
causing shaking of earth’s surface. The point where earthquake generates is called focus
and the point just above the focus on the surface is called epicenter. The magnitude of
earthquake is estimated by Richter scale, while intensity is described Mercalli scale. The
magnitude of the earthquake remains same everywhere while intensity decreases going
away from the epicenter.
Depth of focus:
The depth of an earthquake generally varies from about 10-700 km below the surface of
the earth. Although the movement of material within the earth occurs throughout the
mantle and core, earthquakes are concentrated only in its 700 km. Within this range
earthquakes can be grouped according to depth of focus.
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• Shallow focus earthquake: These earthquakes occur from the surface to the depth
of 70km, they occur in all seismic belts and produce the largest percentage of
earthquakes.
• Intermediate focus earthquake: They occur between 70 and 300km below the
surface of the earth.
• Deep focus earthquake: They occur in the range of 300 to 700km of depth.
Both the intermediate and deep focus earthquakes are limited in number and
distribution. The maximum energy released by an earthquake decreases with increase in
depth. Hence most of the large and destructive earthquakes have shallow focus.
What is the difference between Earthquake and Tremor?
• Tremor is the shaking or trembling of the surface of the earth before an

earthquake strikes, though it is common to talk about a tremor and an earthquake
in synonymous terms.
• At some places, tremors are classified as earthquakes of smaller magnitude.
• Tremors take place before an earthquake and forewarn about an impending
earthquake that may cause much damage.
• Earthquakes can trigger landslides in mountainous regions and even tsunamis
when the epicenter of an earthquake is below the seabed.
CONSEQUENCES OF EARTHQUAKES
• Rise and subsidence of land surface. High magnitude earthquakes can create
fissures and embankments and thus results into new landforms deforming the
ground surface.
• Enormous Damage to property.
• Loss of human and animal life.
• Devastating fires, floods and landslides.
• Flash floods. Many a times due to earthquake the dams and embankments gets
ruptured and causes flash floods resulting in loss of life and property.
• Landslides
• Tsunamis.
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Seismograph- an instrument that measures and records details of earthquakes, such as

force and duration.
Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7

and over potentially cause serious damage over larger areas, depending on their depth.
Some major Earthquakes
1. Great Lisbon earthquake – 1 November 1755

2. Tokyo and Yokohama earthquakes – 1 September 1923
3. San Francisco – 1906
4. Kansu (Loess region) China – 1920, 1927
5. Agadir, Morocco – 1960
6. Kakh, Iran – 1968
TSUNAMIS
The seismic waves travelling through the ocean and sea water results into high sea waves
which are known as tsunamis. ‘Tsunami’ is a Japanese term which has been universally
adopted to describe a large seismically generated sea wave. These waves are responsible
for causing considerable destruction in certain coastal areas where submarine
earthquakes occur.
Pre – conditions for Tsunami:
For a Tsunami to occur, two conditions are required:

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• There should be an earthquake from which energy can be transferred.

• There should be a vertical displacement of the water. i.e. during earthquake the
crust should move vertically. That’s why Tsunamis are originated near oceanic
trenches where plates are being subducted. In Atlantic Ocean, a number of
earthquakes occur on Mid – Oceanic ridge but since there is no sudden vertical
movement, Tsunamis are not formed. Tsunamis can also be triggered if seamounts
break. This can cause vertical displacement of water.
PROCESS OF GENERATION OF TSUNAMI:

When a tsunami is generated, its steepness i.e. height to length ratio, is very less. This
enables it to pass unnoticed beneath the ships in the sea. As the wave approaches shore,
the height of the wave rapidly increases because of rebound from the shallow surface.
The period of the wave remains constant, velocity drops and the height increases. In
confined coastal waters relatively close to their point of origin, tsunamis can reach a
height of more than 30m. Tsunamis travels at the speed of 100 -150 km/h which may pick
up 650-900 km/h.
It may travel considerable distance. The frequency of tsunami is highest in Pacific Ocean.
Since 1948, an International Tsunami Warning Network has been in operation around the
Pacific Ocean to alert coastal residents to possible danger.
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Fig:
Tsunami Formation.
In this module we have learnt about the landforms and processes associated with
endogenic forces. Endogenic forces result in the formation of Primary and Secondary
landforms. As far as UPSC is concerned, this portion is extremely important.
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TERTIARY LANDFORMS
In Previous part we discussed about the landforms created by Endogenic Forces. This
section we will be focusing on the Exogenic forces and landforms created by them.
Exogenic or exogenetic forces are the external forces which degrades the existing
secondary landforms. As the role of endogenetic forces is to create new undulations, the
role of exogenic forces is to remove them and make the surface planar. Three factors act
simultaneously – pressure, temperature and humidity to break the uplifted areas and fill
the low-lying areas. The landforms created by them are called tertiary reliefs. Endogenetic
and Exogenetic forces keep working together to maintain the equilibrium.
Exogenic Forces are responsible for three types of processes:
• Weathering
• Mass wasting
• Erosion and decomposition
Weathering is an in - situ process of breaking of large rocks in smaller blocks or particles

by the changes of temperature, pressure and humidity or chemical reactions.
Mass wasting is the movement of rocks and soil down the slope. The only force causing
this movement is gravity. Note that no external agent is acting in this case and this is what
differentiates mass wasting with erosion.
Erosion is an ex situ process where a moving agent breaks a bigger body into smaller
particles and carry those particles from one place to another due to kinetic energy and
then deposits them.
PROCESSES DUE TO EXOGENIC FORCES
WEATHERING
Weathering is the process of disintegration of rocks near the surface by the action of
temperature, pressure and humidity. It can also be due to Chemical changes. Weathering
is an in situ process i.e. it occurs at its own place and an external agent is not required.
The broken rock is called the regolith.
Broadly Weathering can be of two types:
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1. Physical Weathering
2. Chemical Weathering
Biological weathering is considered to be the third type, but actually it is a part of Physical
and chemical weathering.
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
Physical weathering produces regolith from massive rock by the action of forces strong
enough to fracture the rock. Some of the most important process of physical weathering
are:
Frost Action:
It is generally found in colder climates. During the day the water enters the pores and
joints between the rocks. During night, as the temperature drops, this water freezes and
expands. The expansion of water in freezing can fragment even the hardest rocks, given
many cycles of freeze and thaw.
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Fig: Frost action during winter
Salt Crystal Growth:
Similar to the process of ice crystal growth, the rocks also gets disintegrated by the growth
of salt crystals in the pores. This process is dominant in the dry area.
During long drought periods, the ground water is moved to the surface of the rock by
capillary action. As the water evaporates from the surface, tiny salt crystals are left
behind. As the salt crystals grow in the pores, they push the rocks and break them in the
form of granules. This is called granular disintegration.
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Fig: Difference between block disintegration and granular disintegration
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Fig: Granular weathering due to salt crystal growth
Unloading and exfoliation:
Unloading is the process that relieves the confining pressure on the underlying rock. As
the rock above is slowly worn away, the pressure is reduced and rock expands slightly in
volume. These rocks crack in layers that are more or less parallel to the surface creating
a type of jointing called the ‘Sheeting Structure’. The layer of rocks breaks in concentric
slices like the onion peel.
Fig: Explaining the process of exfoliation
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Fig: Top view of rock showing exfoliated sheets
Thermal expansion and contraction:
This process takes place where diurnal range of temperature is high i.e. there is a large
difference in the daily highest and the lowest temperatures. Because of these
temperature changes a lot of stress develops in the rock. They expand when the
temperature rises and contracts when temperature drops. This causes fractures in the
rocks and they ultimately break down.
Fig: explaining the process of thermal expansion weathering
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
The erosion or disintegration of rocks, building materials, etc., caused by chemical
reactions (chiefly with water and substances dissolved in it) rather than by mechanical
processes. There are several types of Chemical Weathering.
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Hydrolysis and oxidation:
Hydrolysis is the most important process in chemical WEATHERING. It is due to the

dissociation of H2O into H+ and OH- ions which chemically combine with minerals and
bring about changes, such as exchange, decomposition of crystalline structure and
formation of new compounds. Water acts as a weak acid on silicate minerals.
Oxidation is the reaction of a substance with Oxygen.
Acid Action:
Chemical weathering is also produced by acid action, most commonly Carbonic Acid.
Carbon dioxide gets dissolved in water to form a weak acid. Now a day since the
concentration of Sulphur oxides and Nitrogen oxides is increasing in atmosphere because
of the burning of the fossil fuels, the acidity of the rain has also increased. Carbonate
sedimentary rocks, especially limestone and marble are highly susceptible to this type of
weathering.
Acid rain is also harmful for architectural structures, especially made of marble.
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Fig: Weathered statue due to Acid Action
BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
Biological weathering is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by plants,
animals and microbes. It can occur due to physical stress like in case of penetration of
plant’s roots, physical impact of the hooves of the animal etc. or due to chemical changes
caused by them like action of worms, lichens etc.
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Fig: A rock getting physically weathered by a tree
Fig: These lichens can cause chemical changes on the rock’s surface
MASS WASTING
Mass wasting, also known as slope movement or mass movement, is the geomorphic
process by which soil, sand, regolith, and rock move downslope typically as a mass, largely
under the force of gravity, but frequently affected by water and water content as in
submarine environments and mudflows.
Note: Point to be considered is that that Mass wasting is only because of the
gravitational pull and not due to any other external agent.
The following figure will help you revise the concept of Mass wasting:
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LANDSLIDES
A LANDSLIDE is the movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope. They result from the
failure of the materials which make up the hill slope and are driven by the force of gravity.
LANDSLIDES are known also as landslips, slumps or slope failure.
Types of landslide Movements:
• Falls are masses dislodged from very steep slopes or escarpments which then free-
fall, bounce, or roll downslope. Falls usually move extremely rapidly.
• Topples are a forward rotation around a pivot point low or below one or more
masses.
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• Lateral spreads are the result of movement involving lateral extension

accommodated by shear or tensile fractures. This type of movement is
earthquake-induced.
• Slides displace masses along one or more discrete planes. Slides may either be
rotational or translational in their movement.
• Rotational movement is where the plane is curved. The mass rotates backwards
around a common point with an axis parallel to the slope.
• Translational movement is where the plane is more or less planar or gently
undulating. The mass moves roughly parallel to the ground surface.
• Flows are masses moving as a deforming, viscous unit without a discrete failure
plane.
• More than one form of movement may be represented in some landslides.
Movement in this case is often described as complex.
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Types of Land Slides
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PARTS OF LANDSLIDE:
CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES:
Natural Causes:
• Ground water pressure acting on the slope.

• Loss of vegetation
• Weakening of slope due to melting of glacier or heavy rainfall
• Earthquakes
• Volcanic eruptions
Human Causes:
• Vibrations from machinery

• Blasting of mines
• Earthwork which alters the slope
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• Construction, agriculture or forestry activities which can affect the amount of

water entering the soil.
PREVENTION OF LANDSLIDES:
Many methods are used to remedy landslide problems. The best solution, of course, is to
avoid landslide-prone areas altogether.
Listed below are some common remedial methods used when landslide-prone slopes
cannot be avoided.
Improving surface and subsurface drainage: Because water is a main factor in landslides,
improving surface and subsurface drainage at the site can increase the stability of a
landslide-prone slope. Surface water should be diverted away from the landslide-prone
region by channeling water in a lined drainage ditch or sewer pipe to the base of the slope.
The water should be diverted in such a way as to avoid triggering a landslide adjacent to
the site. Surface water should not be allowed to pond on the landslide-prone slope.
Excavating the head: Removing the soil and rock at the head of the landslide decreases
the driving pressure and can slow or stop a landslide. Additional soil and rock above the
landslide will need to be removed to prevent a new landslide from forming upslope.
Flattening the slope angle at the top of the hill can help stabilize landslide-prone slopes.
Buttressing the toe: If the toe of the landslide is at the base of the slope, fill can be placed
over the toe and along the base of the slope. The fill increases the resisting forces along
the failure surface in the toe area. This, in turn, blocks the material in the head from
moving toward the toe.
Constructing piles and retaining walls: Piles are metal beams that are either driven into
the soil or placed in drill holes. Properly placed piles should extend into a competent rock
layer below the landslide. Wooden beams and telephone poles are not recommended for
use as piles because they lack strength and can rot.
Removal and replacement: Landslide-prone soil and rock can be removed and replaced
with stronger materials, such as silty or sandy soils.
Preserving vegetation: Trees, grasses, and vegetation can minimize the amount of water
infiltrating into the soil, slow the erosion caused by surface-water flow, and remove water
from the soil.
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Rock fall protection: Rock falls are contained by (1) ditches at the base of the rock
exposure, (2) heavy-duty fences, and (3) concrete catch walls that slow errant boulders
that have broken free from the rock outcrop.
EROSION
EROSION is the act in which earth is worn away, often by water, wind, or ice. It is an ex
situ process where an external agent is involved. The fragments break because of external
impact i.e. kinetic energy. Unlike weathering where only gravity is involved.
The rocks are broken at one place and the broken particles are carried by the agents to
far distances and are deposited.
It is the most destructive process shaping the tertiary reliefs.
AGENTS OF EROSION
There are broadly five agents which cause erosion and carve distinct landforms:
• Running surface water – The landforms made by surface streams are called fluvial
landforms.
• Wind – these landforms are formed in arid and semi – arid regions where the
action of wind is dominating. These landforms are called Aeolian.
• Glaciers – These landforms are carved by Glaciers in high alpine mountains.
• Waves – They are formed by the action of waves on the edge of the continent.
• Karst – These landforms are formed by the action of underground water on Karst
or Lime stone region.
Fluvial Processes and Landforms:
Fluvial landforms are those landforms which are shaped and modified by the running
water. Running water has sculpted most of the land surface across the world in
comparison to other agents of erosion like wind or Glacier. Streams are in a constant
process of shaping the land surface into newer forms. The running water erodes even the
loftiest of mountains and carves deep valleys or gorges into it. Besides erosion it
transports heavy load from one place to the other. This encompasses both the erosional
and depositional landforms produced by the running water.
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Whenever any landform is created due to tectonic forces it is attacked constantly by

various agents of gradation and thus it undergoes transformation taking new shapes. The
running water due to exertion of force on the exposed surface erodes it and carries
particles of varying size (ranging from very fine to the size of a boulder) depending on the
slope and amount of water discharge.
FLUVIAL CYCLE
The entire journey of river starts from initial or youth stage up to old stage complete one
cycle of process is called ‘Fluvial cycle’.
STAGES OF RIVER
For any river system it is developed from the starting point where it originate up
to the end point where it reaches the ocean. The entire journey of river can be
clearly distinguished into different stages. The stages of river are mainly divided
into three stages, they are:
1. YOUTH or INITIAL stage: In the initial stage of river the irregularly flowing
running water is concentrated within the depression to form ‘stream’ . At
the youth stage the flowing water is found to cause appreciable erosion of
the valley and tributaries gradually developed. Many erosion features are
formed along the valley side due to various geological actions.
2. MATURE stage: In this stage the long profiles of rivers are found to have
obtained equilibrium streams and a drainage system. The power of erosion
of the river is also much reduced and balance with its transporting
capacity. Many erosion features are formed on the valley floor due to
various geological actions.
3. OLD stage: In this stage the river valleys become very wide due to lateral
cutting. The irregularity in the topography of the region is slowly
smoothened out and the process of erosion becomes extremely slow.
Depositional process is very high. The movement of river is very slow due
fewer gradients and they reaches the ocean with wide mouth where
extensive deposition of sediments taken place.
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GEOLOGICAL ACTION OF RIVER

The water flows in a river along its seaward course erode the land over which it flows
brings about its mechanical breakdown of rocks ,chemical decomposition of rocks,
denudation of the country rock , transport the rock debris which are formed during
process of weathering and finally deposit the transported material under favorable
conditions . So the geological action of river includes various processes, they are
I. River erosion
The river erosion brought large scale changes on the surface of the earth. These
changes are made by different distinct erosion processes, they are
a) Hydraulic action: It is a process of mechanical breaking down of rock
masses mainly due to continuous impact of water moving with great
velocity along the channel is called ‘hydraulic action’ . This process also
leads to the domination of erosion process along the upper part of the river
where gradient of the surface generally is very high . The wear and tear of
the rocks due to continuous impact of running water produce large debris
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is dropped through discharge. The deflation action of wind and hydraulic

action of river are similar and more powerful processes in which kinetic
energy are associated . The product of hydraulic action by river are of
variable in size from large boulders to fine silt and clay and these are
transported along with the flow until they drop down and settle under
suitable condition.
b) Cavitation: It is a distinct and rare type of hydraulic action performed by
running water. It is particularly observed where river water suddenly
acquires exceptionally high velocity such as at the location of a waterfall.
c) Abrasion: The process of mechanical breaking down of the bed rocks due
to the impact of fragments which is carried by water during their flow on
the floor of the river valley. This process is called ‘abrasion’. It is just similar
process of wind abrasion. The effect of abrasion of river along the course
in the development of ‘pot holes’ formed upon the valley floor.
d) Attrition: It is the process of mechanical breaking down of the transported
rock fragments due to impact among themselves has been described as
‘attrition’. The mechanical collision among fragments naturally causes
further wear and tear of themselves in addition to cause by abrasion. The
rolling boulders, pebbles and small fragments travelled in suspension
collide with one another during their transportation.
e) Corrosion: The slow but steady ‘chemical (especially solvent) action of the
stream water on the rocks is expressed by the term corrosion. The extent
of corrosion depends much on the composition of rocks and also on the
composition of flowing water. Thus, all rocks are not equally susceptible to
corrosive action of stream water. Limestone, gypsum and rock salt bodies
are soluble in water to varying degrees. The stream may hardly corrode
sandstone, quartzite, granites and gneisses.
II. River transportation
a) SUSPENSION: In the processes of transportation its velocity depends upon

the gradient of the valley floor, shape and size of the channel and discharge
of the river. Abrasion and attrition always work together and produce fine
river particles like fine sand, silt and clay are transported to a greater
distance in suspension. Suspension is one of the processes of
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transportation of fine rock particles for a longer distance and suspended

particles are settled when the velocity checked.
b) SALTATION: In the process of saltation the particles are transported by
means of series of jumps resulting in the development of smooth surface
and also particles get sorted.
c) SOLUTION: Solution is one of the process in which readily soluble
substances are dissolved in water and removed in solution and some
soluble constituents are soluble in solution. E.g. Carbonate rocks are easily
dissolved and removed in solution during their course of journey in
different terrain.
III. River deposition
As soon as the velocity of running water decreases, its transporting capacity

decreases. As a result of its load is dropped down. The larger particles are
deposited its enroot and the lighter and smaller particles are transported in
suspension and saltation to a very great distance, in keeping with the gradual fall
of the power of transportation of the river along its seaward course. The
deposition along the course of a river is known as ‘fluvial deposits’. There are
different types of fluvial deposits in which alluvial fans and delta deposits are
important.
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EROSIONAL LANDFORMS:
V SHAPED VALLEY:
• Deep cutting and erosion by rapid flow of the stream carves out a valley that
resembles the English letter V.
• The V shaped valley has a deep and narrow bottom (or valley) floor with steep valley
sides.
• The shape is an outcome of a number of other factors at interplay; Mass movement
and weathering of rocks are effective in shaping the valley. Usually formed in youth
and early mature stage.
GORGE:
• It is a narrow chasm with a very steep precipitous wall. These are common
features found very often in mountainous regions.
• The Himalayas are home to a number of gorges located at different places in its
ranges.
• The Kali Gandaki Gorge is one of the deepest gorges in the world.
• River Satluj enters India through a huge gorge near Shipkila pass.
• Brahmaputra also moves through various gorges and enters Indian Territory.
• Besides Himalayas the gorges have their presence across the world in most of the
continents.
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WATERFALLS:
• It refers to a sudden descend of the flow of the stream or river caused by a variety of
factors.
• They are very picturesque and beautiful features. Waterfalls may result due to
variation in the resistance of rocks, crust deformation, changes in the sea level etc.
The different mode of origin has made its classification rather difficult.
• However, they can broadly be classified into 5 to 6 major categories taking into
account their origins and distribution across the world.
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POTHOLES:
• The small cylindrical depressions in the rocky beds of the river valleys are called
potholes.
• Potholing or pothole-drilling is the mechanism through which the fragments of
rocks when caught in the water eddies or swirling water start dancing circularly
and grind and drill the rock beds.
• They thus form small holes which are gradually enlarged by the repetition of the
said mechanism.
RIVER TERRACES:
• Stepped benches along the river course in a flood plain are called terraces.
• Terraces represent the level of former valley floors and remnants of former (older)
floodplains
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RILLS AND GULLIES:
• Gulley is a water-worn channel, which is particularly common in semi-arid areas.

• It is formed when water from overland-flows down a slope, especially following
heavy rainfall, is concentrated into rills, which merge and enlarge into a gulley.
• The ravines of Chambal Valley in Central India and the Chos of Hoshiarpur in
Punjab are examples of gulleys.
MEANDERS:
• A meander is defined as a pronounced curve or loop in the course of a river

channel.
• The outer bend of the loop in a meander is characterized by intensive erosion and
vertical cliffs and is called the cliff-slope side. This side has a concave slope.
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• The inner side of the loop is characterized by deposition, a gentle convex slope,
and is called the slip-off side.
• The meanders may be wavy, horse-shoe type or oxbow type.
PENEPLAIN:
• This refers to an undulating featureless plain punctuated with low-lying residual

hills of resistant rocks. It is considered to be an end product of an erosional cycle.
• Fluvial erosion, in the course of geologic time, reduces the land almost to base
level (sea level), leaving so little gradient that essentially no more erosion could
occur.
DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS:
FLOODPLAINS
• A floodplain is an area of land which is covered in water when the a river bursts
its banks. They form due to both erosion and deposition.
• Erosion removes any interlocking spurs, creating a wide, flat area on either side of
the river.
• During a flood, material being carried by the river is deposited (as the river loses
its speed and energy to transport material). Over time, the height of the floodplain
increases as material is deposited on either side of the river.
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• Floodplains are often agricultural land, as the area is very fertile because it's made
up of alluvium (deposited silt from a river flood). The floodplain is often a wide,
flat area caused by meanders shifting along the valley.
LEVEES
• Levees occur in the lower course of a river when there is an increase in the volume
of water flowing downstream and flooding occurs.
• Sediment that has been eroded further upstream is transported downstream.
• When the river floods, the sediment spreads out across the floodplain.
• When a flood occurs, the river loses energy. The largest material is deposited first
on the sides of the river banks and smaller material further away.
• After many floods, the sediment builds up to increase the height of the river banks,
meaning that the channel can carry more water (a greater discharge) and flooding
is less likely to occur in the future.
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DELTA:
• A delta is a tract of alluvium at the mouth of a river where it deposits more

material than can be carried away.
• The river gets divided into distributaries which may further divide and rejoin to
form a network of channels.
A delta is formed by a combination of two processes:

• load-bearing capacity of a river is reduced as a result of the check to its speed as
it enters a sea or lake, and
• clay particles carried in suspension in the river coagulate in the presence of salt
water and are deposited.
The finest particles are carried farthest to accumulate as bottom-set beds.
Depending on the conditions under which they are formed, deltas can be of many types.
ARCUATE DELTA:
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• This type of delta results when light depositions give rise to shallow, shifting
distributaries and a general fan-shaped profile. Examples: Nile, Ganga, Indus.
BIRD’S FOOT DELTA:
• This type of delta emerges when limestone sediment deposits do not allow
downward seepage of water.
• The distributaries seem to be flowing over projections of these deposits which
appear as a bird’s foot.
• The currents and tides are weak in such areas and the number of distributaries
lesser as compared to an arcuate delta. Example: Mississippi river.
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CUSPATE DELTA:
• This is a pointed delta formed generally along strong coasts and is subjected to
strong wave action. There are very few or no distributaries in a cuspate delta.
• Example: Tiber river on west coast of Italy.
ESTUARIES:
• Sometimes the mouth of the river appears to be submerged. This may be due to
a drowned valley because of a rise in sea level.
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• Here fresh water and the saline water get mixed. When the river starts ‘filling its
mouth’ with sediments, mud bars, marshes and plains seem to be developing in
it.
• These are ideal sites for fisheries, ports and industries because estuaries provide
access to deep water, especially if protected from currents and tides.
Example: Hudson estuary.
KARST EROSION & LANDFORMS:
Landforms produced by chemical weathering or chemical erosion of carbonate rocks

mainly calcium carbonate (CaCO3, limestones) and magnesium carbonate (dolomites)
by surface and subsurface water (groundwater) are called karst topography which refers
to characteristic landforms produced by chemical erosion of crystalline jointed limestones
of the Karst region of the erstwhile Yugoslavia situated along the eastern margin of
Adriatic Sea. The Karst region of the erstwhile western Yugoslavia extends for 4 8 0 km in
length and 80 km in width. The region having folded limestones rises to the height of
2500m. The surface is studded with numerous solution holes, ravines, gullies, clefts,
lapies and narrow valleys has become so corrugated and rough that it becomes practically
impossible to walk with bare feet. Numerous caves and stalagmites and stalactites have
been formed below the surface. Thus, the limestone topography all over the world having
characteristic features similar to the karst region of the earstwhile Yugoslavia is
universally called karst topography.
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Essential Conditions for the Development of Karst Topography
The following conditions favour the development of true karstic topography -
1. The limestones must be massive, thickly bedded, hard and tenaceous, well
cemented and well jointed (high density of joints).
2. Limestones should not be porous wherein permeability is largely controlled by
joints and not by the mass of rocks because if limestones are porous, the water
may pass through the rock mass and thus whole rock mass will become weak and
will collapse. On the other hand, if limestones are nonporous and thickly bedded,
water will infiltrate through joints resulting into effective corrosion of limestones
along the joints and solution holes would be formed.
3. The position of limestones should be above the groundwater table so that surface
drainage may disappear through sinks, blind valleys and sinking creeks to have
subterranean (subsurface) drainage so that cave, passages and galleries and
associated features may be formed.
4. The limestones should be widely distributed in both areal and vertical dimensions.
5. The carbonate rocks should be very close to the ground surface so that rainwater
may easily and quickly infiltrate into the beds of limestones and may corrode the
rocks to form solutional landforms.
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6. The limestones should be highly folded, or fractured or faulted.

7. There should be enough rainfall so that required amount of water is available to
dissolve carbonate rocks.
KARST LANDFORMS:
EROSIONAL FEATURES:
SINKHOLES:
• A sinkhole, also known as a cenote, sink, sink-hole, swallet, swallow hole, or doline
(the different terms for sinkholes are often used interchangeably), is a depression
or hole in the ground caused by some form of collapse of the surface layer.
• Most are caused by karst processes—for example, the chemical dissolution of
carbonate rocks or suffosion processes.
• Sinkholes vary in size from 1 to 600 m (3.3 to 2,000 ft) both in diameter and depth
KARST WINDOW/FENSTER
• Karst fenster is a geomorphic feature formed from the dissolution of carbonate

bedrock.
• In this feature, a spring emerges, then the discharge abruptly disappears into a
sinkhole.
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• The word fenster is German for 'window', as these features are windows into the
karst landscape.
• A karst fenster is caused by a caving in of portions of the roof of a subterranean
stream, thus making some of the underground stream visible from the surface.
• Mallot in 1932 first use the term Karst Fenster/ window
UVALA:
• Uvalas are large (in km scale) karst closed depressions of irregular or elongated
plan form resulting from accelerated corrosion along major tectonically broken
zones.
• Uvala is originally a local toponym used by people in some regions in Croatia,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia.
LAPPIES/KARREN
• The most widespread surface karst landforms are small solution pits, grooves and
runnels, collectively called karren.
• Individual features are rarely longer or deeper than 10 m, but frequently they are
densely clustered and dissect larger areas, referred to as limestone pavement.
• Limestone pavement is particularly well developed in Québec, the Bruce Peninsula
and Manitoulin Island, Ontario. Small patches may be seen within the city limits
of Hamilton, Montréal and Ottawa.
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DRY VALLEY
• A dry valley may develop on many kinds of permeable rock, such as limestone and
chalk, or sandy terrains that do not regularly sustain surface water flow. Such
valleys do not hold surface water because it sinks into the permeable bedrock.
• There are many examples of chalk dry valleys along the North and South Downs
in southern England.
• Panchmarhi Valley in India.
DEPOSITIONAL FEATURES:
The mineral matter dissolved by groundwater can be deposited in a variety of ways. The
most spectacular deposits are stalactites and stalagmites, which are found in caves. Less
obvious are the deposits is permeable rocks such as sandstones are the deposits in
permeable rock such as sandstones and conglomerates. Here groundwater commonly
deposits mineral matter as cement between grains. The mineral matter dissolved by
ground water can be deposited in a variety of ways.
The deposits are known as “Dripstones”. Some of the depositional landforms are given
below:
CAVE TRAVERTINE/SPELEOTHEMS:
• The word 'travertine' is derived from the Italian travertino, itself a derivation of
the Latin tiburtinus ‘of Tibur’. Its namesake is also the origin of Tivoli, a district
near Rome.
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• Travertine is a form of limestone deposited by mineral springs, especially hot

springs. Travertine often has a fibrous or concentric appearance and exists in
white, tan, cream-colored, and even rusty varieties. It is formed by a process of
rapid precipitation of calcium carbonate, often at the mouth of ahot spring or in a
limestone cave.
• In the latter, it can form stalactites, stalagmites, and other Speleothems.
• It is frequently used in Italy and elsewhere as a building material.
• Simply, all deposited features in a cave are called cave travertine or Speleothems.
STALACTITES & STALAGMITES:
• These are icicles like forms that hang from the roofs of caves. It is tapering
pendent, material descending from a cave ceiling.
• A stalactite from the Greek stalasso, "to drip", and meaning "that which drips" is
a type of formation that hangs from the ceiling of caves, hot springs, or manmade
structures such as bridges and mines.
• Any material which is soluble, can be deposited as a colloid, or is in suspension, or
is capable of being melted, may form a stalactite.
• Stalactites may be composed of lava, minerals, mud, peat, pitch, sand, sinter.
• The corresponding formation on the floor of the cave is known as a stalagmite.
• Floor deposits caused by seepage water and water flowing out stalagmites are
called Flowstones.
• A group of stalagmites is formed together from closely spaced centers the
resultant stalagmites are called Compound Stalagmites.
• So it is very common, that stalactites and stalagmites grown at the same time.
They grow against each other.
• It is rather common that stalactites and stalagmites meet and join. But as they
grow very slowly it takes hundred thousands of years. After they met they are
called a pillar or column
TUFA
• Calcareous deposits mouth of the cave are called Tufa or Cal-Tufa. Tufa is a variety
of limestone formed when carbonate minerals precipitate out of ambient
temperature water.
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• Calcareous Speleothems may be regarded as a form of calcareous sinter.
DRIPSTONE:
• The Calcareous deposits from dripping of water in dry caves are called Dripstone.
DRAPES / CURTAINS:
• Numerous needle shaped dripstone hanging from the cave ceiling are called
Drapes or Curtains.
ARID CYCLE OF EROSION AND LANDFORMS:
Aeolian processes involving erosion of dry, loose and unprotected geomaterials,

transportation and deposition of the sediments mainly sands, are most active in arid and
semi-arid regions of tropical and temperate environments. Aeolian processes are
generally associated with desert areas but one should keep in mind that deserts (defined
as barren, desolate and plantless areas) are of two types viz. hot and warm deserts and
cold deserts. Aeolian processes are not active in cold deserts because the surfaces are
always covered with permanent ice sheets. Thus, winds are active in those arid and
semiarid environments where the ground surface is covered with loose and friable
geomaterials. About one third of the land surface area of the earth is characterized by
arid and semi-arid environments
Erosional processes in arid areas:
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Winds are the most widespread geomorphic agent in the deserts of arid and semi-arid
regions of tropical and subtropical environments. Besides, ephemeral and intermittent
streams resulting from occasional rainstorms also become' important agent of erosion
and transportation. Most of the drainage in the extensive deserts is of inland drainage
pattern. Thus, besides aeolian process, fluvial processes, though of limited extent, are
also operative in the arid and semi-arid regions.
The mechanism of wind erosion:
• Deflation: This involves the lifting and blowing away of loose materials from the
ground. Deflation results in the lowering of the land surface to form large
depressions called deflation hollows.
• Abrasion: The sand-blasting of rock surfaces by winds when they hurl sand
particles against them is called abrasion. Abrasion is most effective at or near the
base of rocks, where the amount of maternal the wind is able to carry is greatest.
• Attrition: When wind borne particles roll against one another in collision they
wear each other away so that their sizes are greatly reduced and grains are
rounded into millet seed sand. This process is called attrition.
• Saltation: Slightly larger particles move by rolling or bouncing on the ground.
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LANDFORMS ASSOCIATED WITH WIND EROSION:
i. Deflation basins
Deflation basins, called blowouts, are hollows formed by the removal of particles by
wind. Blowouts are generally small, but may be up to several kilometers in diameter.
ii. Mushroom rocks

A mushroom rock, also called rock pedestal or a pedestal rock, is a naturally occurring
rock whose shape, as its name implies, resembles a mushroom.
The rocks are deformed in a number of different ways: by erosion and weathering,
glacial action, or from a sudden disturbance. Mushroom rocks are related to, but
different from, yardang.
iii. Inselbergs
A monadnock or inselberg is an isolated hill, knob, ridge, outcrop, or small mountain
that rises abruptly from a gently sloping or virtually level surrounding plain.
iv. Demoiselles
These are rock pillars which stand as resistant rocks above soft rocks as a result of
differential erosion of hard and soft rocks.
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v. Zeugen
A table-shaped area of rock found in arid and semi-arid areas formed when more
resistant rock is reduced at a slower rate than softer rocks around it.
vi. Yardangs
A ridge of rock formed by the action of the wind (usually parallel to the prevailing wind
direction).
vii. Wind bridges and windows

Powerful wind continuously abrades stone lattices, creating holes. Sometimes the
holes are gradually widened to reach the other end of the rocks to create the effect
of a window—thus forming a wind window. Window bridges, are formed when the
holes are further widened to form an arch-like feature.
LANDFORMS ASSOCIATED WITH WIND DEPOSITION:

Landforms are also created by the depositional force of wind. These are as follows:
i. Ripple Marks
These are depositional features on a small scale formed by saltation (the transport of
hard particles over an uneven surface in a turbulent flow of air or water).
ii. Sand dunes
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Sand dunes are heaps or mounds of sand found in deserts. Generally their heights
vary from a few metres to 20 metres but in some cases dunes are several hundred
metres high and 5 to 6 km long.
iii. Loess
In some parts of the world, windblown dust and silt blanket the land. This layer of
fine, mineral-rich material is called loess.
Extensive loess deposits are found in northern China, the Great Plains of North
America, central Europe, and parts of Russia and Kazakhstan.
The thickest loess deposits are near the Missouri River in the U.S. state of Iowa and
along the Yellow River in China.
Loess accumulates, or builds up, at the edges of deserts. For example, as wind blows
across the Gobi, a desert in Asia, it picks up and carries fine particles. These particles
include sand crystals made of quartz or mica. It may also contain organic material,
such as the dusty remains of skeletons from desert animals.
Loess often develops into extremely fertile agricultural soil. It is full of minerals and
drains water very well. It is easily tilled, or broken up, for planting seeds.
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Loess usually erodes very slowly – Chinese farmers have been working the loess
around the Yellow River for more than a thousand years.
FLUVIAL EROSION AND LANDFORMS:

The regions of weak sedimentary formations are extensively eroded by numerous rills and
channels which are occasionally developed due to occasional rainstorms. The linear fluvial
erosion results in the formation of ravines and gullies which are divided by numerous
undulating narrow ridges. Thus, the ground surface becomes so uneven and corrugated
due to numerous gullies and ravines that it becomes entirely difficult to walk on it.
Some examples of such landforms are:
i. Rill
In hill slope geomorphology, a rill is a narrow and shallow channel cut into soil by the
erosive action of flowing water.
ii. Gully
A gully is a landform created by running water. Gullies resemble large ditches or small
valleys, but are metres to tens of metres in depth and width.
iii. Ravine
A ravine is a landform narrower than a canyon and is often the product of stream
cutting erosion. Ravines are typically classified as larger in scale than gullies, although
smaller than valleys.
iv. Badland Topography
In arid regions occasional rainstorms produce numerous rills and channels which
extensively erode weak sedimentary formations.
Ravines and gullies are developed by linear fluvial erosion leading to the formation of
badland topography.
Example: Chambal Ravines.
v. Bolsons
The intermontane basins in dry regions are generally known as bolsons.
vi. Playas
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Three unique landforms viz. pediments, bajadas and playas are typically found in
bolsons.
Small streams flow into bolsons, where water is accumulated. These temporary lakes
are called playas.
After the evaporation of water, salt-covered playas are called salinas.
vii. Pediments
In form and function there is no difference between a pediment and an alluvial fan;
however, pediment is an erosional landform while a fan is a constructional one.
A true pediment is a rock cut surface at the foot of mountains.
viii. Bajada
Bajadas are moderately sloping depositional plains located between pediments and
playa.
Several alluvial fans coalesce to form a bajada.
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COASTAL CYCLE OF EROSION AND LANDFORMS:

The coast, also known as the coastline or seashore, is defined as the area where land
meets the sea or ocean, or as a line that forms the boundary between the land and
the ocean or a lake. Earth has around 620,000 kilometres (390,000 mi) of coastline. The
coasts are constantly changing. Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing
their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it
moves.
Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave
the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves.
Coastal Erosion:
• Corrasion is when waves pick up beach material (e.g. pebbles) and hurl them
at the base of a cliff.
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• Abrasion occurs as breaking waves which contain sand and larger fragments
erode the shoreline or headland. It is commonly known as the sand paper
effect.
• When waves hit the base of a cliff air is compressed into cracks. When the
wave retreats the air rushes out of the gap. Often this causes cliff material to
break away. This process is known as hydraulic action.
• Attrition is when waves cause rocks and pebbles to bump into each other and
break up.
• Corrosion/solution is when certain types of cliff erode as a result of weak acids
in the sea.
EROSION LANDFORMS
Note: Erosional landforms from waves are carved on the cliff side which has resistant
rocks.
Notch – A notch is formed by the direct impact of the primary waves. Primary waves are
those which move perpendicular to the coast. Due to impact and abrasion a cavity is
formed on the wall which is called a notch.
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Note: Primary waves are responsible for erosional landforms and secondary waves are
responsible for deposition.
Cave – It is formed when a notch enlarges to form a cave.
Stack – As the erosion continues the roof of the cave becomes thinner and finally falls
down. The walls of the cave remain intact forming Pillars. They are called stacks. Finally,
these stacks wither away leaving stumps.
Cove – A COVE is a small type of bay or coastal inlet. COVES usually have narrow,
restricted entrances, are often circular or oval, and are often situated within a larger bay.
Remember, there is a difference between cove and a cave.
DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
Beach – Beach is the most famous depositional landform of waves. Depending on the size
of sediments, beaches can be Boulder beach, shingle beach or sand beach.
Sand bar – It is the deposition of sand extending into sea. On the basis of formation it can
be parallel sand bar or perpendicular sand bar. If a perpendicular sand bar is attached to
the continent from one end, it is called a Spit.
Hook – If a ocean current is moving along the coast where spit has formed, the spit gets
curved in the direction of the current. This curved spit is called hook. Sometimes, there
are several branches coming out of spit curving in the same direction. It is called a
compound hook.
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Loop – When hook gets too curved, it touches the coast from the other end and forms a
complete loop forming a lake. The lake is called lagoon and the sandbar enclosing is called
a loop.
Tombolo – If a sand bar connects a continent with an island forming a natural bridge, it is
called a Tombolo.
GLACIAL CYCLE OF EROSION AND LANDFORMS:
Glaciers not only transport material as they move, but they also sculpt and carve away
the land beneath them. A glacier's weight, combined with its gradual movement, can
drastically reshape the landscape over hundreds or even thousands of years.
The ice erodes the land surface and carries the broken rocks and soil debris far from their
original places, resulting in some interesting glacial landforms.
GLACIAL EROSION:
• Glaciers with frozen bases do not generally slide along the ice-bed interface, and
therefore do not erode their bases.
• In general greatest erosion is associated with warm-based glaciers that have basal
melting.
• Transition from warm to cold (or water to ice) will contribute to quarrying.
• Fast-flowing glaciers are likely to erode more effectively than slow glaciers.
• Fluctuations in water pressure will promote quarrying
• In areas glaciated several times most of the glacial erosion may be completed
during the first phase of glaciation.
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Glacial Landforms
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
Arete – It is also known as biscuit tray topography. If you have been to Himalayas, you
must have seen that mountains are pyramidal in shape with sharp edged. These sharp
edges are called Arete.
Cirque – Between the edges, the face of the mountain looks like someone has scooped
the material out of it. This depression is called cirque.
Horn – The sharp spear looking top of a mountain is called Horn.
U – Shape Valley – the Formation of a U – Shape valley is similar to that of a V – Shape

valley. But unlike V shape valley where the flow of water is significantly faster in the
center, in case of a glacier the speed of snow is relatively a bit faster than the outer snow.
Also the mass of Snow is high. Because of this a U shape valley is formed.
Hanging Valley – When a glacier fills a former river valley it is at a much higher level and
therefore any tributary glaciers will join the main glacier also at a higher level. Once the
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glacier has eroded it leaves the tributary valley hanging at the side of the main valley. If a
stream enters the hanging valley it plunges over the edge as a waterfall.
D – Fjord - Steep-sided narrow entrance-like feature at the coast where the stream meets
the coast. Fjords are common in Norway, Greenland and New Zealand.
DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
Outwash Plain – It is formed by melting of the glacier. A water stream is formed leaving
debris behind.
Eskers - A long narrow ridge, often sinuous, composed of stratified sediment and marking
the former location of a glacial tunnel.
Drumlin – It is a collection of Round boulders in the outwash plain. A collection of such

boulders looks like an inverted basket. This is also called Egg basket topography.
Kettle Holes – They are formed by plucking of boulders and rocks from the out wash plain
and creating a depression.
Kame – they are broken ridges or unassorted depositions forming a mound.
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Moraine – They are the most famous deposits.
Pieces of gravel and boulders get accumulated along the edge of the glacier as well as the
mouth. These deposits are called Lateral moraine and terminal moraine respectively.
GLACIAL CYCLE:
It may be mentioned that glacial cycle of erosion, though propounded by W.M. Davis in
1900 and 1906 on the same line of normal cycle of erosion and based on basic tenet of
sequential development of landforms through time, could not be fully elaborated and
therefore the concept remained mostly as a theoretical proposition rather than a practical
one.
Youth:
• The glacial cycle of erosion begins with the development of valley or mountain
glaciers in the high mountainous regions.
• Glaciers move downslope because of the pressure force of gravity and expansion
of ice sheets.
• Initially, ice forms in hollows and depressions which are enlarged by weathering
and glacial erosion to form cirques which are characterized by semi-circular shape
and vertical headwalls.
• There is gradual growth in cirques and because of recession many cirques unite to
form compound cirques.
• Growth and recession of cirques leads to erosion of hills which subsequently
become narrow and sharp.
• Such sharp peaks are called aretes or horns. Though several tributary glacial
valleys are developed by the end of youthful stage but hanging valleys are not
perfectly developed.
Maturity:
• The beginning of mature stage is heralded by fuller development of glaciers and

their valleys.
• Numerous mountain glacial valleys unite to form trunk glacial valleys.
• Glacial erosion by different glaciers differs considerably because of differences in
their size, slope, mass of ice, temperature, quantity of debris etc.
• Hanging valleys are formed due to greater erosion of trunk valleys than the
tributary valleys which join the trunk glaciers. There is maximum development of
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cirques and hence except mountain peaks all of the mountainous areas are
covered with ice.
• These peaks projecting above ice covered surface are called nunataks which look
like rock islands amid ice sheets. Eretes and horns are further sharpened because
of continued cirque re cession.
• Glacial staircases or giant stairs are formed due to differential erosion of rocks of
varying resistance.
• The backwalls of cirques ultimately unite due to continued cirque recession and
hence most of the cirques are eliminated. This indicates the end of mature stage.
Old:
• The onset of old stage is characterized by rounding and polishing of peaks (aretes)
and lowering of mountainous area.
• Depressions are filled with eroded debris. Different types of morainic ridges (e.g.
lateral, medial, ground and terminal moraines) are formed due to deposition of
glacial moraines.
• Flat and almost plain surface with ground slope of about 5° is formed because of
deposition of till. The old stage terminates with the recession of glaciers and
ablation of glacial snouts.
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Value Add Notes (VAN)

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

Sedimentary Rocks ................................................................................................................... 72

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

Erosion landforms ................................................................................................................... 156

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

Refer to following questions for reference

Q.1) The property of magnetism in the Earth is due to the presence of

a. Mg and Fe silicates in the mantle

Q.2) Earth’s Crust is thinner below the

Q.6) Consider the following statements regarding Aravallis:

1. It is the oldest mountain range of India.

Which of the above statements are not correct?

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

One of the earliest maps made by Greeks

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

FOUR GREAT EARTH REALMS

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

THE ATMOSPHERE: It is the

THE LITHOSPHERE: it is the outer

THE HYDROSPHERE: It is the liquid

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

underground water. It is studied under Oceanography.

THE BIOSPHERE: It encompasses all the

SCALES IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

The process of four realms occurs at various scales-

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

SYSTEMS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

After understanding how we need to approach Geography as a subject, it is now

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

Combining the two we get following grid system:

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

The seven important lines of latitude are

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

LONGITUDES AND STANDARD TIME

In October 1884, International Meridian Conference was held so that a global

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

THE INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

Here's how the international date line works:

All the best.

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

What is Universe? (The very basic question)

HOW BIG IS IT?

Note: A Light year is the distance travelled by light in one year.

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

Picture of Observable Universe

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

BIG BANG THEORY:

IASBABA’S ILP 2022 – GEOGRAPHY MODULE 1

You must have read about the Black

White Holes are just the opposite of

The white hole is an area of spacetime

THEORY OF SLOW FREEZE OR BIG FREEZE THEORY:

This is a recent theory propounded by

Heidelberg says the universe sprung

In simple words, Universe is not