EARTH & LIFE

SCIENCE

QUARTER 2
MODULE 2
JAPET S. UTED
TEACHER

NAME OF STUDENT:
I. OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

 Explain the evolving concept of life based on emerging pieces of evidence.

 Describe how unifying themes (e.g., structure and function, evolution, and ecosystems) show
the connections among living things and how they interact with each other and with their
environment.
 Describe the different ways of how representative animals reproduce.
 Describe the process of genetic engineering;
 Evaluate the benefits and risks of using GMO’s.

II. DISCUSSION

Chapter 9: The Evolving Concept of Life and the Unifying Themes in the Study of Life

What was the first form of life?

Life is believed to have existed on earth for billions of years now. Scientists do not know exactly when
life has begun on Earth. However, they can trace how life developed and evolved using some
pieces of evidence.

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The Origin of Life

There are many theories about the origin of life. Some believed that living organisms were put to
Earth by some divine forces. Others say that life did not originate from Earth but other planets. But
among scientists, the most accepted theory is that life came from inanimate matter. According to
the primordial soup theory proposed by Alexander Oparin and John Haldane, life started in a
primordial soup of organic molecules. Some form of energy from lightning combined with the
chemicals in the atmosphere to make the building blocks of protein known as the amino acids.
Early Forms of Life

The first form of life is believed to have appeared some 3.5 billion years ago. The first evidence of life is
found in microfossils.

Microfossils are fossils that contain the remains of tiny plants and animals. They are very small and can
be measured in millimetres, and some could only be identified under a microscope. Some of the
remains of organisms do not have a nucleus so they were called prokaryotes. They are known to be
the earliest forms of life. They have survived the extreme conditions of the early environment. They
started to make their food by utilizing the energy from the sun and the carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. These are the photosynthetic organisms. The process of photosynthesis produced more
oxygen that changed the Earth’s early atmosphere. This change in the atmosphere allowed oxygen-
breathing organisms to exist.

The cyanobacteria are the first photosynthetic organisms to form. Their microfossils are among the
easiest to recognize. Their morphology remained the same and they left chemical fossils in the form
of broken products from pigments. The first microfossil that showed remains of organisms with
differences in structure from the simple form of life was seen in rocks about 1.5 billion years old. They
are larger than bacteria and have internal membranes and thicker wall. These findings marked the
beginning of eukaryotic organisms on Earth.

How did multicellular organisms evolve?

Multicellular organisms are believed to have evolved from unicellular eukaryotes. Some single
eukaryotic cells, like unicellular algae, formed multicellular aggregates through association with
another cell producing colonies. From colonial aggregates, the organisms evolved to form
multicellular organisms through cell specialization.

Protozoans, sponges, and fungi came to being. The first fossilized animals which were discovered 580
million years ago were soft-bodied. The continuous process of cell specialization brought the
emergence of complex and diverse plants and animals, including human beings. Evidence from
fossil layers proved that different forms of life were present and have evolved through time.
According to Charles Darwin, organisms change over time as a result of adaptation to their
environment to survive.

The Connections and Interactions among Living Things

Ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of living organisms and their relationships
with each other and their environment.

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The picture above depicts that everything is connected and interrelated with one another. They are
different from each other, but they co-exist with one another in one community.

The unifying themes of life give us an idea of how each of these themes contributes to the
connection and interaction of living organisms and their environment.
Biological Systems

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A system consists of related parts that interact with each other to form a whole. It has different parts,
but each plays a significant role for the whole to function as one. Without help from each other, it
cannot fully perform its function.

Levels of Organization

The cells are considered as the basic unit of life. All living organisms are made up of cells. When cells
come together, they form the tissues. A group of tissues that perform the same functions form the
organs. A group of organs that works together form different organ systems. An organism consists of
many organ systems but functions as one individual.

Forms and Functions

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The function of an organism or a part of an organism greatly depends on its form and structure. It is
related to how it works. An example of this is the webbed foot of a duck which helps the duck swim
and search for their food underwater. Others birds have different structures of feet used for perching
and grasping food.

Reproduction and Inheritance

Reproduction ensures the survival of species. All living organisms reproduce either through asexual or
sexual reproduction. In asexual reproduction, the offspring inherits the genes from a single parent.
However, in sexual reproduction, the offspring inherit the genes from two individual parents. Some
examples of animals that undergo asexual reproduction include earthworms, hydra, planaria, and
bacteria. Animals that undergo sexual reproduction include some reptiles, fishes, insects, and
mammals.

Energy and Life

Living organisms obtain energy from the food they eat. Plants undergo photosynthesis where they
convert the energy from the sun into sugar. Since most of the animals cannot produce their energy,
they get the energy from the consumption and assimilation of the biomass of plants and other
animals.
Thermal Regulation

The ability of an organism to regulate their internal conditions is called homeostasis.

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Humans have to maintain a body temperature of 37C. When the temperature outside our bodies
becomes hot, the skin cools down by perspiration, maintaining the normal body temperature.

Adaptation and Evolution

In a world that is continuously changing, life itself evolves. Evolution is the change in the physical and
heritable traits of organisms over successive generations. Organisms change over time to acclimate
to their environment to survive. If they fail to adapt to the changes, they usually become extinct. The
Baiji white dolphin, for example, became extinct due to diminished food supply and in addition to
that, the pollution caused by human activities. One contemporary example of adaptation is the
Aedes aegypti or the mosquito famous for carrying dengue that caused major outbreaks
nationwide.

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Their eggs were able to survive with scarce or no rainwater which is essential to their life cycle.
Evolution takes time, usually decades. However, there are times when change happens very rapidly.
One example is the blue moon butterfly that managed to undergo a mutation which allows the
males to survive an infection of a parasite.

Activity 1

Your mother bought some meat from the market one day. She placed the meat in a pan but forgot
to place it in the freezer. After some time, maggots were seen crawling from the meat. What can you
say about these outcomes?

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Try it!

Place a piece of bread in a plastic container and leave it for three days (don’t forget to attach the
picture of your bread). Observe what would happen to the bread. What do you see on the bread?
What brought them there?

Activity 2

Direction. Look around you and make a list of at least 10 living organisms that surround you and
answer the following questions below.

Questions.

1. What makes them similar to one another?

2. What makes them different?

Chapter 10: The Reproduction of Animals and Genetic Engineering

Animals produce sounds which are significant in their reproduction. It is an essential feature of living
organisms because, without reproduction, life will not exist.

How do different animals ensure continuity of species?

There are two types of reproduction that exists in living organisms: asexual and sexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction is common among the lower form of animals while sexual reproduction can be
found in more complex animals.

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Asexual Reproduction

This type of reproduction does not need two parents to produce an individual. Therefore, the
offspring produced is the exact copy of the parent animal. Most common forms are fission,
fragmentation, and budding.

Fission

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Fission is a type of asexual reproduction wherein two individuals will form as the parent divides in half.
The illustration below shows a sea anemone undergoing fission.

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Fragmentation

Fragmentation, the breaking of body parts into fragments, is always followed by regeneration and
regrowth of lost parts. Even if the animal is broken into many pieces, each piece will grow into a new
individual. Planarians, as shown in the illustration below, as well as sponges, cnidarians, bristle worms,
and sea squirts reproduce by fragmentation.

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Budding

Budding is when an outgrowth called a bud grows and develops from the parent animal and would
eventually separate to become a new individual. This type of reproduction is common in certain
species of coral and hydra.

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Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction needs two parents to produce offspring. The combination of the genes from
both parents increases the chances of species variation. Therefore, species extinction is highly
unlikely. Fertilization, the union of egg and sperm cells, could happen internally or externally.

External Fertilization

In external fertilization, the union of egg and sperm occurs outside the female reproductive tract. This
is common among most species of bony fish and amphibians. As shown in the illustration below, the
clasping of the male frog induces the female to release eggs, over which the male releases his
sperm.

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Most eggs of the amphibians develop in the water but others carry them on their back or in their
vocal sacs as shown below.

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Internal Fertilization

In internal fertilization, the union of egg and sperm occurs within the female reproductive tract.
Animals that undergo in this type of reproduction produce offspring in any of the following ways:
oviparity, ovoviviparity, and viviparity.

 Oviparity – after the eggs are fertilized internally, it would complete its development outside
the mother’s body. The egg would receive its nourishment through its yolk. This is found in some
bony and cartilaginous fish (including clownfish and blue tangs), most reptiles, some
amphibians, all birds, and a few mammals (monotremes).
 Ovoviviparity – the eggs are also fertilized internally and receive its nourishment through its
yolk. However, eggs will complete its development within the mother. They are then fully
developed when they are hatched and released by the mother. This is common in some bony
fish (including mollies, guppies, and mosquito fish), some cartilaginous fish, and many reptiles.
 Viviparity – the eggs are developed internally and receive nourishment directly from the
mother’s blood through placenta rather than from the yolk. This can be found in most
cartilaginous fish (including lemon sharks), some amphibians, a few reptiles, and almost all
mammals including humans.

Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology

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Genetic engineering means modifying genes in a living organism to produce genetically modified
organisms (GMOs) also known as transgenic organisms. It is a modern type of genetic modification. In
this process, the gene of interest is physically removed and placed in an organism to be modified.
This method is more rapid and specific than the traditional plant breeding because a gene coding
for a specific trait could be transferred to an organism. Genetic engineering is an application of
biotechnology which uses biological systems, processes, or organisms to create products intended to
improve the quality of human life.

How is genetic engineering done?

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As shown in the illustration above, copies of the recombinant plasmid— a circular, double-stranded
DNA molecule, will be isolated and transferred to other organisms. Depending on the gene of
interest, genetic engineering has various applications in the field of medicine, environment, and
agriculture.

To help you describe the processes involved in genetic engineering, let us use Bt corn, a genetically
modified pest-resistant plant as an example. This plant was grown in the Philippines against Asian
corn borer, a major pest in corn.

DNA Isolation (isolating plasmid and gene of interest)

The first step in creating a pest-resistant plant is isolating the plasmid of Agrobacterium and pest-
resistant gene from a bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).

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 Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a gram-negative soil bacteria cause crown gall disease in plants
but its tumour-inducing plasmid is usually used in genetic engineering because of its ability to
integrate its DNA into a plant’s genome.
 The resistant gene would be obtained in the DNA of Bacillus thuringiensis. This bacterium
produces a protein known as Cry1Ab toxin that is lethal to the larval stage of lepidopterans
(moth family).

Ligation (gene insertion to the plasmid)

When the resistant gene is inserted into the isolated plasmid, they are cleaved using the same
restriction enzyme before they are combined using DNA ligases. Restriction enzymes are also called
restriction endonucleases. Once they recognize a specific nucleotide sequence, they cleave the
strands.

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Transformation (plasmid is placed back into the bacterial cell).

The recombinant plasmid would then be placed back to the bacterium in a process called
transformation.

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Selection (identification of the desired clone)

The nutrient media with X-gal (special galactose sugar) are used to select the transformed bacteria
containing the recombinant plasmid with the gene of interest.

The selected bacteria would then infect the cell of corn and integrate the gene into the plant’s DNA.
When the plant cell divides, each daughter cell receives the new gene. The transformed corn plant is
now pest-resistant.

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The inserted gene producing the toxin in the genetically modified crop is only lethal to specific target
pests.

Current Uses of GMOs

The genes of bacteria, plants, and animals are being modified to improve the quality of human life.
Depending on the gene of interest, GMOs have many uses in agriculture, medicine, and the
environment.

Uses of Genetically Modified Bacteria

 Escherichia coli creates synthetic human insulin.

 Cyanobacteria is used to yield polyhydroxybutyrate to produce bioplastic.

Uses of Genetically Modified Plants

 Bt corn is a pest-resistant plant against corn-infesting larvae.

 The Banana vaccine is an edible vaccine against hepatitis virus.
 Golden rice is a genetically modified rice that produces beta-carotene.

Uses of Genetically Modified Animals

 Bioluminescent animals are used to identify different types of cells to detect diseases.
 Some bioluminescent animals such as gold fish became novelty pets to humans.
 Fast-growing salmon is genetically modified salmon to continually produce growth hormones.

Advantages of GMOs

The GMOs offer many benefits to mankind such as:

 Increased productivity. This enables farmers to have higher crop yields and reduced pesticide
use. (e.g. BT corn)
 Reduced pesticide use. Since GM crops are modified for a specific pest, the use of pesticide
against that pest is reduced or removed.
 Improved nutrition like the high beta carotene content of Golden Rice. GM crops such as
Golden Rice with improved nutrition (high in beta carotene) reduces eye-related problems like
blindness due to malnutrition.
 Aided disease detection. Diseases can be identified because of protein trackers in
bioluminescent animals.
Disadvantages of GMOs

GMOs also raised concerns from people because of its possible harm to the environment and
mankind such as:

 Reduced biodiversity of non-damaging insects. Pest resistant crops (e.g. Bt corn) lead to
unintended harm to non-crop damaging insects such as larvae of Monarch butterflies
when affected by the pollen of BT corn.
 Decreased pesticide effectivity. Pest resistant crops seem to reduce the need for pesticide at
first but it would increase later on.
 Produced allergic reactions. Some people develop an allergic response to GM crops when
exposed to them.
 Led to a higher cost for GM seeds. Farmers buy new seeds every year. Farmers using second-
generation seeds would lead them to the Supreme Court with a charge of patent
infringement.

Activity 3

Jellyfish reproduction involves both sexual and asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction occurs in
the adult stage where males release sperm and females release eggs. When sperm and egg
combine, it will form a small larva called planula. These planulae will attach to rocks and become
polyps. During this stage, they can reproduce asexually by elongating then-budding off to produce
many young jellyfish.

1. Why do you think many species of jellyfish produce offspring extraordinarily quickly?

2. Tell whether the following scenarios are under asexual or sexual reproduction.

1. Offspring are genetically variable

2. Every offspring is genetically identical

3. Slower rate of reproduction

4. Faster rate of reproduction

5. Needs only one parent to produce an offspring

6. Needs two parents to produce an offspring

7. Extinction of species is unlikely

3. As of 2014, International Rice Research Institute declared that the Philippines would have field trials
of GM rice known as Golden rice (high in beta-carotene). However, the farmers in the Bicol region
together with other independent organizations expressed strong opposition against it. Given all the
benefits of golden rice and GMOs in general, what do you think that there are still controversies
underlying the production of GMOs?

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 Activity 4

Direction. Search in the internet at least 5 genetically modified organisms and write a brief
description of each GMO’s.

GMO’s Description

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

III. EVALUATION

I. Multiple Choice. Read and analyze the questions and write the letter of your answer in your answer
sheet.

1. Genetic engineering involves the transfer of

A. proteins B. sugars C. genes D. enzymes

2. It is the process where the recombinant plasmid is placed back to the bacterium.
A. transformation B. selection C. DNA isolation D. ligation

3. Cutting certain genes out of molecules of DNA requires the use of special
A. DNA ligases B. restriction endonucleases C. degrading nucleases D. viral
enzymes

4. Which of the following components is added to the nutrient media used to select transformed
bacteria?
A. dextrose B. glycerol C. peptone D. X-gal

5. Which of the following is the correct order of the steps in genetic engineering?
A. ligation, transformation, DNA isolation, selection
B. DNA isolation, ligation, transformation, selection
C. selection, DNA isolation, transformation, ligation
D. transformation, selection, DNA isolation, ligation

6. What do you call the union of the sperm cell and egg cell?
A. reproduction B. fission C. fertilization D. budding

7. What type of reproduction does not need two parents to produce an individual?
A. sexual reproduction B. asexual reproduction C. external fertilization D. internal
fertilization

8. It is a type of asexual reproduction wherein two individuals will form as the parent divides in half.
A. fragmentation B. budding C. regeneration D. fission

9. Which of the following animals fertilize the eggs outside the female reproductive tract?
A. frog B. human C. turtle D. hydra

10. Which of the following characteristics does not describe ovoviviparity?

A. eggs complete their development within the mother
B. eggs receive their nourishment through its yolk
C. the eggs are fertilized internally
 D. eggs receive their nourishment through the placenta

11. What is the process by which the sun's energy is trapped as the source of energy and is converted
into chemical energy?
A. adaptation B. evolution C. photosynthesis D. homeostasis

12. Which of the following refers to the process by which changes occur in the characteristics of
species of organisms over time?
A. evolution B. homeostasis C. regulation D. metabolism

13. Which refers to the maintenance of internal conditions of an organism within a certain range?
A. adaptation B. evolution C. metabolism D. homeostasis

14. Which of the following sequences is likely to be observed in an elephant, going from smallest to
largest?
A. cell, organ, tissue, organism C. cell, organ, system, tissue
B. organism, system, organ, tissue D. cell, tissue, system, organism

15. Which of the following does not follow the principle of form follows function?
A. The thick and heavy bones of birds allow them to stay longer in the air.
B. The fins of a fish help it to propel itself through the water.
C. The beaver’s spoon-shaped tail helps them in swimming and is also used as a defence
mechanism.
D. The biconcave shape of red blood cells provides a greater surface area which allow both red
blood cells and oxygen to exchange through the capillaries which are smaller in diameter than
the red blood cells.
16. When did the early forms of life exist?
A. 1.5 billion years ago C. 2.5 billion years ago
B. 4.5 billion years ago D. 3.5 billion years ago

17. Where is the first form of life seen?

A. microfossils B. layers of rocks C. oceanic crusts D. sediments

18. Which of the following is the first photosynthetic organism to form?

A. cyanobacteria B. algae C. fungi D. gymnosperm

19. Which is not true about the prokaryotes?

A. They are simple in structure, small, and unicellular. C. They do not have a nucleus.
B. They survive in extreme conditions. D. They are not capable of making their food.

20. Which of the following processes brought changes in the early atmosphere?
A. earthquake B. extreme condition C. photosynthesis D. volcanic eruption

IV. REFERENCES

 https://m.facebook.com/notes/earth-and-life-science/64-genetic-engineering-and-its-applications-in-
reproduction/2004849196418393/
 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/
 https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/13-1-how-animals-reproduce
 https://a3biology1.weebly.com/unifying-themes-of-biology.html&ved
 Blogspot/fbpost by Warlito Canoy