COMMUNICATION AND

INTERNET TECHNOLOGIES
CHAPTER 2
 BIT RATE
• The transfer rate of data occurs either wirelessly by radio waves or over a cable, for
example by fibre optic cable or copper twisted wire. The data is transmitted as
stream of bits. There are a number of different methods that can be used to
transfer the data.
• The rate at which the transfer of data occurs is called the bit rate. This is the
number of bits that can be transmitted in a given period of time. Bit rate is
measured in bits per seconds (bps) or new more commonly in megabits per second
(Mbps). The more megabits per second a data transfer connection is capable of, the
quicker the data can be transferred. For example, a broadband connection that has a
bit rate of 50Mbps will allow data to be transferred quicker than a broadband
connection of 25Mbps.
DATA TRANSMISSION
 TYPES OF TRANSMISSION
Wired and wireless connections
Connections between computers on a network can be wired or wireless.
Wired connection
Computers can be connected through Ethernet cables which connect to the
Ethernet port. Connecting hardware such as a router has Ethernet ports.
 TYPES OF TRANSMISSION
Wireless connection
• Computers can make a wireless connection if they have a wireless NIC. A
wireless router provides a connection with the physical network. A computer device
needs to be within range of the router to get access. A wireless connection uses
radio signals to send data across networks. The wireless adapter converts the data
into a radio signal and the wireless receiver decodes it so that the computer can
understand it.
• Wireless transmissions can be intercepted by anyone within range of the router.
Access can also be restricted to specific MAC addresses, and transmissions are
usually encrypted using a key that works with WPA (wi-fi protected access).
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF WIRELESS NETWORKS
Advantages
• cheap set-up costs
• not tied down to a specific location
• can connect multiple devices without
the need for extra hardware
• less disruption to the building due to
no wires being installed
Disadvantages
• interference can occur
• the connection is not as stable as
wired networks and can 'drop off'
• it will lose quality through walls or
obstructions
• more open to hacking
• slower than wired networks
 TYPES OF CABLES

Cables connect devices together. Signal are sent along the cable. There are three
main types of cables.
Twisted pair cable: This is made of pairs of copper wires, individually insulated
and then twisted together. It is inexpensive, flexible and easy to install but it is
not suitable for long-distance link. Electrical interference can cause errors in
the data. It is used for short-distance link.
Use: Older telephone networks, local area network (LAN) cables
 TYPES OF CABLES

Coaxial cable: this is a metal cable, surrounded by a layer of insulation then

another layer of metal. It has protection against the electrical interference. It is
more expensive than twisted pair cable, it is used where cables need to go close
to electrical and radio equipment.
Use: Used by cable operators, telephone companies, and internet providers
around the world to convey data, video, and voice communications to
customers
 TYPES OF CABLES

Fibre-optic cable is fairly expensive but it has many advantages over the other
types of cable. It is not affected by electrical interference. Optical fibre has
benefits including less signal loss and immunity to electromagnetic interference
(EMI). . It is suitable for long-distance links
Use: Fibre optic cables transmit large amounts of data at very high speed. It is
used in Internet, Cable Television, Telephone, Computer Networking, Lighting
and Decorations, Military and Space Applications
 EXAMPLES OF DATA TRANSMISSION

• Electrical pulses that travel down metal cables

• Pulses of light that travel down a fibre-optic cable
• Wireless signals – radio signals, microwave and infrared waves – when the
bits are sent as electromagnetic waves that move through space, and also air.
SIMPLEX DATA TRANSMISSION

Examples of
simplex include radio
broadcasting, television
broadcasting, computer
to
printer communication
and keyboard to
computer connections.
HALF DUPLEX DATA TRANSMISSION

A walkie-talkie is
a half-duplex device
because only one
party can transmit at a
time, hub is also half
duplex as only one
computer can transmit
data at a time
FULL DUPLEX DATA TRANSMISSION

A telephone is
a full-duplex
device because
both parties can
talk at once.
 TO DO
Q1. Cables connect devices together. Write short notes on the following
cable types.(Brief description of cable structure, application, advantage,
disadvantage)
Twisted pair cable
Coaxial cable
Fibre-optic
Q2. Explain using examples, long and short distance data transmission.
 SERIAL DATA TRANSMISSION
• In data transmission, serial communication is the process of sending data
one bit at a time, sequentially, over a communication channel or computer
bus.
 EXAMPLE
Example of serial mode transmission include connections between a
computer and a modem using the RS-232 protocol .
 SERIAL DATA TRANSMISSION
• Serial transmission is the most reliable method of data transmission. The bits
are kept separate from each other. They arrive in the same order that they
were sent. Serial transmission is used for long distance communication
• Serial transmission is slow than parallel transmission
 PARALLEL DATA TRANSMISSION
• In data transmission, parallel communication is a method of conveying
multiple binary digits (bits) simultaneously.
 EXAMPLE
 Examples of parallel mode transmission include connections between a
computer and a printer (parallel printer port and cable). Most printers are
within 6 meters or 20 feet of the transmitting computer and the slight cost
for extra wires is offset by the added speed gained through parallel
transmission of data
 PARALLEL DATA TRANSMISSION
• Although parallel transmission can transfer data faster, it requires
more transmission channels than serial transmission. This means
that data bits can be out of sync, depending on transfer distance and how
fast each bit loads.
SERIAL OR PARALLEL
TRANSMISSION
SERIAL OR PARALLEL
TRANSMISSION
 SERIAL VERSUS PARALLEL
Make a comparison chart for serial and parallel data transmission. You are
required to include the following;
Definition
Speed
Distance
Application
Cable description
 TRANSMISSION SERIAL
CHARACTERISTICS
Transmission description One bit comes after
another, one by one
Speed Slower
Distance Long distance
Application Between two computers,
from computer to
external devices, and local
and wide area network
Cable description All bits travel down in
single wire, one bit at one
time
PARALLEL
All bits (typically 8 bits)
transmit simultaneously
Faster
Short distance
Within the computer,
between drive controller
to hard drive
Each bit travel through its
own wire simultaneously
with other bits
 TO DO
• What is serial, simplex data transmission?
• What is parallel full duplex data transmission?
• What is parallel half duplex data transmission?
SOLUTION
 DATA PACKETS

• The main purpose of networking is to share data between computers. A file

has to be broken up into small chunks of data known as data packets in
order to be transmitted over a network. The data is then re-built once it
reaches the destination computer. Networking hardware is required to
connect computers and manage how data packets are
communicated. Protocols are used to control how data is transmitted across
networks.
SYNCHRONOUS DATA
TRANSMISSION
SYNCHRONOUS DATA
TRANSMISSION
ASYNCHRONOUS DATA
TRANSMISSION
 EXAMLES
• Chat Rooms, Video Conferencing, Telephonic Conversations,
Web cam, instant messaging use synchronous data transmission
• Email and text messaging, forums use asynchronous data
transmission.
USE OF SERIAL TRANSMISSION
UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS
 USE OF PARALLEL TRANSMISSION

• An integrated circuit, or IC, is small chip that can function as an amplifier,

oscillator, timer, microprocessor, or even computer memory. An IC is a small
wafer, usually made of silicon, that can hold anywhere from hundreds to
millions of transistors, resistors, and capacitors
 USE OF PARALLEL TRANSMISSION

• An Integrated Circuit(IC) uses parallel data transmission. This is due to the need
for high-speed data transfer, which cant be achieved by serial data transmission.

• An internal clock is used for correct timing of data transfer, which makes it
synchronous.

• The short distances, however, makes it less risky to do this.

 ERROR DETECTION AND
CORRECTION

Errors can occur when transmitting and storing data. This is because the
channels that are used to transmit the data can be subjected to disturbance.
These errors can lead to inaccuracies in the data and make the data unreliable.
 TYPES OF ERROR

Error in transmission can mean that:

• Some of the bits are lost from data stream
• Extra bits are added to the data stream
• 1 bits change 0, or 0 bits change to 1.
 TRANSPOSITION ERROR
A transposition error is a simple error of data entry which occurs when two
digits that are either individual or part of a larger sequence of numbers are
reversed (transposed) when posting a transaction.
 TRANSCRIPTION ERROR
A transcription error is a specific type of data entry error that is commonly
made by human operators.
 AUTOMATIC REPEAT REQUEST
(ARQ)

The error check methods are used in a process called automatic repeat request (ARQ).
This is a method to ensure correct transmission of data. It works like this:
• The transmitter sends some data (called a packet).
• When the receiver gets the data packet, it checks it for errors.
• If the receiver finds no errors, it will send an acknowledgement.
• If the transmitter doesn’t receive an acknowledgement, it sends the data again.
• The transmitter will keep on sending the data packet until it receives an
acknowledgement
 PARITY CHECK

A parity check uses a parity bit to make sure that the data has been sent
accurately. Data is sent in bytes, normally made up of 8 bits. In a parity check,
the first 7 bit of the byte are the data itself, the last bit is the parity bit. A parity
check can use odd Parity or even parity. All the bits are added together in the
byte and depending on whether odd or even parity is being used a 1 or a 0 will
be added as the finally parity bit.
 EXAMPLE OF PARITY CHECK
If we use the example 1001100, using an even parity check, the parity bit would be a 1:
1+0+0+1+1+0+0=3
As 3 is an odd number we need to add 1 to it to make it even. This is why, when using
even parity, the parity bit for this byte will be a 1.
Using the example 1001100 and an odd parity check, the parity bit would be a 0:
1+0+0+1+1+0+0=3
As 3 is an odd number we need to add 0 to it to keep it odd. This is why, when using
odd parity the parity bit for this byte will be a 0.
 LIMITATIONS

• The parity method is not perfect.

• If there are two errors in a byte then the parity check will fail.
Example: Byte 01010001 can be transmitted like 00000001 because the original
and altered bytes both can pass odd parity check)
• If two bits get swapped round (transposition error) then the parity check will
not spot the error.
• For this reason other data checks are used as well as a parity bit.
 EXAMPLE (FINDING THE ERROR
BIT)

• In this example, nine bytes of data have been transmitted. Agreement has
been made that even parity will be used. Another byte, known as the
PARITY BYTE, has also been sent. This byte consists entirely of the parity
bits produced by the vertical parity check. The parity byte also indicates the
end of the block of data.
• The following table shows how the data arrived at the receiving end.
EXAMPLE (FINDING THE ERROR
BIT)

• byte 8 (row 8) has

incorrect parity
(there are three 1-
bits)

• bit 5 (column 5) also

has incorrect parity
(there are five 1-bits).
 CHECK DIGIT
Check digits are used for identifying errors in data entry for example, a typo or
a scanning error.
They can usually identify:
• An incorrect digit entered
• Transposition error
• Omitted or extra digits
• Phonetic errors in speech
CHECK DIGIT
CHECK DIGIT
CHECK DIGIT
CHECK DIGIT
CHECK DIGIT
CHECK DIGIT
 CHECKSUM
• Checksum is another way to check if data has been changed or corrupted
following data transmission. Data is sent in blocks and an additional value,
the checksum, is also sent at the end of the block of data.

• To explain how this works, we will assume the checksum of a block of data
is 1 byte in length. This gives a maximum value of 28 – 1 (i.e. 255). The value
0000 0000 is ignored in this calculation. Following example explains how a
checksum is generated.
 CHECKSUM
Suppose the value of X is 1185, then tracing through the algorithm,
we get:
X = 1185
1185/256 = 4.629
Rounding down to nearest whole number gives Y = 4
Multiplying by 256 gives Z = Y * 256 = 1024
The difference (X – Z) gives the checksum: (1185 – 1024) = 161
This gives the checksum = 161
TODO
 ECHO CHECK

With echo check, when data is sent to another device, this data is sent back
again to the sender. The sender compares the two sets of data to check if any
errors occurred during the transmission process. As you will have no doubt
worked out, this isn’t very reliable. If the two sets of data are different, it isn’t
known whether the error occurred when sending the data in the first place, or
if the error occurred when sending the data back for checking! However, if no
errors occurred then it is another way to check that the data was transmitted
correctly?
 INTERNET TECHNOLOGIES
• Internet
• Internet Service Provider
• Website
• Static and Dynamic webpages
• Search engine
• Webserver
• Web browser
• Web protocol
• HTML (Structure and Presentation)