Journal of Sound and Vibration (1972) 23 (2), 199-216

THE DAMPING CHARACTERISTICS OF CERTAIN STEELS, CAST

IRONS AND OTHER METALS
R.D. ADAMS

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TR, England

(Received 3 1 March 1972)

The specific damping capacity of a wide range of engineering metals has been determined
at direct cyclic stresses up to the fatigue limit. A recently developed damping apparatus
was used in which the specimen vibrated in its fundamental free-free longitudinal mode,
driven by a magnetostrictive vibrator. The energy dissipation was determined from the
rate of rise of temperature at different sections of the specimen.
Below the cyclic stress sensitivity limit, ur,, the damping of ferromagnetic materials was
principally due to the magnetomechanical effect, i.e. the stress-induced movement of domain
boundaries. The magnetomechanical damping mechanism is non-damaging and usually
causes a peak in the damping-stress relationship.
Suppressing the magnetomechanical effect by applying a saturating magnetic field showed
that the damping of plain carbon steels was virtually independent of stress provided uL
was not exceeded. Above this stress, the damping increased rapidly owing to microplastic
strain and was a function of stress history. Re-testing at lower amplitudes showed that the
effective value of cL was considerably less than that for virgin material. Ageing at room
temperature allowed some recovery.
A specific damping capacity of 26% was recorded for Sonoston, a commercial high-
damping manganese/copper alloy. This was exceeded only by a coarse flake graphite cast
iron and annealed nickel (magnetomechanical). The damping of cast irons is due to the shape
of the graphite inclusions rather than to the quantity of free graphite in the steel matrix.
The aluminium and copper alloys gave the lowest values of damping, but all were
markedly stress-dependent except Duralumin. Brasses with a small free lead content had
considerably higher damping than otherwise identical but lead-free materials.

1. INTRODUCTION
When a structure is acted on by a fluctuating force, whether this force be harmonic, impulsive
or random with respect to time, some or all parts of the structure will vibrate. If the frequency,
or some component of the frequency spectrum, of the exciting force coincides with a natural
frequency of the system, the amplitude of vibration in this mode will increase until the energy
dissipated is equal to the energy supplied by the exciting force. Damping, then, is beneficial in
reducing the response of a resonant system. However, at frequencies well removed from
resonance, damping has little or no effect in limiting the response.
Although damping is mainly of importance at resonance, it is usually only when resonance
occurs that structural vibration becomes a problem. Excessive amplitudes of vibration can
cause failure of components by metal fatigue, malfunction of instruments, radiation of noise,
and customer discomfort.
There are generally several sources of damping in a structure, any or all of which may be
active in a given installation. Principally, these sources are the damping capacity of the
material itself, external (Coulomb) friction due to interfacial slip at joints, acoustic radiation,
hydrodynamic (viscous) damping in journal bearings and lubricated slideways, and deliber-
ately applied damping such as viscoelastic damping treatments, eddy current dampers, and
mechanical dampers as used on motor vehicles. In some cases, design and environmental
199
200 R. D. ADAMS

factors may mean that the only major source of damping is the damping capacity of the
material. For instance, the modern tendency to produce one-piece structures by welding or
machining from a solid block removes the damping resulting from slipping at bolted joints,
which is often the most important single source of damping. Another example might be the
replacement of journal bearings by roller or ball bearings, again reducing the overall level
of damping. Thin aluminium alloy panels in aircraft may have adequate damping at ground
level owing to acoustic radiation, but when operating at high altitudes, where the air density
is low, this source of energy dissipation will be seriously reduced. In some cases, however,
low damping is desirable, e.g. in bells, clock springs, instrument suspensions and ultrasonic
machining equipment.
Since material damping may be an important factor in design, it is necessary to have
accurate, quantitative data on the damping capacity of typical engineering metals under
conditions that might be expected to exist in practice.
In the period up to 1945, great interest was shown in material damping and many papers
were published. The principal contributors were Kimball and Love11 [I], von Heydekampf
[2], Dorey [3], Foppl [4], Contractor and F. C. Thompson [5], and Hatfield, Stanfield and
Rotherham [6]. Other than confirming qualitative trends for a given material, the results
obtained by these various authors showed a considerable amount of scatter. The only note of
unanimity to emerge was that the damping capacity of metals is an extremely sensitive
property which can be considerably affected by small differences in heat treatment and
composition. One contributory factor to this lack of agreement was failure to specify precisely
the materials used and their condition. However, it was generally agreed that damping in
metals was (i) hysteretic and not viscous by nature, and (ii) markedly dependent on the
amplitude of vibration, except at very low strains.
In parallel with these engineering investigations, physicists and metallurgists were using
damping measurements as a research tool to study their theories on the structure of metals.
This work was generally carried out at very low strains, i.e. less than 10e5, and as such it was
of little interest or use to engineers. It is therefore not discussed here, except where relevant,
but it is covered in detail by Zener [7] and Entwistle [8].
Intrigued by the conflicting results obtained by the so-called “physical” and “mechanical”
methods, Cottell, Entwistle and F. C. Thompson in 1948 [9] published a classical study of the
Fiippl-Pertz torsion pendulum, the apparatus used in most of the engineering investigations
to that date. They showed that the inherent damping of this apparatus, even in the refined form
used in the later investigations [5, 61 gave a background loss of 0.5-1.0 %t specific damping
capacity. The results of Cottell et al., were in agreement with the work of Hanstock and
Murray [IO] who used a “physical” method, i.e. a torsion pendulum maintained in steady
oscillation by an electrical feedback system.
Considerable doubt was therefore cast on the results of earlier work using materials for
which the damping capacity was only a few per cent; this covered the majority of engineering
materials tested up to that time.
It was therefore necessary to start afresh after 1948, and to use apparatus which would give
reliable results when testing materials of low and moderate damping capacity.
Sumner and Entwistle [I l] also used a maintained torsion pendulum, described in reference
[12]. Their work was principally concerned with the damping of ferromagnetic materials, and
a very careful study was made of the effects of stress. It was stated that about 2,000 cycles of
vibration are sometimes necessary for stable damping to be achieved, suggesting that experi-
ments using free decay techniques are not suitable for investigations of magnetoelastic
damping.
t Specitic dampingcapacity, 4, is defined as A W/ Wwhere A Wis the energy dissipated and Wis the maximum
strain energy per cycle.
 DAMPING IN METALS 201
Cochardt [13] in the U.S.A. used an apparatus based on the Fijppl-Pertz torsion pendulum
and investigated the effects of stress and temperature on the damping of ferromagnetic
materials for use in steam turbines. Parallel work by Clark and Hagel [14] showed consider-
able disagreement with Cochardt, and the anomaly has still to be resolved.
Robertson and Yorgiadis [15] reviewed the literature on damping and tried to correlate
the results obtained in torsion with those obtained in direct tension-compression. They
conducted tests in which both of these stress systems were used, but the values of damping
quoted are so high that the apparatus must be considered questionable. However, on the
results of their tests, Robertson and Yorgiadis recommended that data obtained with normal
and shear stresses could be related on a basis of energy dissipated per cycle by multiplying
the direct stress by an empirical factor, K, which lay between 0.48 and 0.60, the actual value
depending on the material. From Nadai’s report [16] that subjecting metals to very high
hydrostatic pressures left no permanent set, they concluded that damping was associated only
with distortional strains and not with dilatation.
Recently, Whittier [17] has suggested that dilatational strains may contribute considerably
to material damping. However, the picture is by no means clear and there is no simple
method of converting data measured in torsion for use in direct stress application.
Undoubtedly, the most prolific recent source of data has been the team directed by the late
Professor Lazan at the University of Minnesota. The principal apparatus used in these
investigations operated on the rotating cantilever principle [IS, 191. The specimen is in the
form of a tapered thin-walled tube in bending. Lazan and his co-workers studied the damping
and fatigue properties of a large number of materials, and investigated the effects of stress
amplitude, frequency, stress history and temperature [19,20]. Lazan’s work was excellent in
the high stress region, i.e. at stresses in the region of the fatigue limit. However, the rotating
cantilever apparatus was not suitable for low and intermediate stress levels, nor with
materials of low damping, since the sensitivity was rather low.
Thus, there is a need for more data on a wide range of engineering materials at stress levels
of engineering interest, i.e. below the fatigue limit, but above the very small amplitudes used
by physicists and metallurgists. The purpose of the work described here was to go some way
towards satisfying this need.

2. APPARATUS
The apparatus, described more fully elsewhere [21], was suitable for all stress levels from a
few hundred lbf inM2t to stresses near the fatigue limit for the range of damping capacity
encountered in most ferrous and non-ferrous materials, except those of very high damping
capacity or which possessed considerably non-linear stress-strain characteristics.
The specimen was in the form of a uniform bar of O-375in diameter,$ vibrating in its funda-
mental free-free axial mode, excited by a magnetostrictive transducer at a pre-determined
constant amplitude for a given time (5-30 seconds). At the test frequency of 11,625 Hz, the
length I of the specimen is given by
a=2 x 11,625 x I
where a is the velocity of sound. The stress 0 at any point x from one end is given by
0 = ‘Josin (7x/l),
where o. is the stress at the mid-section.
The damping was determined from the temperature rise at different axial locations at which
the cyclic stress amplitude was known. The temperature was measured by thermocouples
t 1 lbf in-* = 6895 Nmw2.
$ 1 in = 234 cm.
202 R. D. ADAMS

and recorded on an ultra-violet recorder. Except at the displacement node (i.e. the mid-point),
it was impracticable to keep the thermocouples pressed against the specimen while it was
vibrating because of the surface tractions and the resulting localized frictional heating.
Preliminary experiments showed that the heat transfer in the bar was almost entirely by axial
conduction; convection and radiation losses were extremely small during the test period.
A graphical correction was made for this axial heat transfer by using the initial (usually room)
temperature, the cooling curve immediately the vibration ceases, and the duration of the test.
It was therefore unnecessary to have the thermocouples permanently in contact with the
specimen provided (as was done here) they could be brought into contact quickly at the end of
vibration (usually l-2 seconds).
The advantage of this technique was that the results were not affected by the usual sources
of error in damping measurements such as friction in joints, support losses and windage. The
specimens were cheap to manufacture and, if sufficiently straight, bar stock could be used
with very little machining.

3. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
3.1. PLAIN CARBON STEELS (FIGURES 1-4)
Plain carbon steel is probably the most widely used metal in industry. Particular attention
was therefore paid to four such steels in various conditions of heat treatment, together with
commercially pure (Armco) iron. The plain carbon steels were supplied by the British Iron

TABLE I

Spec$cations of the plain carbon steels, Armco Iron and

stainless steel

Description BBi BMP CAP DAt Armco Iron 1818

BS 970 En3B En4 En9 En44 - En58

Fe Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal

C 0.12 0.23 0.52 0.895 0.012 0.15
Si 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.228 Trace 0.20
Mn 0.695 0.56 0.81 0.64 0.017 2
S 0.054 0.044 O-048 0.05 O-025 0.045
P 0.039 0.027 0.045 0.032 om5 0.045
Ni 8
Cr 18

t BISRA designation.

and Steel Research Association (B.I.S.R.A.) from their stock of “pedigree” steels for research
purposes. The chemical compositions are given in Table 1 and the specimen condition and
properties in Table 4.

3.1.1. Magnetomechanical damping

If a cyclic magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnetic material, some of the energy is
transformed into heat. This phenomenon, magnetic hysteresis, is due to the irreversible
movement of domain boundaries. Stress and magnetic field have a similar effect on domain
boundaries (viu the property of magnetostriction), such that cycles of stress also result in
(magnetomechanical) hysteresis.
 DAMPING IN METALS 203
Adams [22] has shown that the magnetomechanical energy dissipation per cycle, d W,,,,
varies as 0” where u is the cyclic stress, and n is constant up to a certain stress level and then
decreases. The initial value of the index n ranged from 3.27 to 8.78 for the materials tested [22],
but did not approach zero (corresponding to saturation of d W,,,) at the highest stresses

TABLE 2

Composition of cast iron test pieces

Type K-123 K-148 K-N

Chemical composition (%)

Fe Bal Bal Bal
C 3.82 3.06 3.52
Si 2.34 2.05 1.76
Mn 0.40 0.49 0.29
S 0.034 0.026 0,026
P 0,018 0.029 0.020
Carbon Equivalent Value, % 4.61 3.75 4.11

..E.V.=(c+~) %

TABLE 3

Percentage composition of non-ferrous alloys

Material AI CU Zn Fe SII Si MII Pb Mg Ni impurities

HE 30-WP Bd 0.1 0.1 0.6 0.6-1.3 0~5-1.3 O+l.O 0.4-1.5 0.2

HE 15-W Bd 3.5-5.0 0.2 1.0 0.05 0.9 1.2 0.85 0.2 0.2
Copper 99.9 0.1
Muntz Metal 60 40
Mn Bronze 58 40 L
^
BSS 249 X-60 Bal 2-3.5 0.75
BSS 250 1.5 n-lax 56-60 Bd O&2.0 0.2-1.0 0.3-2.0 0.5-1.5 0.2
BSS 251 62 37 1
BSS 369 Bal 4.5-6.5
Gunmetal 90 6 3 1
7 Y. Ni Silver 63 30 7
10% Ni Silver 60 30 10
Nickel 200 0.13 0.20 0.18 0.18 Bal
Sonmton 4.25 37 3 Bal 1.5

obtainable with steels (just below the fatigue limit, IJ~).Lazan [20] has shown that, for many
materials,
AW=Jo”
where J and n are constants. Unfortunately, this law cannot be made to fit the behaviour of
steels except at relatively low stresses. Since d W - u is a continuous relationship, J must
increase when n decreases.
It can be shown [22] that when d W,,, varies as 0 2, the specific damping capacity, A Wf W,
reaches a maximum. This is shown in Figure 1 for a stress relieved 0.12 % C steel. Starting with
a demagnetized specimen at a, a series of increasing stress amplitudes trace out the curve abc
which peaks at b. If the cyclic stress is now reduced from c, a new peak is reached at b’such
that lcrb,> &, a,, < a,, and this new curve, db’c, is now followed for all subsequent tests.
The original curve can, however, be re-established by demagnetizing the specimen. Thus,
204 R. D. ADAMS

cyclic stress causes both irreversible motion of domain boundaries (hysteresis) and a semi-
permanent change in the material.
That the damping peak is due to magnetomechanical effects is shown by applying a
saturating magnetic field to the specimen. The damping is now very much less and virtually
independent of stress (es).

TABLE 4

Some mechanical and physical properties

Condition or 1
Material heat treatment (IO6 Ef inb2) (lb kM3) V.P.N. (in)

Armco AV 900 30.19 0.282 84 8.73

BB SR 650 30.45 0.283 134 8.76
BB QW,T600 30.42 0.283 206 8.75
BB QW,T350 30x)0 0.283 396 8.70
BM SR 650 3060 0.283 154 8.78
CA AV 850 30.44 0.283 216 8.73
CA QW,T600 30.60 0.283 319 8.78
CA QW,T6WQO 29.46 0.28 1 760 8.62
DA 30.33 0.282 467 8.73
DA QC%OO 30.49 0.282 331 8.76
1818 AR: CR 28.10 0.283 270 8.42
Sonoston AR 11.90 0.266 201 5.55
K-123 AR 13.60 0.255 147 6.17
K-148 AR 19.80 0.261 235 7.34
K-N AR 25.64 0.260 218 8.38
Nickel 200 AV 900 30.02 0.320 100 8.20
HE 30-WP AR 10.45 0.098 88 8.72
HE 15-W AR 10.67 0.101 151 8.70
Copper AR* 18.34 0.321 100 6.39
Muntz Metal AR* 15.10 0.303 151 5.95
Mn Bronze AR* 16.92 0.297 199 6.38
BSS 249 AR* 15.40 0.304 151 5.99
BSS 250 AR* 16.25 0.295 193 6.26
BSS 251 AR* 14.19 0.304 143 5.78
BSS 369 AR* 17.80 0.322 160 6.29
Gunmetal AR* 17.26 0.318 151 6.22
7 ‘A Ni Silver AR* 16.03 0.304 200 6.14
10 % Ni Silver AR* 17.86 0.312 158 6.39

SR = Stress relieved; AV = annealed in vacuum; QW = quenched in cold water;

QO = quenched in oil; T = tempered; 350,600 etc. = 350 “C, 600 “C, etc.; AR = as received;
CR = cold rolled; * Hot extruded and cold drawn; I = length of specimen for resonance at
11,625 Hz.

A wide range of steels in various states of heat treatment was tested together with nickel
and Invar [23]. The same characteristic behaviour was seen for all these materials, the differ-
ences being caused by differences in internal stress. Some typical results are given in Figure 2,
and others are given in reference [22]. The important feature of magnetomechanical damping
is that it is non-destructive, although it tends to be lower in harder materials as the associated
higher internal stresses restrict the movement of domain boundaries.

3.1.2. Microplastic strain damping

There are more than twenty known energy dissipation mechanisms in metals [24]. At stress
levels of engineering interest, most of these are insignificant. If the magnetomechanical
 DAMPING IN METALS 205
damping of steels is suppressed by applying a strong magnetic field, it is probable that the
remaining damping (between 0.05 and O-15 % for a wide range of plain carbon steels) is due
to some combination of these various sources which are essentially amplitude-independent.
At high amplitudes, the damping was, however, observed to rise rapidly with increasing

0 2 4 6 6 IO 12 14 16 16 20 22 24 26 26 30 32
Reversedstress (IO3 Ibf in-‘)

Figure 1. Damping vs. stress. Stress relieved 0.12% C steel (BB). nbc. demagnetized; c&d, unmagnetized;
ef, magnetized to saturation. ??, Increasing stress; x, decreasing stress.

I / / I I I I
9-

6-

7-

I
6- -1

5-
s
%. 4-

3-

2-

I-

O 5 IO !5 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

Reversed stress :103 Ibf 6’)

Figure 2. Damping vs. stress, Typical results for a range of heat treatments and carbon contents in plain
carbon steels. Experimental points omitted for clarity.

stress and also to be a function of the stress history, i.e. the number of stress cycles at a particu-
lar level. Lazan [20] called the stress at which this change in behaviour was observed the
“cyclic stress sensitivity limit”, a,, and believed this to be a unique stress level. But reference
to Figure 3 shows that this is not so. Here, the damping-stress relationship is given for an
annealed O-52% C steel in the presence of a saturating magnetic field. Starting at a, the
damping-stress curve follows the line ab, essentially independent of amplitude for increasing
or decreasing stress. The cyclic stress sensitivity (about 35 000 lbf ine2) limit was then exceeded
206 R. D. ADAMS

and, on re-testing, the line acd was followed. The stress a, had therefore been reduced from
greater than b to approximately 10 000 lbf in2. Ageing the material for 55 days at room
temperature allowed u, to recover to 25 500 lbf inm2but, once this was exceeded, the effective
value was again reduced to about 10,000 lbf inm2.

/2-

0c
I I I I
0 5 IO 15 20 25 30 35 40
Reversed stress (IO3 Ibf irF2)

Figure 3. Damping vs. stress and stress history. Annealed @52% C steel (CA) magnetized to saturation.
ab, before exceeding oL; ?? , increasing and decreasing stress. acd, within one day of exceeding oL; o, increasing
stress. aefa’, 55 days after exceeding aL; x, increasing and decreasing stress.

I I I

60 -

T-
50-
/x :-
X +

40- 0 x
@
7

; 30- X
-
m
“0
z ;i/
0
.J 20-
b

IO-

I I I 1
0 loo 200 300 400 500
Dlomond pyramid hardness number (H, )
Figure 4. Cyclic stress sensitivity limit, Q, vs. hardness. Various plain carbon steels in different states of heat
treatment. The continuous line represents the fatigue limit for similar materials. 0, annealed; ?,?stress relieved;
x, quenched and tempered at 600 “C; +, quenched.

Briefly, the explanation for this is as follows. For stresses greater than a,, dislocations are
broken away from their pinning points so that a smaller stress is then required to move them.
Subsequent testing at lower stress will therefore show a higher damping capacity (curve
efa’). As the stress is further reduced, it is unable to move even unpinned dislocations, so the
damping falls to the original level. The 55-day ageing process allowed some migration of
interstitials to the dislocations which were then re-pinned. Guthrie [25] showed that low-
temperature heat treatment, such as annealing for one hour at 200 “C, greatly accelerated this
process.
 DAMPING IN METALS 207
Thus, uL is a unique value only for virgin material or material which has been heat treated
to restore the original condition. Once this nominal value of uL has been exceeded, the damp-
ing and crLare functions of the number of cycles and the stress level, so that curves such as
acefa’ are not unique.
Figure 4 shows the variation of the cyclic stress sensitivity limit with hardness. For the
harder materials, it was difficult to separate the cyclic stress sensitivity limit from magneto-
elastic effects. Also plotted in this diagram is a curve showing the fatigue limit, Ok, for a
number of similar steels, the data being extracted from various sources. A close correspond-
ence between a, and oL is apparent, although a, is always less than a,.

3.2. 18/8 STAINLESSSTEEL(FIGURE 5)

In the soft or austenitic condition, this steel is effectively non-magnetic and has a diamond
pyramid hardness value of approximately 170. Cold working results in a martensitic trans-
formation which increases the hardness and makes the material slightly ferromagnetic. The

5-

2-

I-

I I I I I / I ! I
0 2 4 6 8 IO 12 14 I6 I8 20

Reversed stress (1031bf inez)

Figure 5. Damping vs. stress. 18/S stainless steel. 0, Increasing stress; x, decreasing stress.

hardness number of the steel used was 270, which corresponds roughly to a 20 % cold reduc-
tion. The material was also slightly ferromagnetic which corroborated an estimation from the
hardness value that the structure was approximately 95 % austenite and 5 % martensite.
The specific damping capacity of the 18/8 stainless steel specimen was rather higher than
had been expected. It was known that certain ferromagnetic stainless steels, e.g. type 403
alloy [13], possessed good damping properties, but 18/8 steel is essentially non-magnetic.
The mechanism of damping for this material has not been mentioned in the literature.
Steels of this type have a fatigue limit of 33,000 lbf inP2 even in the soft, austenitic condition
[26]. It is therefore unlikely that the damping mechanism in the material tested was due to
micro-plastic strain associated with the imminent onset of fatigue damage as mentioned above
in connection with the cyclic stress sensitivity limit.
Up to 30 % of the austenite of 18/8 stainless steels can be transformed to martensite by
cold working. This stress induced martensitic transformation can, however, occur at quite
,small macro-stresses where favourable conditions of internal stress and stress concentration
are present. Thus, even at the stresses used in this investigation (up to 19,000 Ibf ine2), this
transformation may be occurring at grain boundaries and on favourably oriented slip planes.
The formation of martensite prevents further slip on that plane, by strain hardening.
Work has to be done to cause the martensite transformation, and this could be the
mechanism of energy dissipation. It would be interesting to investigate the effect of stress
208 R. D. ADAMS

history as the damping ought to decrease with number of cycles at a given stress level when the
martensite transformation has been completed. On the other hand, if the damping were due
to microplastic straining, it should increase with the number of cycles, at least at first.

3.3. MANGANESE/COPPER
(FIGURE6)
In austenitic stainlesss steels, the martensite transformation is irreversible in so far as the
applied stress affects it. Thus, removing the applied stress does not result in a re-transforma-
tion of martensite to austenite. It is believed that in certain of the high damping manganese-
copper alloys a comparable mechanism exists. However, the interesting factor in this case is
that on removing the stress, the transformation reverses, leaving the material almost in its
original condition, but strain energy being lost in the process.
Since there is no permanent change in metallurgical structure, Mn/Cu alloys can dissipate
large amounts of energy without there being any damage to the structure. Birchon [24]
describes the process as a “strain-induced re-orientation of lattice tetragonality”. Subsequent
work by Hedley [27] has shown that this transformation is caused by antiferromagnetic
ordering of the magnetic moments associated with the manganese ions.

5-

1 I I I I 1 I 1 I _
01234567SSlO
Revenedstress(IO3W in-9

Figure 6. Damping vs. stress. Sonoston. ??

, Increasing stress; x, decreasing stress.

The results for a proprietary Mn/Cu alloy, Sonoston, produced by Stone Manganese
Marine, are given in Figure 6. A maximum damping of 26 % was measured at a stress of
8,000 lbf in-*. Tests at decreasing amplitudes showed an increase of damping over the virgin
material. Raising the test temperature from 30” C to 65 “C reduced the damping significantly.
This temperature dependence is associated with approaching the Ntel temperature at which
the material loses its antiferromagnetic properties, and hence its high damping capacity.

3.4. cAsr IRONS(FIGURE7)

Although the high damping capacity of grey cast irons is one of the commonly held beliefs
in engineering, there does not seem to have been a systematic attempt at correlating the damp-
ing with the metallurgical structure so as to determine the damping mechanism. Since the
investigation undertaken here was intended to cover a wide range of structural metals, it
was not possible to test more than a few irons, and the actual mechanism of damping could
not be determined. However, some important pointers have been obtained.
One theory of the damping mechanism in cast iron is that the energy dissipation occurred
in the graphite inclusions, so that the damping should be roughly proportional to the amount
 DAMPING IN METALS 209
of graphite in the steel matrix. However, examination of Figure 7 shows that the damping of
cast iron is only loosely dependent on the carbon equivalent (see Table 2) and it is better
related to the nature of the graphite, i.e. the size and shape of the graphite inclusions.
The British Cast Iron Research Association (B.C.I.R.A.) supplied three typical cast irons
of known composition. There were a hypereutectic coarse flake graphite grey iron (K-123), a
hypoeutectic fine flake graphite grey iron (K-148), and a nodular graphite iron (K-N). The
chemical analyses of the three irons are given in Table 2.
The nodular cast iron (K-N) was tested up to a stress of 19,000 lbf inW2,at which the damping
was 4.8%. On reducing the amplitude of vibration, the damping was found to be slightly
higher at all stress levels. This may have been due to freed dislocations, or even to a small
magneto-elastic effect. The damping of the coarse flake graphite iron, K-123, increases with
stress amplitude up to 41x, reaching this value at a nominal direct stress of only 4,700 lbf inW2.
This compares well with the costly manganese-copper alloys (see above) although it must be

0 2 4 6 6 IO 12 14 16 18 20
Reversed stress (lO?bf 16)

Figure 7. Damping vs. stress. Coarse flake (K123), fine flake (K148) and nodular (K-N)$raphite cast iron.
??
, Increasing stress; x, decreasing stress.

emphasized that the tensile strength and the impact resistance of the cast iron are inferior.
The damping of the hypoeutectic iron, K-148, increases almost linearly withystress, reaching
15.3 % at the highest stress used, 10,300 lbf ine2.
Although the stress amplitude used in these tests was made somewhat inaccurate by the
non-linear stress-strain relationship of grey cast iron [23], it should be remembered that the
stress distribution used by other investigators in measuring damping in such materials [28,29]
was also difficult to interpret. These investigators used a solid bar in torsion, and the
determination of the damping as a function of a homogeneous shear stress is very difficult
indeed, as the simple graphical correction used by Sumner and Entwistle [ll] only applies
when the shear modulus is independent of stress.
Thus, this investigation indicates the general trend of damping in cast irons of three
different structures, and the results are probably at least as accurate as those obtained by other
authors for similar materials. The only satisfactory method of testing high damping materials
with a pronouncedly non-linear stress-strain relationship is to use specimens in which the
stress distribution is uniform throughout the volume, i.e. a lumped mass system in which
either a solid rod in longitudinal vibration or a thin-walled tube in torsion is used. Such an
apparatus has now been developed [30] and the results will be reported shortly.
14
210 R. D. ADAMS

3.5. ALUMINIUMALLOYS(FIGURE 8)
Both of these alloys were from a commercial supplier, and so the actual ageing time was not
known, but it was of the order of 100 days rather than a few hours.
One of the most widely used aluminium alloys, particularly in the aircraft industry, is
Duralumin, which contains 3-5 % Cu and about O-7% each of Mg, Mn, Si and Fe. This alloy
is covered by the specifications HE 15-W, L64 and 2014-T4 (American). The alloy contains
both Mg,Si and CuAI, and is therefore susceptible to age hardening as these are precipitated
from the solid solution. The designation W means that this specimen had been solution
treated and naturally aged, but that it would respond to artificial ageing.
The Duralumin type alloy, HE 15-W, showed an almost constant specific damping capacity
of 0.0165% up to 14,000 Ibf in-2, followed by a steady rise to 0.019% at 20,100 Ibf inw2,
corresponding to a strain of 2 x 10e3. Testing at decreasing stress showed that the damping
had been increased slightly to O-018 %, presumably because some of the dislocations had been
broken from their pinning points. This value corresponds approximately to the value of

0’ 2I 41 61 8I 10
1 12
I 14
I I6I 18
I 20I
~
Reversed stress (IO3 Ibf in-‘)

Figure 8. Damping vs. stress. Aluminium alloys HE 15-W and HE 30-WP. ??

, Increasing stress; x, decreas-
ing stress.

0.03 % given by Hanstock and Murray [IO] for RR-56, aged for 11 days, but it is an order of
magnitude greater than the value of O-002‘Aobtained by Cottell ef al. [9]. The difference must
be ascribed to the effects of heat treatment and ageing which can produce considerable
differences in properties for these alloys. The high-amplitude strain transformers used to drive
the specimen were made from this alloy. No failures occurred after several years’ operation
and the energy dissipation was extremely small.
The alloy HE 30-WP is a high fatigue strength material known also as DTD 346 A. The
designation WP means that it had been solution treated and precipitation treated. This alloy
contains the compound Mg,Si which is soluble in solid aluminium to the extent of I.9 % at
595 “C, and only 0.2 % at room temperature. This compound is finely dispersed throughout
the material as a result of the precipitation treatment and forms a large number of obstacles to
dislocation movements. The alloy is therefore much stronger than commercially pure
aluminium.
Below 4,000 lbf inm2,the damping of the HE 30-WP alloy was O-02% but it increased rapidly
above this stress, reaching a maximum of 0.16 % at 17,500 Ibf inw2.On reducing the amplitude,
it was found that the damping was higher at all stresses, although it approached the original
 DAMPINGINMETALS 211

level of 0.02 % at the lowest stress used, 2,000 lbf ine2. This behaviour was similar to that
shown by testing steels above a,, and was also presumably due to the movement of free
dislocations in the crystal lattice. On the basis of these results, it seems odd that this alloy
should be claimed to have a high fatigue strength. It is, however, possible that the material
used here was over-aged, or the heat treatment was incorrect.

3.6. COPPER ALLOYS (FIGURES 9-14)

Very little data has been published on the damping of copper alloys at high stress levels
(except recently for manganese-copper). No explanations have been given of the damping
mechanism except for anelastic effects at low stresses. The amplitude dependent damping at
stress levels of engineering interest is probably due to microplastic strains.

Reversed stress (IO3 Ibf ln+)

Figure 9. Damping vs. stress. Hard drawn commercially pure copper. 0. Increasing stress; x, decreasing
stress.

-- I I I I I I

3.0 c .~
x

2.5-
x
/ /
x

7 2.0- Es24g
2
%
1.5- J
x

I.O-
/
/” $ IX j
0.5 / / Muntz metal

, xrxcr x.-U--@-x
, , I I I
0 2 4 6 8 IO 12 14 I6 18 20
Reversed stress (IO3 Ibf inb2)

Figure 10. Damping vs. stress. Muntz metal (60/40) brass and BSS 249 leaded brass. 0, Increasing stress;
x, decreasing stress.

The pure copper specimen (Figure 9), although hard drawn, with approximately 20-30 %
cold reduction, showed the highest damping, reaching a maximum of 5 ‘A at 14,300 lbf inW2.
On decreasing the cyclic stress, the damping was greater than originally at all stress levels.
Such behaviour is in accordance with the theory of damping due to dislocation movements,
since the level of impurities is low and hence the dislocations are relatively free to move.
212 R. D. ADAMS

Extremely interesting behaviour is shown by BSS 249 free machining brass and BSS 250
high tensile brass. BSS 249 brass is almost identical in chemical composition to Muntz
Metal,? except for the lead content, and the hardness values are identical. The same remarks
on composition also apply to BSS 250 brass and Manganese Bronze, and the hardness values
are quite close (193 and 199 respectively). However, comparing the results for these two pairs
of materials (Figures 10 and 11) shows that the alloys containing lead exhibit higher damping

I I I , 1 1 1 1 I I]
0 2 4 6 6 IO 12 14 16 16 20 22
Reversed stress (IO3 lbf in?

Figure 11. Damping vs. stress. Manganese bronze and BSS 250 leaded brass. ??
, Increasing stress; x,
decreasing stress.

Figure 12. Damping vs. stress. BSS 251 Naval brass. 0, Increasing stress; x, decreasing stress.

at all stresses, and that the trends of the curves are quite different. The curves for BSS 249 and
BSS 250 brasses increase rapidly from low stress, but there is a definite tendency to flatten off
at high stress. Also, the curves for increasing and decreasing stress are identical. Neither of
these observations are indicative of freed dislocations resulting from extensive microplastic
strain. However, the damping of the Muntz Metal specimen illustrates the characteristic
behaviour to be expected of materials in which dislocations have been broken from their
pinning points, and the damping-stress curve is concave upwards. The essential difference
between each of the materials in these two pairs is the lead content (Table 3). Lead is insoluble
t Also known as Yellow Metal, 60/40 brass and alpha-beta brass.
 DAMPING IN METALS 213

in brass at room temperature and is present as small globules which remain soft because of
the self-annealing properties of this material. The damping probably arises from plastic
deformation of these soft inclusions during each cycle of stress. Birchon [24] reports similar
behaviour in copper alloys containing up to 20% lead. He also claims that there is an ap-
proximately linear relationship betweenleadcontent and damping, which corresponds roughly
to the results obtained here, i.e. 1.6 % and 3.5 % specific damping capacity for BSS 250 and
BSS 249, respectively, which contain 0.5-1.5 % and 2-3.5 % lead.

0.2-

O.I-

0 2 4 6 8 IO 12 14 16 I6

Reversed stress (IO3 Ibf in?

Figure 13. Damping vs. stress. Gunmetal and Phosphor Bronze. ??

, Increasing stress; x, decreasing stress.

2 4 6 8 IO 12 14 16 IS 20

Reversed stress (IO3 Ibf in-?

Figure 14. Damping vs. stress. 7 % Nickel silver: ??

, increasing stress; A, decreasing stress. 10% Nickel
silver: 0, increasing stress; n, decreasing stress.

Naval Brass (BSS 251) is essentially a 60/40 brass with the addition of about 1% tin. This
material was considered for use as a velocity transformer because of its reported low damping
capacity [3 11.A specific damping capacity of 0.006 %, the lowest recorded in this work, was
measured at a stress of 6,400 lbf ine2 (Figure 12). It was impossible to take readings below this
stress since the energy dissipated per cycle was too small to produce an accurately measurable
temperature rise. However, the damping of the Naval Brass specimen increased rapidly
above 10,000 lbf inT2. This result confirmed earlier qualitative assessments when investigating
various materials for use in velocity transformers. The Naval Brass specimen was satisfactory
for low-strain use, but became quite hot at strains appreciably less than those required for
maximum performance.
214 R. D. ADAMS

The results for BSS 369 Phosphor bronze, Gunmetal, and the two Nickel Silvers (Figures
I3 and 14 respectively) did not show any unexpected trends. In all cases, the damping for
decreasing stress was higher than for increasing stress (although only a small increase for
Phosphor Bronze). However, the small difference in chemical composition between Phosphor
Bronze and Gunmetal increased the damping of the latter from three to ten times, although
the mechanical hardness values were reasonably close (160 and 151 respectively). In the case

..o+ / , HE 15-W

0.01 I,
0 IO 20 30 40 50
Reversed stress (dlbf inb2)

Figure 15. Damping vs. stress. A range of ferrous and non-ferrous materials. Experimental points omitted
for clarity.

of the two Nickel Silvers, the hardness values were quite dissimilar (158 and 200) whereas the
damping results were almost identical. Thus, there is no simple relationship between damping
and hardness for these alloys.

3.7. GENERAL. RESULTS (FIGURE 15)

The damping-stress relationships for a wide range of metals are given in Figure 15. A
logarithmic scale has been used for the axis of ordinates because of the enormous range of
damping values measured. In general, values of tj of less than 5 % can be expected to contribute
little to structural damping.
 DAMPING IN METALS 215

4. CONCLUSIONS
The results for ferromagnetic materials usually showed the characteristic damping peak
predicted by Sumner and Entwistle [I 11. The damping peak for increasing stress for a de-
magnetized specimen was lower and at a higher stress than the corresponding peak at
decreasing stress.
When the magnetoelastic damping was completely suppressed, the remaining damping,
being largely due to a combination of anelastic damping mechanisms, was practically
constant up to a certain stress. Above this critical stress, the cyclic stress sensitivity limit, the
damping increased rapidly, and it was found to be very dependent on stress history. After
oL was exceeded, the damping of annealed 0.52 ‘A C steel was greater at all stresses down to
approximately 10,000 lbf in2. The effects of ageing (for 55 days) at room temperature were
shown to raise gL from 10,000 lbf inw2 to 25,500 lbf in2. By plotting u, together with the
fatigue limit err for similar materials against Vickers hardness number, it was shown that gL
was less than a,, although both increased with increasing hardness.
It is suggested that a large contribution to the damping of 18/8 stainless steel was due to an
irreversible stress induced martensitic transformation.
The results for the three cast irons showed that the damping was primarily associated with
the shape and size of the graphite inclusions rather than the amount of free graphite. Thus,
the damping of the coarse flake graphite iron was higher than that of the undercooled fine
flake graphite iron, which in turn was higher than the nodular graphite iron. The general
statement that cast iron has high damping capacity should be treated with caution.
The damping of the Duralumin type alloy HE 15-W was appreciably larger than some of
the values given in the literature. Nevertheless, it was considerably less than most of the other
materials tested, and was amplitude independent up to very high strains. The softer HE 30-WP
aluminium alloy showed low damping at low stress, but the damping increased rapidly above
4,000 lbf inm2.
Copper had high damping, compared to its alloys, because of the small number of impurity
atoms available to pin dislocations. Brasses containing a few per cent lead had significantly
higher damping properties than alloys otherwise identical in composition and hardness and
it is suggested this may be explained on the basis of plastic deformation of the globules of
lead. The results for the high copper alloys and the nickel silvers showed that there is no direct
connection between hardness and damping for these materials.
By determining the cyclic stress sensitivity limit for virgin ferritic materials, a useful non-
destructive indication of the fatigue limit may be obtained. For non-ferrous materials, which
do not have a fatigue limit, cr, gives a good indication of the minimum stress at which extensive
internal damage of the material can occur.

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