CINEMATOGRAPHY

LIGHTING AND COLOUR

tonality how light registers on film, producing certain tones/shades

EXPOSURE overexposure too bright, washed out

impact of lighting on
filming capacity
underexposure not bright enough, see silhouettes or darkness

CONTRAST
comparative difference
between dark/light areas
high contrast bright whites, defined blacks, narrow range in between
low contrast no true whites or blacks, large range in-between
middle range pure whites and blacks, large range in-between

FILTERS hollywood diffusion filters; use of blue filters for day-for-night technique
objects changing quality (digital) colour grading — alter/enhance colour post-production
of colour or light picked up
by camera tinting colour light areas, developed film
toning (colour dark areas during development)
hand-colouring filling certain parts of shot with certain colour:

SPEED OF MOTION
relation between rate at which film was shot and rate of projection influences speed — realism in their correspondence

fast motion undercranking; less shots taken, more projected

slow motion overcranking; more shots taken, less projected
ramping technique of altering frame rate during a shot; also alters exposure
freeze frame single frame forming motionless image from/in film

PERSPECTIVE AND LENSES

perspective view set of spatial relations organised around one viewing point
FOCAL LENGTH focal length alters size and proportion of subjects + perceived depth of image
distance from center wide angle creates depth, distorts lines near frame edges outward
of lens to where light
rays converge to a medium avoids distortion, lines seem straight and perpendicular
point of focus
telephoto reduces depth, planes squash together (flattened)
zoom enables alteration of perspective relations (focal length)

DEPTH OF deep focus leaves all planes in focus

FIELD
focal range of shot in
shallow focus only closest planes in focus
which objects can be selective focus only some planes in focus
in sharp focus
racking/pulling focus technique of altering the focus during a shot

SPECIAL superimposition overlaying images; multiple perspectives in one frame

EFFECTS composite separately photographed images blended into one composition
rear projection — project footage of setting on screen
front projection — project footage of setting on angled mirrors
matte work joining matte with another film strip of actors through lab printing
matte — portion of setting photographed on film strip, partly empty frame
travelling matte — manipulate background painting to make actor visible

DURATION
real time when shot records actual duration/length of action
can be manipulated by slow/fast motion, ellipses, etc.

long take shot lasting much longer than typical shot in specific film or films in general
sequence shot when an entire scene is rendered in only one shot
 FRAMING
SHOT SCALE extreme long shot human body looks small, lost in frame; establishing shot, for setting
distance between
camera and subject in long shot body entirely in frame
reality, in terms of
medium long shot body framed from knees up
human body
medium shot body framed from hips up
medium close-up body framed from chest/shoulders up
close-up body framed from neck up
extreme close-up body framed in eyelids; zoom in on one specific element
full shot human body takes up entire vertical/horizonal frame

FRAME RATIO/ iris — moving, circular mask, opens/closes to reveal/conceal a scene

FRAME SHAPE multiple-frame/split-screen imagery: 2+ images, with own dimensions/shape, in larger frame
ONSCREEN VS. lens stops at edges of the frame; doesn’t capture whole visual field of reality
OFFSCREEN offscreen the areas not shown inside the frame

CAMERA height proximity of camera to the ground, relative to human body

POSITION low-height close to the ground
height,
angle, high height far from the ground
level,
distance of framing angle straight-on levelled with subject, filming straight
high angle shooting from up above, down at subject
low angle shooting from down below, up at subject

level horizontal balance of camera

canted/dutch angle framing tipped to one side

MOBILITY
concerns any camera movement that happens while filming
pan (panorama) camera rotates on vertical axis, scan space left/right
‘neck’ movement
tilt movement camera rotates on horizontal axis, scan space up/down

tracking / dolly shot camera changes position while moving along the ground
‘feet’ movement
crane shot camera changes position while moving above ground

handheld camera held by cameraman, giving shaky, subjective impression

‘human’
movement steadicam construction for cameraman to keep camera steady during
movement

zooming reduces/blows up parts of images, without movement of camera

static’ movement
vertigo effect — tracking + zooming at the same times
camera movement gives viewer sense of movement
zoom doesn’t alter aspect/position of objects, doesn’t change in vantage point
 MISE-EN-SCENE
TACTILE
SETTING prop (property) object in setting with function in ongoing action
shot in studio control over mise-en-scene
shot on location beauty, budget, naturalness/realism
COSTUME/ costume: influence/reinforce narrative make up: accentuate expression/beauty
MAKE UP trace changes, become motif hide imperfections
coordinated with setting — parallel or contrast

NON-TACTILE
LIGHTING quality highlights/shadows guide attention, dramatic effect, narrative development
hardness hard lighting defined shadows, glare edges, crisp textures
softness of light,
shown by shadows soft lighting diffused glow, less defined
or glares

direction frontal lighting light from behind camera, towards set

location of primary tends to eliminate shadows, create flat image
light source in
sidelighting light from one angle, using sidelight/crosslight
relation to subject
sharp highlights/shadows, sculpt objects, see depth

backlighting light from behind subject

silhouettes when used in isolation; otherwise contour

underlighting light from below subject

may distort features; or indicate light source in setting

top lighting light from above subject

may create glamour, isolation, or other effects

source must be consistent with visible sources in the setting

object (likely) key light primary source; bright illumination, dark shadows
lighting the shot,
whether natural or fill light less intense illumination; soften/eliminate shadows
artificial
high-key lighting — less key light, more fill light

low-key lighting — less fill light, more key light

three-point lighting key light diagonally behind camera

fill light near camera

backlight from behind/above

colour usually as white as possible; either realistic in scene, or unrealistic effect

light in shot

STAGING acting work an actor does to enact a character, including invisible processes
performance how an actor’s work manifests itself on the screen
props and sets may also perform, convey messages

individualisation films create broader anonymous types, pick actors through typecasting
typage — when actor is expected to portray typical representative of some class

stylisation act is more stylised than reality — continuum of stylisation

 COMPOSITION
SCREEN consideration of shapes and colours on-screen, in terms of two dimensions
SPACE
balancing symmetry bilateral symmetry extreme balance
the shot vs. asymmetry
more common symmetry: balance left/right, center
human body, avoid distractions

balance relation between light/dark creates path to guide eyes

vs. contrast
colour contrast creates points of interest
monochromatic single colour is emphasised; shot
colour design has limited palette

movement in motion strengthens tendency to notice visual difference

the shot
single motion takes all attention, while several moving elements shift attention
according to other cues/expectations and importance of element to narrative

SCENE consideration of shapes on screen like a reality, in terms of three dimensions

SPACE
depth cues elements of the image creating impressions of frame as three-dimensional

suggest that space has volume and several distinct planes

volume solid, occupying a three-dimensional area

suggested by shape, shading and motion
planes of action layers of space where action an happen
described by distance from camera
deep space significant depth, big distance
between planes

shallow space little depth, planes seem close to

another
overlap basic depth cue showing that one object blocks another object

movement key cue suggesting both plane and volume in a scene

aerial perspective hazing of more distant planes in a scene, with foreground outlines sharply

size dimunition when faraway objects get proportionally smaller, creating deep space
 EDITING
CONNECTIONS
cut simple, instant change from one shot to the next shot
match on action motion of one shot carried through to the next shot
graphic match cut from one shot to similar shot by matching action, composition, sound in shots
cut-in cut from distant framing to closer view of a part of the space
cut-away cut to insert shot of something, and then cut back to first shot
fade in fade from black into shot
fade out fade from shot into black
dissolve blending one shot into another
wipe shot replaced by new shot, moving into previous shot with set boundary
iris circular filter mask opening or closing to reveal or conceal a scene
eyeline match a shot of the character looking offscreen, with a cut to what the character sees
jump cut cutting between (roughly) same shot and frame, with time lapses
cross cut intercutting back and forth between locations

RELATIONSHIPS
GRAPHIC defined by mise-en-scene + cinematography; light/dark, motion/stasis, colour, framing
RELATIONS
interaction interactions graphic match graphic qualities of shots are parallel, line up
between purely
pictorial qualities
graphic continuity graphic qualities of shots resemble each other
of shots graphic qualities of shots are in opposition
graphic discontinuity
RHYTHMIC manipulations of steady beat shots cut at similar lengths in relation to another
RELATIONS rhythmic relations
duration of shots acceleration of rhythm shortening shots in a sequence
and the patterns
they create deceleration of rhythm lengthening shots in a sequence

emphasise moment use freeze frame, sudden flash

montage sequence short sequence with quick, steady rhythm; compress large-scale process over a
lengthy period into a few moments
use parts of represented process/words/stereotypes/newsreels/dissolves for footage
SPATIAL analytical editing move from spatial whole (establishing shot) to parts in the space
RELATIONS
construction of constructive editing construct space from seperate, partial shots
film space
through illusions kuleshov effect use of constructive editing to make viewer assume
and links intended spatial whole not shown on screen
occurs in lack of establishing shot, eyeline match/match on action/POV
saves money and time while creating impossible situations
TEMPORAL order flashback present shots that happened earlier in story order at a
RELATIONS later point in plot order
editing establishes
order, frequency flashforward present shots that happen later in story order at an earlier
and duration point in plot order
frequency frequency is the amount of times a narrative moment or shot appears
duration long take is shot longer in seconds in relation to film/scene; short take is shorter

relations between narrative — chain of events linked by cause/effect + occurring in time and space
story, plot and story vast chain of narrative events in chronological order
narrative
plot (order of) narrative events within diegesis — as it
happens in the story
narration storytelling logic organising plot and presenting narrative
elliptical editing show action to consume less screen time than in story
done by creating ellipses
overlapping editing action from end of one shot is partly repeated at start of
next shot
 CONTINUITY EDITING
system establishing narrative continuity — convey narrative information smoothly, clearly over a shot sequence
involves graphic qualities, rhythm, space and time in different ways
narrative discontinuity the breaching of continuity rules
SPATIAL 180° system ensures: consistency of relative positions in the frame
CONTINUITY consistent eyeline matches
the 180° system consistent screen direction

axis of action half-circle where camera can be placed to record action

axis can shift, but must generally be maintained
crossing of axis creates disorientation and inconsistency
viewer must understand position in relation to story action

tactics in the shot/reverse-shot shot of one end + shot of other end of 180° line
180° system eyeline match shot of person gazing offscreen, cut to what’s looked at
reestablishing shot like establishing shot, but to reestablish space in scene
match on action carrying single movement out across cut
180° line; characters with characters in circle, axis of action between most important characters
in a circle line may shift as characters move
excluding the rely on kuleshov effect to construct space using axis + eyelines
establishing shot elements must stay consistent (motion, eyelines, positions)
cheating with cuts cheat cut slight mismatching of positions of subjects
likely to be unnoticed if shots remain consistent with 180° line
crossing the axis axis may be broken in symmetrical settings
may transition from one side to other; use 180° line as transition point
head-on shot action seems to move directly toward camera on axis
tail-on shot action seems to move directly from camera on axis
screen direction can be violated safely if physical layout is well-defined
the POV shot point-of-view cutting eyeline match showing person’s perspective
not a violation of 180° system; on axis
SPATIAL crosscutting alternation of shots of events in one place with events in other places
CONTINUITY
risk of spatial discontinuity; yet link action to idea of cause/effect + simultaneity
crosscutting
cut-in shift form distant framing to closer view of a portion of the space
TEMPORAL order and order usually shows story events in 1-2-3 sequence
CONTINUITY frequency
frequency usually presents once whatever happens once
duration continuous plot and screen time = story time

elided story time > plot and screen time

temporal ellipsis time that was omitted
 SOUND

BASIC QUALITIES OF SOUND AND MUSIC IN FILM
VOLUME loudness/softness of audio — created by the amplitude (breadth) of vibrations of sound in the air
considered in relative terms; context, contrast with other sounds
relates to sound perspective — the closer the camera, the louder the sound
changes in dynamics (abrupt shifts) may be used
PITCH highness/lowness of audio — created by frequency of vibrations of sound in the air
distinguishes sound/speech/music, or characters/objects
show character traits, atmosphere, narrative information, etc.
TIMBRE texture’ of sound — its tone quality, ‘feel’, ‘colour’ — created by harmonic components of sound
distinguishable characteristics of a tone
distinguish voices, musical instruments, emotions;
e.g. nasal, mellow, light, heavy, warm, clear, flat

QUALITIES OF FILM MUSIC

tempo speed and regularity of beat
rhythm relationship of individual notes to the beat
involves beat, tempo and pattern of accents
volume relative ‘loudness’ of the music; compare to sounds of speech, noises
melody the ‘tune’; phrase of notes that is heard most clearly throughout music
harmony the other phrases of notes that support the melody
instrumentation the types of instruments used in the melody and harmony
motif recurring musical part associated with specific element of film (character/event/idea)
often manifests as a melody, rhythmic pattern, or specific musical instrument
slightly different each time that it occurs — otherwise, it would be a theme

GENERAL QUALITIES OF FILM SOUND

RHYTHM involves beat, pulse, tempo and pattern of accents
coordinated with editing + (motion in) image;

FIDELITY TO SOURCE degree to which sound matches the presumed source of the sound
low fidelity mismatching of image and sound
high fidelity correct matching of image and sound

SOUND IN SPACE sound comes from specific source in (off)scene/screen space;

audience beliefs about source shape audience understanding and interpretation of sound

diegetic sound sounds which occur naturally in world of depicted narrative

can be either onscreen or offscreen

subjective/internal diegetic sound sound that only character of POV can hear, inside mind

nondiegetic sound sounds which don’t occur naturally in world of depicted narrative
typically music

objective/external diegetic sound sound with physical source in the scene

SOUND PERSPECTIVE how a film suggests the placement of sound in the story world through sound cues
volume increases with closeness of camera
timbre creates reverberations that imply distance
SOUND IN TIME synchronous sound and its source in image are logically connected; high fidelity
asynchronous disconnect in logical/causal relationship between sound and image

simultaneous plot sounds occur at same narrative moment as story images

nonsimultaneous plot sounds occur before/after story image they accompany
flashbacks or flash forwards of sound over image
sound bridge — sound from last scene lingers in image of next scene
 SOUND: HISTORY 5 pt

HISTORY OF SOUND IN CINEMA

sound in film existed from the start; use of live music, or benshi (japanese cinema)
1927 considered start of sound on film (the jazz singer) but developed around the world
new options musicals
sound as a narrative tool
soviet contrapuntal montage
problems of movie theatres need new projection systems, film studios need sound-proofing
sound cameras couldn’t move; awkward framings, popularisation of panning shots
critics/filmmakers proclaim ‘death of cinema’ with its replacement for dialogue
actors speaking means voices become important
spoken languages require translation for foreign sales
sound editing is difficult — shoot all at once, use multi-camera shooting
microphone logistics: large equipment, limit possibility of movement within shot
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INTERNATIONAL HISTORY OF CINEMA

GERMANY tri-ergon german sound-on-film system invented in 1918
first german talkie in 1928; acceleration by 1930, most theatres wired by 1935
determination to compete with america; most powerful industry, skill, equipment after america
pressure of vitaphone (± 1928) to start building studios, court injection against warners bros
tension — america stop trade with germany
—> slow down german move to sound
less export/profit, less import = less incentive to invest in systems
reach agreement (1930) — international cartel, divide up world market
german use of sound creative; flexibility of camera motion and complex editing
sound bridges, parallels between sound and image, offscreen sound

most german directors moved away from germany with nazi regime in 1933
USSR tagefon/shorinfon simultaneously invented sound-on-film systems (1926)
prevent ussr from importing equipment in 1929
1931> — popularity of sound film, both in production and re-release of silent film
even by 1935, many theatres not wired — however, transition complete by 1936
—> transition starts during five-year plan; attempt to be self-sufficient
—> great depression hits ussr; prices/demand for main export falls
no foreign help in transition — isolated in international conversion to film
eisenstein — rejection of western fear of dialogue, see value of sound/image for montage
sound experimentation ended in 1935; simple, straightforward sound in socialist realism
FRANCE early sound market dominated by american/german systems and film
foreign films in sound theatres inspired french producers
germany look to capture production — france important market
1929 tobis-klangfilm set up subsidiary in paris; make many major french films
most studios wired (foreign systems) in 1930; took until 1934, many theatres small, independent
with weak industry, filmmakers experiment with sound to create emotion
synchronised vs. adding over silent scenes, cutting, motifs, asynchronous sound
GREAT BRITAIN interest in sound (vitaphone, jazz singer) but enthusiasm start with the singing fool
push wiring of theatres/studios — main system by western electric and rca
25% of market to tobis (1930 agreement) — difficulties, fail to exploit market
british had own, cheaper systems, but bad quality;
thomson-houston made reliable equipment in 1930 but came third after two american firms
all british cinemas could exhibit sound by 1933
british production companies (weakest in industry) struggled to convert to sound
—> industry investments slowed down — firm struggle while silent films lose relevance
exception of british international pictures (1927), focus on europe > america
 JAPAN one of few with ‘talkies’ in silent era using katsuben or benshi — central to cinema
centrality of performer slowed down conversion to sound
inventors tried to create sound systems but only fox sparked interest of firms
after movietone films (1929) many theatres became wired
most imported films were talkies by 1930
japanese production hesitant with sound production
financial issues (depression) meant high american royalty fees for equipment
fear of american control of sound leading to american market domination
—> studios create own technology
use sound to combine music, dialogue and sound effects for atmosphere; successful
sound production much slower — mostly music, production only half sound by 1935
small firms couldn’t afford sound production, theatres couldn’t afford wiring
labor (benshi) resisted introduction of sound — strikes
sound spreads through world —> uneven, quick in non-production countries
theatres not wired by mid-30s went out of business, sound dominated international exhibition and production
issue of foreign language dubbing, narration, subtitles, intertitles rejected — inefficient, distracting, wasteful
1929 decision to reshoot additional versions, assume relative cost to be lower
but required too many people in studio waiting too work, only small markets
mixing seperate tracks became possible by 1931; synchronisation improved
by 1932, dubbing/subtitles enabled talkies to cross language barriers
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