AN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE INCIDENCE OF

NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES A CASE STUDY OF

MALUMAFASHI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA,

KATSINA STATE

BY

AISHA MAGAJI
19/HPKK/052

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SCIENCES, COLLEGE OF HEALTH

TECHNOLOGY KANKIA IRO, KATSINA STATE

BEING A PARTIAL REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

PROFESSIONAL DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

SCIENCE, BY WEST AFRICAN HEALTH EXAMINATION BOARD

(WAHEB)

2020
 DECLARATION

I hereby declared that, this research project is a product of my personal

research and no part of it has been produced or presented for the award of

High National Diploma (HND), National Diploma (ND) or Diploma in this

school or any other institution.

__________________________ _______________
Aisha Magaji Date:
19/HPKK/052

ii
 CERTIFICATION

This research project entitled “An Epidemiological Approach to the

Incidence of Non-Communicable Diseases” meets the regulations governing

the award of Diploma of Science (Diploma Environmental Health) Kankia

Iro School of Health Technology.

_______________________ __________________ ______________

Supervisor Signature Date

_______________________ __________________ ______________

Head of Department Signature Date

_______________________ __________________ ______________

External Examiner Signature Date

iii
 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my beloved parent Alh. Magaji Kankia and Hajiya

Zulaihat Abubakar, for their kindness, love and encouragement during the

course of my training, may Almighty Allah bless and guide them all (Amin).

I also dedicate this work to my husband Alh. Ahmad Musa and my brothers,

Yaya Musa, Yaya Bature, Yaya Kabir, Malam Bashir and Abdulkadir (AK)

for their tireless love, encouragement and financial support during the course

of my training may almighty Allah reward their efforts.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All praises are to Allah (SWT) and blessings to prophet Muhammad (SAW)

peace be upon him; his family and his companions. All glory and adoration

be ascribed to Almighty Allah who has made it possible for me to complete

my diploma in Environmental Health. I am forever grateful to you Ya Allah.

My deep appreciation goes to the one who give me the background for my

academic excellence, Alhaji Magaji Kankia my father; I am forever grateful.

I am indebted to the world’s greatest mummy, Hajiya Zulaihat Abubakar;

my mother, your love, concern and care means a lot to me.

I am grateful to my Supervisor Malam Bishir Malumfashi who has

painstakingly taken time to guide me throughout the work. Your judicious

and unprejudiced advice, assistance, suggestion and guidance toward the

completion of this work contribute immensely to its quality and value, thank

you so much for your patience.

Special thanks goes to my dear humble husband Ahmad Musa for his

prayers, support advice, encouragement, cooperation and deep concern,

throughout the period of my study; may Almighty Allah reward him

abundantly (Amin).

v
I will like to express my gratitude to my lovely children Abdullah and

Abdurrahman, for their prayers, cooperation, tireless support and deep

concern throughout my period of study. May the Almighty Allah bless them

and reward them (Amin).

Also I wish to thank my lovely brothers and sisters who contributed towards
the completion of this work especially Yaya Musa, Malam Bishir, Yaya
Kabir, AK, Malam Abubakar, Yaya Bature, Hassan, Yaya Magajiya, Aunt
Luba, Aunt Rahama, Aunt Rabi, Aunt Rayya, Yaya Maimuna, Salisu,
Aminu, Yaya Sanusi, Mara, Yaya Mansir, Aunty Zainab, Aunty Murja,
Aunty Zainab Musa and Rest for their prayers, support and encouragement
towards making dream come true, may Allah continue to protect and sustain
the love that existed between us as sisters and brothers.

My special thanks goes to my Level Coordinator, Head of Department and

all my Lecturers who have in one way or the other impacted knowledge on
me in the course of my study, I am forever grateful.

I will not forget to mention my colleagues whom we share our views

throughout of stay (members of Environmental Health Department 300L),
like my best friend Abida Bashir, Lubabatu Mamman, Maryam Muhammad
Binta Yusuf, Hadiza Musa (Mashasha), Hafsat Lawal (Ladi), Maryam Bala,
Zainab Salisu, Hafsat Sani, Aisha Ammani, and Abdul, Hamza, Yahya,
Usman Kabir (Captain) Hauwa’u Sani.

My sincere gratitude also goes to Alhaji Musa Iman and Hajiya Huraira and
her family for their advice, concern and care, I am forever grateful.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cover Page i

Declaration ii

Approval Page iii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgement v

Table of Content vii

Abstract ix

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 General Introduction 1

1.2 Objectives of the Study 4

1.3 Historical Background of the Study Area 4

1.4 Scope and Limitation of the Study 6

1.5 Statement of the Problem 7

1.6 Significance of the Study 9

1.7 Research Questions 9

1.8 Research Hypothesis 10

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms 11

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Literature Review 12

vii
 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Research Design 24

3.2 Sample and Sampling Techniques 24

3.3 Instrument for Data Collection 24

3.4 Validity and Reliability of the Instrument 25

3.5 Administration of the Instrument 25

3.6 Techniques for Data Analysis 26

CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 Data Analysis and Data Presentation 27

4.2 Test of Hypothesis and Analysis of Result 44

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Recommendations 51

5.2 Summary and Conclusion 54

5.3 List of Abbreviation 56

5.4 Bibliography 57

5.5 Appendix 58

5.6 Questionnaire 71

viii
 ABSTRACT

The project research was aimed at in depth analysis on the epidemiological

approach to the incidence of non-communicable diseases, a case study of
Malumfashi Local Government Area, the purpose of the study is to find out
various factors responsible for non-communicable diseases and their effect on
human health as well as to ascertain the prevalence of those diseases within the
area of study and to find out the role of government and non-governmental
organizations toward controlling these diseases. According to the research
finding, one of the major epidemiological approaches to the incidence of non-
communicable diseases within the area of study is bad social health habits among
the people. These habits like smoking, alcoholism, drug abuse, lead many people
to become a victim of disease like liver cirrhosis, cancer and accidents especially
on the major roads. Another contributing problem is atmospheric condition, yet
pollution from motor vehicles is a sizeable problem, apart from domestic burning
of firewood and wastes in the area are contributing greatly towards the incidence
of many diseases. Poverty and poor living condition of people also contribute to
the incidence of those diseases like nutritional diseases, which are rampant within
the area of study especially among the poor and ignorant parents whom do not
have knowledge of the important food to eat. Stress and poor working condition of
people contribute to many chronic health problems such as coronary heart
disease, hypertension and irritable syndrome, a certain amount of tension is
necessary in order to perform effectively too little and become bored which may in
itself lead to stress. The research finding also pointed out that poor health
education among the teeming population within the area of study is also of great
contribution especially with regard to bad social health habits, effect of
atmospheric pollution and poverty, ignorance contribute to the incidence of non-
communicable disease. Based on the information collected and analyzed using
various method some recommendations were made to the government and public
at large within the areas of study, that government should improve the living
condition of people by creating job opportunities to them in order to avoid
diseases, that there must be specific clear government policy toward improving
working condition and enforce private organization to do the same and the public
should give their maximum support and cooperation for any programmes meant
for their benefits. Conclusively, unless and until these diseases were given a
serious attention it deserved they will continue to exist and cause numerous
morbidity and mortality cases.

ix
 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Today the major issue relating to health is non-communicable diseases such

as circulatory diseases, respiratory diseases cancer, cirrhosis of liver, mental

illness, ulcer, nutritional diseases, poisoning, and accidents etc. these

diseases are more difficult to control or prevent because in many instances

their cause is only partially understood, often, prevention of non-

communicable diseases depends on behavior and life style of individuals.

These diseases have caused numerous morbidity and mortality cases, some

which are recorded or neglected completely.

According to Humbly W. (1969:1) stated that ‘in the complexity of modern

life, good health is not automatic. The ability to keep well depends on many

factors and in studying these it is necessary to appreciate the each person not

only has certain physical needs that must be met, but he should also make an

effort to enjoy health, a purpose and meaning in it and feed that he is part of

the community in which he lives and to maintain this to acquire good health

habits which is of positive impact to his health.

Therefore, personal health is the responsibility of each individual, who

should be able to keep himself physically fit so that he cannot only make the
1
greatest contribution to the community in which he lives but can get the

satisfaction and happiness in doing so. To maintain this health each person

need to acquire good health habits.

Stress is one of the epidemiological approaches of non-communicable

diseases, because stress has an adverse effect on health for instance, it

contributes too many chronic heart problems such as chronic heart disease,

hypertension and irritable bowel syndrome.

Social habits contribute to the influence of non-communicable diseases,

factors like smoking, alcoholism, drug abuse etc. for instance cigarette

smoking can result in coronary heart disease, cancer, alcoholism contribute

to the incidence of liver cirrhosis, drug abuse especially among youth, drugs

like marijuana, cocaine etc. have great effect on human health and is one of

the major contributing factors to the incidence of mental illness. Therefore,

this disease constitutes a social problem to the society.

Poor nutritional status especially among children and elderly persons

contribute to various nutritional diseases such as malnutrition, marasmus,

communities in developing countries like at or just above starvation level

because of poverty and ignorance and sometimes due to crop failure, crop

destruction by insects, poor farming methods had result to famine and in

2
some high social class families due to good financial status, obesity, diabetes

mellitus is the major disease with over nutrition, therefore, these diseases

required promotive and rehabilitative services.

Comparing life today with that of two or three decades ago, it is obvious that

a great deals of changes have taken place, both in condition under which

many people lives and in the general pattern of their lives. Everything goes

faster as more speed vehicles on the major roads; these vehicles contribute

greatly to high morbidity and mortality rates in accidents. In other world all

age groups can be affected with this incidence.

Financial stands of individual can contribute to incidence of non-

communicable diseases, for instance stroke, hypertension, heart diseases,

which all are chronic in nature because of anxiety, people break down in

health e.g. peptic ulcer, rebellion neurosis etc.

Conclusively, people must be educated into positive health behavior, their

health lies in their own hands and diseases reflect life style, regular

relaxation, rest, proper nutrition, avoidance of extreme fatigue, harmful

substances, while voluntary organization invested in health matter should

add impetus in the control and prevention of non-communicable disease by

providing all necessary facilities for recreation that well promoted positive

3
health attitude and government through its agencies like NDLEA and NOA

should provide an avenue of curtailing the spread of drug abuse and addition

among the people.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. To find out the various factors responsible for the incidence of non-

communicable diseases within the area of the study.

2. To find out the various non-communicable disease and their effect on

human health.

3. To ascertain the prevalence of those disease within the area of study.

4. To find out the role of government and non-governmental organizations

toward controlling non-communicable disease.

5. To health educate the general public on the dangers associated with non-

communicable disease and the importance of healthy living.

1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE AREA OF STUDY

HISTORY OF MALUMFASHI

The area of study is Malumfashi metropolis, Malumafahi Local Government

Area it is located at the southern part of Katsina State in the northern part of

the country, and the local government was created in 1976 when it was

under Kaduna State. It is boarded to the east by Karaye and Rogo Local
4
Governments, to the west by Kankara and Bakori Local Governments, to the

north by Musawa and Matazu Local Governments respectively. The local

government consists of about 180.920 inhabitants of the last census

conducted.

TRIBE: The inhabitants of Malumfashi Local Government are mostly

Hausa/Fulani, the main native language used are Hausa and Fulani although

other languages like English, Igbo, Yoruba are spoken by the people who

come to the town for business or for other government assignment or duties,

Islam and Christianity are the commonest regions among its habitants.

EDUCATION: Educationally, Malumfashi Local Government comprises of

primary schools, secondary schools, of which are private and government. It

also consists of nursery and tertiary institutions through only four tertiary

institutions.

OCCUPATION: the people of Malumfashi Local Government mostly

engage in farming, some are good in business while some are civil servants,

their women rarely engage in these activities rather they are full-term house

wives.

HEALTH SECTOR: Malumfashi Local Government consist of general

hospital, maternal and child hospital, primary health care Malumfashi and

5
other private clinics such as Dr. Fulana, Dr. Bala, Dr. Ayinla, Dr. Abdulaziz

etc. and other small health centres found in each political ward.

Community network/social amenities: the local government is equipped with

some social amenities such as road, supply and good source of water, a good

market, good network system, e.g. Glo, MTN, ZAIN, and Etisalat for easy

communication and equipped hospital.

WEATHER: This varies according to season. The harmattan season present

from the month of October to February and it’s usually very cold at this

period of time. As from may it signed for the period usually experiences a

heavy rainfall, throughout the season which is good enough for their farming

system.

MAJOR CROPS: Cotton, rice, groundnut, beans, guinea corn, millet and

soya beans are the major crops Malumfashi Local Government.

1.4 SCOPE AND THE LIMITATION OF STUDY

This project research is focused on the epidemiological approach to the

incidence of non-communicable disease a case study of Malumfashi Local

Government Area, the purpose of the study is to find out the various factors

responsible for the incidence of non-communicable diseases.

6
In the first place, the research is supposed to cover a larger area beyond

Malumfashi Local Government, but due to financial and other constraints

which affect transportation from one place to another to acquire all the

necessary information needed for successful implementation of the project,

the research has to be limited to Malumfashi Local Government.

Secondly, is the unavailability of time, which make impossible for the

researcher to expand this study beyond Malumfashi Local Government

Area.

However, despite the above stated problems and other the research is

successfully conducted and all information drive in the process of the topic

of discussion is clearly put into writing to come up with this project.

1.5 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

One of the major epidemiological of approach to the incidence of non-

communicable diseases within the area of study is bad social health habits

among the people. These habits like smoking, alcoholism, drug abuse, lead

many people to become a victim of disease like liver cirrhosis, cancer and

accidents especially on the major roads.

Another contributing problem is atmospheric condition, because of people

for a long period of time fresh air has been regarded as one of the
7
fundamental requirements for health, yet pollution from motor vehicles is a

sizeable problem, in the areas of study, apart from domestic burning of

firewood and waste in the area are contributing greatly towards the incidence

of many diseases.

Poverty and poor living condition of people promote greatly to the incidence

of those diseases like nutritional diseases, which are rampant within the area

of study especially among the poor and ignorant parents whom do not have

knowledge of the important food to eat.

Stress and poor working condition of people contribute to many chronic

health problems such as coronary heart disease, hypertension and irritable

syndrome, a certain amount of tension is necessary in order to perform

effectively too little and become bored which may in itself lead to stress, too

much and our performance begins to deteriorate and we may become

exhausted or ill.

Poor health education among the teeming population within the area of

study contribute toward the incidence of non-communicable disease

especially with regard to bad social health habits, effect of atmospheric

pollution and poverty, ignorance contribute to the incidence of non-

communicable disease.

8
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The most important issue in designing any project is to serve as identifier of

a particular problem, therefore this project after successfully completed it

would help government and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and

public at large interestedly in the epidemiological approach to the incidence

of non-communicable diseases.

Also this project would assist any student or any individual who wish to

conduct research which is broader and wider in scope than this one.

1.7 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. Does ignorance of non-communicable diseases contribute to the

incidence of these diseases?

2. Can atmospheric pollution be a way of acquiring non-communicable

diseases?

3. Does bad social health habit contribute in acquiring non-communicable

diseases?

4. Can stress and poor working condition of people be a means of acquiring

non-communicable diseases?

9
5. Can poverty and poor living standard of people promote the spread of

non-communicable diseases?

1.8 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

1. That ignorance of people towards non-communicable disease can

contribute to the incidence of those diseases within the area of study.

2. That bad social health habits can contribute to non-communicable

diseases.

3. Atmospheric pollution can be a way of acquiring non-communicable

diseases.

4. Stress and poor working condition of people can be a mean of acquiring

non-communicable diseases.

5. Poverty and poor living standard of people can promote the spread of

non-communicable diseases.

10
1.9 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

 Alcohol: Substances that stimulate the nervous system especially one

that is addicted.

 Disease: Is a medical condition in human that can cause serious health

problems or death.

 Environment: It means our immediate surroundings.

 House: Is a physical structure which man uses for shelter.

 Housing: Is an act of living in a house.

 Hygiene: Acts of keeping good health and preventing the spread of a

disease.

 Pollution: Make dirty destroy purity or sanity.

 Prevalence: Total number of cases of a specific disease in existence in

given population of a certain time.

 Incidence: Number of cases recorded during a particular period.

11
 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter is mainly concerned with the writings and sayings of some

specific textbooks and experts extracted in line with the topic under

discussion.

All people value health yet many do not give it great deal of consideration

until they are sick and most would probably have to think very carefully if

asked what health means to them.

The major problem facing our society is the problem of non-communicable

diseases, these disease constitute a society problem to health.

According to Barnes, A. (1987:202) emphasize of that the incidence of

coronary heart disease, has risen in the past 35years in both men and women.

Factors have been identified which appear to be associated with the

development of these diseases which are complex and often multi factors.

They include genetic factors, cigarette smoking and increase in body weight,

stress, diet, high blood lipid level and lack of exercise, diabetes and

12
hypertension. The incidence amongst people in social class 3 dropping

steadily to social class 1 this different is most marked among women.

This statement indicates that from the stand point of view the people of

Malumfashi Local Government should understand that coronary heart

disease is caused by certain social health habits like smoking contribute

greatly to the incidence of heart disease while over dieting and lack of

exercise can contribute to the incidence of coronary heart disease. The need

for performing proper exercise is of great importance, which will help to

combat stress. People within the area of study most find a way of spending a

restful environment in order to reduce stress and incidence of coronary heart

disease. Cancer is also another non-communicable disease and it is found in

all races and ages of human beings.

Town send, et-al (1984:33) shed more light thus “the causation of cancer

disease is unknown although certain predisposing factors are recognized, for

instance, irritant and carcinogenic agent in cigarette smoking have been

associated with canal of cervix, smoked foods with cancer of the stomach,

family history with cancer of the breast, antioxidants containing Benzedrine

or methylamine with cancer at the bladder.

13
The incidence is gradually rising and there is marked increase in the cancer

of lungs and cancer of the cervix (especially in women) the overall increase

of cancer is partly attributed to increase life expectancy.

Therefore, from the above statement it is a clear indication that cancer of

whatever form, contribute greatly to the incidence of non-communicable

disease, therefore, proper health habits will reduce the morbidity and

mortality rates of people against cancer, public health officials should as a

matter of facts educate the general public on bad social health habit like

cigarette smoking which contribute to the incidence of that disease. While

women should appreciate the importance of proper medical check-up

especially through ANC services in order to detect the early symptom of

cancer of cervix or breast.

Furthermore, diabetes is another chronic non-communicable disease which

affects large number of people especially among adults and old people.

Hilary, K. et-al (1994:10) supported this view that diabetes is chronic

disease, the severe complication of which include bloodiness and kidney

failure, and which also carries a particularly high risk for the development of

coronary heart disease. Diabetes is caused by pancreases, or in its effect. It is

estimated that more than 50million life styles dietary habits, particularly

14
related to improved socio-economic conditions have resulted in the increase

of the disease, both in developed and developing countries in recent years.

From the above statement it is important that people of Malumfashi Local

Government should understand that diabetes disease which is due to change

of lifestyle, this include lack of regular exercise, in appropriate diet and

consequent obesity.

The need of largely encouraging positive life style through adopting a high-

fiber low fat diet cannot be over emphasized toward controlling and

prevention of diabetes. Community involvement and support are essential in

the aspects of diabetes.

Not early diabetes constitutes a significant health problem within the area of

the study, hypertension tools of great important.

Stanberry et-al (1978:69) shed more light on this view that “hypertension is

the single most importance risk factor for strokes, both hemorrhagic and

thrombosis and is very important factor for the heart disease, when

symptoms do occur they are mainly fasted and damaged to the following

organs heart, brain, kidney and fundus of the eye.

15
The cause of hypertension is unknown, in 95% cases. There is often a family

history of hypertension and relatives of hypertensive persons have showing

to be more likely to be hypertensive”.

Therefore, from the above statement it is challenges to people within the

area of the study to understand that hypertension can be well controlled if

people can appreciate the importance of visiting health centres for regular

medical check-up, after which it can be treated if needed. Because once the

cases are identified the problem is simple and the need for people to engage

in exercise and taking low salt diet is of great importance toward controlling

these diseases.

Mental illness is another group of non-communicable diseases which affect

a large number of people especially young people, partly due to

unemployment, drug abuse and alcoholism among them.

Barness, A (1987:203) emphasized that “mental illness occurs in many

forms at all ages and in all types of mental illness psychosis, neurosis, and

various disorder are often associated.

There are many factors which play important roles in the development of

mental illness; these may be divided into intrinsic factors such as heredity

and extrinsic factors such as employment or unemployment, domestic

16
circumstances and environment. Other major contributing factors are drugs

addiction and alcoholism, the highest incidence of mental illness is among

men in social class 3?

This statement present itself as a challenge to the people of Malumfashi

Local Government to understand that mental illness is due to lack of job

especially among youth can contribute greatly to the mental illness, bad

social health habit like alcoholism, drugs abuse and addiction which is a

common cause of mental illness among youth can also contribute

significantly towards promoting mental illness. Therefore, the need to fight

poverty to upgrade significantly towards promoting health.

Furthermore, human activities within the environment can contribute to

incidence of non-communicable disease, for instance atmospheric pollution,

cigarette smoking etc.

Davies, B. M. (1979:252) supported this view that “responsible for 25730

deaths (18699 men 7031 women) in 1976 in England. The preponderance of

bronchitis death in men rather than women is probably connected with the

effect of cigarette smoking, for men smoke more than women and this

aggravates bronchitis.

17
Atmospheric pollution episodes have produced a marked increase in the

deaths from bronchitis. There is no doubt that smoking is another

contributory factor and all smokers especially heavily smokers, are much

more affected by bronchitis.

From the above statement, it is a clear indication and challenge to all

smokers living within the area of the study to understand that bad social

habits like cigarette smoking contribute greatly to the incidence of

bronchitis, the need for rejecting a stick of cigarette is of great impact

toward human heath, while parents should as a matter of facts to promote

human health.

On the other hand poor nutrition especially among children and old people is

responsible for the incidence of nutritional disease, like kwashiorkor,

marasmus, are all non-communicable diseases and they have caused so

much suffering and disability. These diseases required only promotive and

rehabilitative services.

Timor M. B. (1970:14) further stressed this view that “infant that is

adequately nourished with breast milk during 3-4months of their lives, the

rates of the growth and development are comparable with and in most cases

better than those infant in Britain and American. But with constant threat of

18
poverty and ignorance of parents, nutritional diseases set in, with the

introduction of traditional supplementary food by the age of 5-6months,

these foods are gravels made from maize, millet, and other cereals only rich

in carbohydrates, while in areas where breastfeeding is stopped early

marasmus, kwashiorkor set in among those children before the end of their

first year in life.

This statement indicated that, people of Malumfashi Local Government

should understand that adequate breastfeeding is a most important aspect the

child will have against these diseases.

On other hand rapid change in children diet has important implication on

their health. It is important for parent in the area of the study to understand

that supplementary food increase the risk of nutritional diseases and other

infectious diseases to invade children and cause numerous morbidity and

mortality cases.

We have to address our mind seriously that nutritional diseases poses the

most important and spread health problems, this is more so in developing

countries including Nigeria, where lower standard of living, poor nutrition

and outdated nutritional habit is common.

19
Another life threatening public health problem now is accident whether at

home, industries or traffic accident has caused so much suffering and

disability among people living within Malumfashi Local Government.

Kiefer, N (1973:9) emphasized that “Accident is a despoiler of expected

years of life, a producer of human misery, a waster of national financial and

other economic resources, and a degrader of human existence accidents

probably rank first among all human problems”.

This statement presents the facts that people of Malumfashi Local

Government should understand that accidents have a significant effects to

human health; therefore, the need of safety precaution among people living

within the area of the study is of great importance toward promoting human

development. Traffic accidents are the common increasing the number of

accident.

Gell, J. B. (1970:23) indicated that “the number for car drivers and

passengers killed or seriously injured in roads throughout the world has

increased significantly. Alcohol is the major contributing factor in many

road accidents, especially those involving young people.

From the above statement it is a clear indication that alcohol has an effects

especially among drivers because judgment is impaired, reaction time are

20
slowed down, drivers may make mistake and become a danger to others, as

well as to himself, therefore, there is the need of people to understand that if

you want to stay alive don’t take alcohol while you are driving.

Barnes, A (1987:204) and Chem. Y. K (1982:14) shed more light that

“accident in the home are most always preventable.

The highest incidence of home accidents occur in under five group

(especially boys), fall being the most common type of accident and the most

common place being the living and dining room.

Each year about 30,000 people in America lose their lives as a result of an

accident in the home and about 4,500,000 more suffer disabling injuries. The

most dangerous area for accident is the bedroom, because it is most often the

site of falls, chiefly among older people. The second most dangerous is

kitchen”.

This could be achieved when houses are designed to meet the minimum

requirement of good houses. From the construction and maintenance of

house.

Anderson, M. et-al (1978:167) and Chem. Y.K (1982:14) they both agreed

that “generally speaking industries with the highest accident frequency rates

(disabling injuries per 100,000 work hours) also have the highest severity
21
rates. By their nature, certain industries such as mining, quarrying and

construction tend to be hazardous. In any consideration of occupational

accident it must be pointed out that workers suffer injuries due to

negligence, outdated machinery and ignorance of most workers about

industrial machineries, therefore, education is the most important aspect of

accident prevention in industry”.

From the above statement, it is dear challenge that rest upon the people of

Malumfashi Local Government and specially health personnel to educate the

general public especially industrialist to understand that no occupation

without hazard, every effort should place a maximum provision of protective

devices in industry in order to curtail the industrial accident.

People within the area of study should understand that, not only accident is

of great important among the epidemiological approach to the incidence of

non-communicable disease, poisoning is of importance too, alcohol and

other hard drugs contribute greatly to the incidence of poisoning.

Winifred L. H (1969:53) supported this view that “term danger of the use of

alcohol to provide an escape from stress or to give a sense of exhilaration is

that it may cause a poisoning excessive drinking causes illness, such as

ulcers in the stomach, cirrhosis of the liver, the kidney and the heart may

22
also be affected, excessive drinking can affect the nervous system,

inflammation of the nerves and shrinking of the brain may result.

From the above statement it is clearly indicated that people of Malumfashi

Local Government should understand that alcohol has great effects on their

health, because alcohol contribute to the incidence of liver cirrhosis, ulcer,

poisoning of the brain, etc. which may affect human health directly. In other

words liver is a delicate organ of the human body which cannot be replaced.

Therefore, the need of disassociating oneself with alcohol is of great

importance.

Conclusively, people need to understand that certain social bad habits

especially those that are of negative impacts to their health should be

discouraged so as to avoid diseases.

23
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

This project was carried out in order to find out various factors responsible

for the incidence of non-communicable diseases their prevalence and effect

on human health, as well as their possible control and preventive measures

and to educate the general public on the dangers associated with non-

communicable diseases.

3.2 SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Five communities were selected to be the sample size of this research work

among the communities living in Malumfashi Local Government, these are

Malumfashi, Borindawa, Karfai, Turar-koshe, Dayi the sampling techniques

adopted in the sample selection was random sampling method, so as to

ensure they the people participated actively toward controlling and

preventing the incidence of non-communicable diseases.

24
3.3 INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION

The instrument used in obtaining the relevant data of this project was

questionnaire in which questions related to the topic under discussion were

asked, so that the respondents can choose from the alternative answers of

their choice, likewise various textbooks, journal were used so as to

emphasized the project work.

3.4 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT

The instrument to be valid and reliable, the questionnaires designed and

prepared was thoroughly read and screened by project supervisor who

authorized the distribution of the questionnaires appropriately, at the time

one hundred and ten questionnaires were printed and ten questionnaires were

used as pretest and hundred questionnaires were distributed to the

respondents and all the one hundred questionnaire were filled currently and

returned to me in order.

3.5 ADMINISTRATION OF THE INSTRUMENTS

The manner through which the instrument was administered to the

appropriate people is through direct hand to hand message, so as to ensure

that the message was not disrupted, as a result all the one hundred

questionnaire administered were returned to me in order.

25
3.6 TECHNIQUES FOR DATA COLLECTION

The techniques applied is analyzing of data is statistical analysis so as to

prove hypotheses or basic assumption.

2
X =¿
KLMN

The formula was derived from 2x2 contingency table which is shown below

GENDER RESPONSES TOTAL

YES NO
MALE A B K
FEMALE C D L
TOTAL M N M

26
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 DATA ANALYSIS FINDINGS AND RESULT DISCUSSION

Below is the result of data collection from the questionnaire, one hundred

and ten questionnaires were printed, ten were used as pretest, one hundred

questionnaires were distributed to the respondents and all the one hundred

questionnaires were filled correctly and returned to me in order.

Table 4:1

Sex No. of Responses Percentage

Male 60 60%
Female 40 40%
Total 100 100%

This table discussed the sex distribution of the respondents, 60 respondents

representing 60% of the total respondents are males, while 40 respondents

representing 40% of the total respondents are females.

Table 4:2

Age No. of Responses Percentage

18-23years 11 11%
24-29years 24 24%
30-35years 29 29%
36-41years 20 20%
42years and above 16 16%
Total 100 100%

27
This table discussed the age distribution of the respondents, those at the age

18-23years are 11 respondents representing 11% of the total respondents, 24

respondents represents 24% of the total respondents are between the age 24-

29years while those at age 30-35years are 29 respondents representing 29%

of the total respondents and those at age of 36-41years are 20 respondents

representing 20% of the total respondents and those between the age of 42

and above there are 16 respondents 16% of the total respondents this shows

that majority of the respondents are those between the age of 30-35years of

age.

Table 4:3

Marital Status No. of Responses Percentage

Single 32 32%
Married 68 68%
Total 100 100%

Judging from the table above which discussed the marital status of the

respondents, 32 respondents that represents 32% of the total respondents are

single, while 68 respondents representing 68% of the total respondents are

married couples, this indicate the fact that majority of the respondents are

married couples.

Table 4:4

28
 Educational Background No. of Responses Percentage
Formal 79 79%
Informal 21 21%
Total 100 100%

The above table discussed the educational background of the respondents, 79

respondents representing 79% of the total respondents have formal

education, while 21 respondents representing 21% of the total have informal

education, this shows that the majority of the respondents have formal

education in the field of learning.

Table 4:5

Religion No. of Responses Percentage

Islam 100 100%
Christianity - -
Total 100 100%

Judging from the table above which discussed the religion of the

respondents, 100 respondents that represents 100% of the total respondents

are Muslims.

Table 4:6

Do you know anything about non-communicable diseases?

Answer No. of Responses Percentage

Yes 77 77%
No 23 23%
Total 100 100%

29
The table discussed the views of the respondents if they know something

about non-communicable diseases, 77 respondents representing 77% of the

respondents know something about non-communicable diseases, while 23

respondents representing 23% of the total respondents emphasized that they

don’t know anything about non-communicable diseases. This shows that

majority of the respondents know something about non-communicable

diseases.

Table 4:7

If yes, through which of the following ways?

Answer No. of Responses Percentage

Through personal research 16 21%
Through personal experience 31 40%
Through the media 30 39%
Total 77 100%

The table discussed the views of 77 respondents that stated they know

something about non-communicable diseases, 16 respondents that represent

21% of the total respondents know something about non-communicable

diseases through personal research while 31 respondents representing 40%

of the total respondents emphasized that they know something about non-

communicable diseases only through personal experience, in the same view

30 respondents that represent 39% of the total respondents are of the view

that they know something about non-communicable diseases only through

30
the media, judging from the table it indicates that majority of the

respondents they know something about non-communicable diseases only

through personal experiences.

Table 4:8

On your own understanding which among the following ways

contribute greatly to the incidence of non-communicable diseases in
your community?

Answer No. of Responses Percentage

Bad social habit 24 24%
Atmospheric pollution 10 10%
Stress and poor working condition 22 22%
Poverty and poor living standard of people 31 31%
Poor health education 13 13%
Other please specify - -
Total 77 100%

The table discussed the views of the respondents on the various factors

responsible for the incidence of non-communicable diseases in their

communities, 24 respondents that represent 24% of the total respondents

indicated that bad social habit among people is the major factor responsible

for the incidence of non-communicable diseases in the communities, while

10 respondents representing 10% of the total respondents are of the view

that even with the above mentioned factor but not as much as atmospheric

pollution in their communities, 22 respondents that represents 22% of the

total respondents emphasized that stress and poor working condition among

31
people is the main responsible factor for the incidence of non-communicable

diseases within their communities, 31 respondents representing 31% of the

total respondents stated even with the above mentioned factors but not as

much as poverty and poor living standard of people, while 13 respondents

that represent 13% of the total respondents indicated that, poor health

education among people is the main responsible factor for the incidence of

non-communicable diseases within their communities, this indicated that the

facts that majority of the respondents are of the view that poverty and poor

living standard of people is the main responsible factor for the incidence of

non-communicable diseases within their communities.

Table 4:9

Do you believe that ignorance of the people on non-communicable

diseases can contribute to the incidence of these diseases?

Answer No. of Responses Percentage

Yes 81 81%
No 19 19%
Total 100 100%

The table discussed the views of the respondents if they believe ignorance of

people on non-communicable diseases can contribute to the incidence of

non-communicable diseases, 81 respondents representing 81% of the

respondents indicated that, they believe that ignorance of people on non-

communicable diseases can contribute to the incidence of non-

32
communicable diseases, while 19 respondents representing 19% of the total

respondents are of the view that they don’t believe ignorance of people can

contribute to the incidence of non-communicable diseases. Therefore,

majority of the respondents believe ignorance of people on non-

communicable diseases can contribute to the incidence of these diseases.

Table 4:10

Does a bad social health habit contribute to acquiring of non-

communicable diseases?

Answer No. of Responses Percentage

Yes 73 73%
No 27 27%
Total 100 100%

The above table discussed the views of the respondents if bad social health

habit contributes to acquiring non-communicable diseases, 73 respondents

representing 73% of the respondents’ state that bad social health habit can

contribute to acquiring of non-communicable diseases, while 27 respondents

representing 27% of the total respondents indicated that, bad social health

habit cannot contribute in acquiring non-communicable diseases. This show

that majority of the respondents agreed that, bad social health habit can

contribute in acquiring non-communicable diseases.

Table 4:11

33
Which among the following groups of non-communicable diseases are
most common in your community?

Answer No. of Responses Percentage

Mental illness 11 11%
Nutritional diseases 20 20%
Poisoning 9 9%
Accidents 19 19%
Hypertension 12 12%
Diabetes 8 8%
Asthma 13 13%
Sickle Cell Anaemia 2 2%
All of the above 6 6%
Total 77 100%

The above table discussed the views of the respondents on group of non-

communicable diseases that are common in their communities, 11

respondents that represent 11% of the total respondents indicated that mental

illness is the major non-communicable disease that is common in their

community, while 20 respondents represents 20% of the total respondents

indicated that nutritional diseases are the major group of non-communicable

disease that is common in their respective community, 9 respondents

representing 9% of the total respondents are of the view that even with the

above mentioned diseases but not as much as poisoning while 19

respondents said that accident is the common problem in their communities,

and 12 respondents indicated that hypertension is the major group of non-

communicable disease that is common in their respective communities, still

8 respondents representing 8% of the total respondents emphasized that

34
diabetes is the main group of non-communicable disease that is common in

their communities, while 13 respondents representing 13% of the total

respondents indicated that, the major group of non-communicable disease

that is common in their communities is asthma, and 2 respondents that

represent 2% of the total respondents stated that even with the above

mentioned diseases but not as much as sickle cell anaemia, in the same view

6 respondents that represent 6% of the total respondents indicated that all of

the above mentioned diseases are common in their communities, this shows

that majority of the respondents emphasized that nutritional diseases are the

common group of non-communicable disease affecting their communities.

Table 4:12

Do you normally patronize medical service in case you are affected with

these diseases?

Answer No. of Responses Percentage

Yes 91 91%
No 9 9%
Total 100 100%

The table discussed the views of the respondents if they patronize medical

services in case they are affected with those diseases, 91 respondents

representing 91% of the respondents indicated that they patronize medical

services, while 9 respondents representing 9% of the total respondents

35
indicated that, they don’t patronize medical services when they are affected

with any non-communicable disease. This clearly indicated that majority of

the respondents do patronize medical services when they are affected with

any non-communicable diseases.

Table 4:13

If yes, how effective is the service rendered to you?

Answer No. of Responses Percentage

Much effective 22 24%
Moderate 36 40%
Less effective 17 19%
Poor 16 17%
Total 91 100%

Judging from the above table it is the view of 91 respondents that they

patronized medical services in case they are affected by with non-

communicable diseases, how effective is the service rendered to you, 22

respondents that representing 24% of the total respondents indicated that the

services are much effective and 36 respondents representing 40% of the total

respondents emphasized that the services rendered to them are moderate

while 17 respondents representing 19% of the total respondents indicated

that the services rendered to them toward these diseases are less effective, in

36
the same view, 16 respondents that represent 17% of the total respondents

criticized the services as poor. This indicated the facts that majority of the

respondents are of the view that the effectiveness of the services is moderate.

Table 4:14

Beside the effort of medical services in order to curtail the incidence of

non-communicable diseases, is there any assistance from Non-
Governmental Organizations?

Answer No. of Responses Percentage

Yes 83 83%
No 17 17%
Total 100 100%

The table discussed the views of the respondents that apart from the effort of

medical services in order to curtail the incidence of non-communicable

diseases is there any assistance from non-governmental organization, 83

respondents that represent 83% of the total respondents indicated that, there

is such assistance, while 17 respondents representing 17% of the total

respondents indicated that there is no such assistance, this indicated that

NGOs are assisting toward curtailing the incidence of non-communicable

diseases.

Table 4:15

If NGOs do assist in which of the following ways?

Answer No. of Responses Percentage

Through public health education 41 49%

37
Provision of drugs 42 51%
Total 83 100%

The table discussed the views of the respondents that stated that NGOs are

assisting them toward curtailing the incidence of these diseases, 41

respondents represent 49% of the total respondents indicated that the NGOs

are assisting them through public health education, while 42 respondents

that represents 51% of the total respondents emphasized that, NGOs are

assisting them through provision of drugs.

Table 4:16

Do you believe that atmospheric pollution can be a way of acquiring

non-communicable diseases?

Answer No. of Responses Percentage

Yes 61 61%
No 39 39%
Total 100 100%

Judging from the table above which clearly shows that 61 respondents that

represent 61% of the total respondents believe that atmospheric pollution

can be a way of acquiring non-communicable diseases, while 39 respondents

representing 39% of the total respondents are of the view that they don’t

believe atmospheric pollution can be a way of acquiring non-communicable

38
diseases. Therefore, majority of the respondents believe atmospheric

pollution can be a way of acquiring non-communicable diseases.

Table 4:17

What personal effort are you making to protect yourself and family

against acquiring non-communicable diseases?

Answer No. of Responses Percentage

Avoiding bad social habit 30 30%
Improvement in nutritional status 29 29%
Improvement in living condition 14 14%
Regular medical check-up 17 17%
Health education 10 10%
Total 77 100%

The table above discussed the views of the respondents on their personal

effort toward preventing themselves and their family against acquiring non-

communicable diseases, 30 respondents that represent 30% of total

respondents indicated that they avoid bad social habit, while 29 respondents

representing 29% of the total respondents are of the that they improve

nutritional status of their families and 14 respondents that represent 14% of

the total respondents are of the that they go for regular check-up for

themselves and their families against those diseases through health

education. This shows that avoidance of bad social habit is the major

39
personal effort the respondents are making toward protecting themselves and

their families against acquiring non-communicable diseases.

Table 4:18

Do you believe that stress and poor working condition of the people can

be a way of acquiring non-communicable diseases?

Answer No. of Responses Percentage

Yes 84 84%
No 16 16%
Total 100 100%

The above table discussed the views of the respondents if they believe stress

and poor working condition can be a means of acquiring non-communicable

diseases, 84 respondents that represent 84% of the total respondents believe

that stress and poor working condition can be a means of acquiring non-

communicable diseases, while 16 respondents representing 16% of the total

respondents are of the view that they don’t believe stress and poor working

condition can be a means of acquiring non-communicable diseases.

Therefore, majority of the respondents believe stress and poor working

condition can be a means of acquiring non-communicable diseases.

Table 4:19

40
Do you believe that poverty and poor living standard of people can be a

means of acquiring non-communicable diseases?

Answer No. of Responses Percentage

Yes 80 80%
No 20 20%
Total 100 100%

The above table discussed the views of the respondents if they believe

poverty and poor living standard can be a means of acquiring non-

communicable diseases, 80 respondents that represent 80% of the total

respondents believe that poverty and poor living standard can be a means of

acquiring non-communicable diseases, while 20 respondents representing

20% of the total respondents are of the view that they did not believe s

poverty and poor living standard can be a means of acquiring non-

communicable diseases. Therefore, majority of the respondents believe

stress and poor working condition can be a means of acquiring non-

communicable diseases.

Table 4:20

What is your suggestion to both government and public at large

towards confronting the problem of non-communicable diseases?

Answer No. of Responses Percentage

Improve living condition 19 19%
Improve working condition 10 10%
Public health education 26 26%

41
Avoid bad social habit 31 31%
Improve nutritional status of the community 14 14%
Other please specify - -
Total 100 100%

Judging from the above table which clearly shows that 19 respondents

indicated that, the types of suggestion they will give to government and

public at large toward controlling the problem of non-communicable

diseases is through improvement of living condition of people and 10

respondents are of view of that it’s only through improvement of

improvement of working condition of the people the problem could be

controlled and 26 respondents representing 26% of the total respondent

indicated that, the only way out of this menace is through public health

education on the dangers associated with non-communicable diseases, and

31 respondents representing 31% of the total respondents emphasized that,

the only way of this problem of non-communicable diseases is through

avoidance of bad social health habit, in the same view 14 respondents

representing 14% of the total respondents are of the view that the only way

is through improvement of nutritional status of the community that the

problem could be overcome. This indicated the fact that public health

education and avoidance of bad social health habit are major areas were

majority of the respondents believe that, the problem of non-communicable

diseases could be overcome.

42
4.2 TEST OF HYPOTHESIS AND ANALYSIS OF RESULT

Nwanna (1990) defined analysis of data as those techniques whereby a

researcher extract information that was not apparently there before and

which will enable a summary description of the subject under discussion.

In the following analysis the test statistic used is chi-square method (x 2)

dichotomous in nature of inferential statistic, we reject null hypothesis (Ho)

and assumed the null hypothesis (Ho) is not reliable with regard to this

research caution need to be taken when drawing conclusion on the test of

hypothesis because the pairs of value are greater or less.

4.2.1 TEST OF HYPOTHESIS

Ho: Ignorance and poverty of people toward non-communicable diseases

can contribute to the incidence of those diseases within the area of study.

Ha: The above statement is not true

i.e. Ho: P # 0 Vs Ha: P – 0

Table 4.2.1

Do you believe that ignorance of non-communicable diseases can

contribute to the incidence of these diseases?

Gender Responses Percentage

Yes No

43
Male 50 10 60%
Female 31 9 40%
Total 81 19 100%

(P<0.05)

From appendix BI, since x2 calculated 0.53 < x2 tab 0.05 at Idf = 3.841, we

therefore concluded and accepted null hypothesis (Ho) the result (P < 0.05)

it clearly shows that out of one hundred respondents representing both sexes,

81 respondents representing both sexes agreed with the hypothesis (Ho) as

such they are majority, and 19 respondents representing both sexes also

disagreed with the hypothesis (Ho) as such they are minority, we therefore,

concluded and accept null hypothesis (Ho) that ignorance of people toward

non-communicable diseases within the area of study.

4.2.2 TEST OF HYPOTHESIS

Ho: that bad social health habit can contribute to non-communicable

diseases.

Ha: The above statement is not true

i.e. Ho: P # 0 Vs Ha: P – 1

Table 4.2.2

44
Does bad social habits contribute to acquiring non-communicable

diseases?

Gender No. of Responses Percentage

Yes No
Male 48 12 60%
Female 25 15 40%
Total 73 27 100%

(P < 0.05)

From appendix BII, since x2 calculated 3.72 < x2 tab 0.05 at Idf = 3.841, we

therefore concluded and accepted null hypothesis (Ho) the result (P < 0.05)

it clearly shows that out of one hundred respondents representing both sexes,

73 respondents representing both sexes agreed with the hypothesis (Ho) and

27 respondents representing both sexes also disagreed with the hypothesis

(Ho) that bad social health habits can contribute to non-communicable

diseases.

4.2.3 TEST OF HYPOTHESIS

Ho: Atmospheric pollution can be a way of acquiring non-communicable

diseases.

Ha: The above statement is not true

i.e. Ho: P # 0 Vs Ha: P – 0

45
 Table 4.2.3

Do you believe atmospheric pollution can a way of acquiring non-

communicable diseases?

Gender No. of Responses Percentage

Yes No
Male 40 20 60%
Female 21 19 40%
Total 61 39 100%

From appendix BIII, since x2 calculated 2.02 < x2 tab 0.05 at Idf = 3.841, we

therefore concluded and accepted null hypothesis (Ho) the result (P < 0.05)

it clearly shows that out of one hundred respondents representing both sexes,

61 respondents representing both sexes agreed with the hypothesis (Ho),

they are the majority, and 39 respondents representing both sexes also

disagreed with the hypothesis (Ho), they are minority. We therefore,

concluded and accept null hypothesis (Ho) that atmospheric pollution can be

a way of acquiring non-communicable diseases.

4.2.4 TEST OF HYPOTHESIS

Ho: Stress and poor working condition of people can be a means of

acquiring non-communicable diseases.

Ha: The above statement is not true

46
i.e. Ho: P # 0 Vs Ha: P – 0

Table 4.2.4

Do you believe stress and poor working condition of people can be a

means of acquiring non-communicable diseases?

Gender No. of Responses Percentage

Yes No
Male 52 8 60%
Female 32 8 40%
Total 84 16 100%

(P < 0.05)

From appendix BIV, since x2 calculated 0.79 < x2 tab 0.05 at Idf = 3.841, we

therefore concluded and accepted null hypothesis (Ho) the result (P < 0.05)

it clearly shows that out of one hundred respondents representing both sexes,

84 respondents representing both sexes agreed with the hypothesis (Ho),

they are the majority, and 16 respondents representing both sexes also

disagreed with the hypothesis (Ho), they are minority. We therefore,

concluded and accept null hypothesis (Ho) that stress and poor working

47
condition of people can be a means of acquiring non-communicable

diseases.

4.2.5 TEST OF HYPOTHESIS

Ho: Poverty and poor living condition of people can promote the spread of
non-communicable diseases.

Ha: The above statement is not true

i.e. Ho: P # 0 Vs Ha: P – 0

Table 4.2.5

Do you believe that poverty and poor living condition of people can be a

means of acquiring non-communicable diseases?

Gender No. of Responses Percentage

Yes No
Male 50 10 60%
Female 30 10 40%
Total 80 20 100%

(P < 0.05)

From appendix BV, since x2 calculated 2.67 < x2 tab 0.05 at Idf = 3.841, we

therefore concluded and accepted null hypothesis (Ho) the result (P < 0.05)

it clearly shows that out of one hundred respondents representing both sexes,

80 respondents representing both sexes agreed with the hypothesis (Ho),

48
they are the majority, and 20 respondents representing both sexes also

disagreed with the hypothesis (Ho), they are minority. We therefore,

concluded and accept null hypothesis (Ho) that poverty and poor living

condition of people can promote the spread of non-communicable diseases.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 RECOMMENDATION

In order to effectively control and prevent all epidemiological approach to

the incidence of non-communicable diseases, the following

recommendations are made to the government and public at large within the

area of study.

GOVERNMENT

1- The government should improve the living condition of people by

creating job opportunities to them, in order to fight poverty.

2- There must be specific clear government policy toward improving

working condition and enforced private organization to do the same.

3- Government should increase food production particularly animal protein

by improving farming at all kinds, utilizing protein from animals and

plants marking and distribution.

49
4- Government should encourage NGOs in fighting non-communicable

diseases making funds available to them.

5- Mass media propaganda and education of public on the dangers bad

social health habits and this should be done must often so as to get people

involved in fighting non-communicable diseases.

6- Universal education in school on the importance of good health habits

among children, students should be included in school curriculum.

7- Regular medical check-up especially with regard to women should be

carried out and drugs should be made available to them for all to buy.

8- Environmental sanitation activities should be imposed so as to make the

atmospheric free from pollution. And industries living within the area of

study should find a means of reducing omission in the atmosphere.

9- Government should encourage the teeming population to produce food

crops instead of cash crops.

10- Government through its agencies should maintain safety among the

major foods.

11- Government should provide good and efficient roads networks to its

teeming population.

PUBLIC

50
1- The public should give their maximum support and cooperation for any

programmes means for their benefit.

2- People should participate actively in promoting positive health habits

among their children.

3- Parents especially mothers should reject the introduction of

supplementary foods or infant formula through advertisement and early

weaning of children.

4- Regular visit of medical centres for health assessment is a great

importance to health.

5- People should at least find a way of fighting poverty so as to break the

chain of ignorance and diseases.

6- The public should appreciate the common of government in terms of

their health by avoiding bad social health habits.

7- Safety precautions should be exercised especially among machine

operators e.g. cars, lorry and motorcycles when driving on roads in order

to avoid accidents.

51
5.2 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The entire project research was aimed at in depth analysis on the

epidemiological approach to the incidence of non-communicable diseases, a

case study of Malumfashi Local Government Area, the purpose of the study

is to find out various factors responsible for non-communicable diseases and

their effect on human health as well as to ascertain the prevalence of those

diseases within the area of study and to find out the role of government and

non-governmental organizations toward controlling these diseases.

Personal health is the responsibility of each individual who should be to

keep himself physically fit so that he cannot only make the greatest the

satisfaction and happiness in doing so to maintain this health each person

needs to acquire good health habits.

From the information collected and analyzed using various method some

recommendations are made to the government and public at large within the

areas of study, that government should improve the living condition of

52
people by creating job opportunities to them in order to avoid diseases, that

there must be specific clear government policy toward improving working

condition and enforce private organization to do the same and the public

should give their maximum support and cooperation for any programmes

meant for their benefits.

The reader will easily appreciate the facts that all people value health, yet

many do not give it a great deals of consideration until they are sick and

most would probably have to think very carefully if asked what health

means to them. The major problem facing our society is the problem of non-

communicable diseases; these diseases constitute a social problem to human

health.

Conclusively, unless and until these diseases were given a serious attention

it deserved they will continue to exist and cause numerous morbidity and

mortality cases.

53
5.3 LIST ABBREVIATION

ANC Antenatal Care

EHT Environmental Health Technician

HOD Head of Department

WHO World Health Organization

EHO Environmental Health Officer

LGA Local Government Area

NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations

PHC Primary Health Care

WAHEB West African Health Examination Board

SEPA State Environmental Protection Agency

TB Tuberculosis

CSM Cerebrospinal Meningitis

54
ET-AL And Others

5.4 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Anderson, M. et-al (1978); Community, C.V Mosby Publishers Pp167.

2. Barnes, G (1989); Personal and Community Health, Ballire Tindall
Publishing Company, Pp 202, 203, 204.
3. Chew, Y. K (1982); Environmental Health and Engineering in Developed
Communities, C. V. Mosby Pp.14.
4. Gellman, J. B. (1970); Traffic Regulation And Human Safety A Guide to
Professional Personnel, Hopkins Press Pp.23
5. Davies, B. M. (1979); Community Health Preventive Medicine and
Social Services Bailline Medical Books Pp252.
6. Hillary K, et-al (1994); Infections Diseases and Human Health Longman
Publishing Company Canada, Pp-10.
7. Hinily, W (1969); Personal and Community Health, Nursing Series LBN
Books Pp1.
8. Timo M.B (1970); Tropical Hygiene And Nursing In Developing
Communities, Casella Books London, Pp14.
9. Kifer, N. (1973); Health Hazard Of The Human Environment Scan Plan
Printing Press N. Y. Pp1
10.Town Sends, P. et-al (1984); Environment Psychology of Man and His
Physical Setting, Rinehart and Winston Press Bactmore Pp33.
11.Stamler, J. et-al (1978); Arithmetic in Nursing, Base Printing Press
London Pp69.

55
12.Winfred, L. H. (1969); Psychology for Nurses and Other Paramedical
Personnel, Royal Masonic Hospital London Pp53.

APPENDIX BI

1st Step = Formulate hypothesis

Ho: That ignorance of toward non-communicable diseases can contribute to

the incidence of those diseases within the area of study.

Ha: The above statement is not true

i.e. Ho: P # 0 Vs Ha: P – 0

2nd Step = Select the Level of Significance

i.e. alpha (ϖ) and degree of freedom (df)

ϖ = 0.0513.841

df = (r – 1) (e – 1)

= (2 – 1) (2 – 1)

=1ϖ1

3rd Step = State Test Statistic

Let the test statistic be

56
 ( ad−bc ) 2m
X2 =
Klmn

4th Step = State Decision Rule

i. Reject null hypothesis (Ho) if X2 calculated > X2 tab which is

equal to 0.05 ate degree of freedom (df) = 3.841

ii. Accept null hypothesis (Ha) if X2 calculated < X2 tab 0.05 at

degree of freedom (df) 1 = 3.841.

5th Step = Compute test statistic in table 4:2:1

[ ( ad−bc ) ] 2 m
X2 =
Klmn

[ (50 X 9 )−( 31 X 10)] 2 X 100

X2 =
60 X 40 X 81 X 19

[ ( 450 )−(310)] 2 X 100

X2 =
60 X 40 X 81 X 19

[ ( 140 ) ] 2−X 100

X2 =
60 X 40 X 81 X 19

1960000
X2 = 3693600

X2 = 0.53

6th Step = Apply Decision Rule

57
Since X2 calculated 0.53 < X2 tab 0.05 at df = 3.841, we therefore concluded

and accepted that null hypothesis (Ho) that ignorance of people toward non-

communicable diseases can contribute to the incidence of those diseases

within the Area of Study.

7th Step = Draw a table critical value of chi-square distribution.

P < 0.05 X2 0.05 = 3.841

APPENDIX BII

1st Step = Formulate hypothesis

Ho: That bad social health habits can contribute to non-communicable

diseases.

Ha: The above statement is not true

58
 i.e. Ho: P # 0 Vs Ha: P – 0

2nd Step = Select the Level of Significance

i.e. alpha (ϖ) and degree of freedom (df)

ϖ = 0.0513.841

df = (r – 1) (e – 1)

= (2 – 1) (2 – 1)

=1ϖ1

=1

3rd Step = State Test Statistic

Let the test statistic be

( ad−bc ) 2m
X2 =
Klmn

4th Step = State Decision Rule

i. Reject null hypothesis (Ho) if X2 calculated > X2 tab which is

equal to 0.05 ate degree of freedom (df) = 3.841

ii. Accept null hypothesis (Ha) if X2 calculated < X2 tab 0.05 at

degree of freedom (df) 1 = 3.841.

5th Step = Compute test statistic in table 4:2:2

59
 [ ( ad−bc ) ] 2 m
X2 =
Klmn

[ ( 48 X 15 )−(12 X 25)] 2 X 100

X2 =
60 X 40 X 73 X 27

[ (720 )−( 300) ] 2 X 100

X2 =
60 X 40 X 73 X 27

[ ( 420 ) ] 2 X 100
X2 =
60 X 40 X 73 X 27

176400 X 100
X2 = 4730400

17640000
X2 = 4730400

X2 = 3.72

6th Step = Apply Decision Rule

Since X2 calculated 3.72 < X2 tab 0.05 at df = 3.841, we therefore concluded

and accepted that null hypothesis (Ho) that bad social health habits can

contribute to non-communicable diseases.

7th Step = Draw a table critical value of chi-square distribution.

60
 P < 0.05 X2 0.05 = 3.841

APPENDIX BIII

1st Step = Formulate hypothesis

Ho: Atmospheric pollution can be a way of acquiring non-communicable

diseases.

Ha: The above statement is not true

i.e. Ho: P # 0 Vs Ha: P – 0

2nd Step = Select the Level of Significance

i.e. alpha (ϖ) and degree of freedom (df)

ϖ = 0.0513.841

df = (r – 1) (e – 1)

= (2 – 1) (2 – 1)

=1ϖ1

=1
61
3rd Step = State Test Statistic

Let the test statistic be

( ad−bc ) 2m
X2 =
Klmn

4th Step = State Decision Rule

i. Reject null hypothesis (Ho) if X2 calculated > X2 tab which is

equal to 0.05 ate degree of freedom (df) = 3.841

ii. Accept null hypothesis (Ha) if X2 calculated < X2 tab 0.05 at

degree of freedom (df) 1 = 3.841.

5th Step = Compute test statistic in table 4:2:3

[ ( ad−bc ) ] 2 m
X2 =
Klmn

[ ( 40 X 19 )−(20 X 21)] 2 X 100

X2 =
40 X 60 X 61 X 39

[ (760 ) (420)] 2 X 100

X2 =
40 X 60 X 61 X 39

( 340 ) 2 X 100
X2 =
40 X 60 X 61 X 39

115600 X 100
X2 = 5709600

11560000
X2 = 5709600

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 X2 = 2.02

6th Step = Apply Decision Rule

Since X2 calculated 2.02 < X2 tab 0.05 at df = 3.841, we therefore concluded

and accepted that null hypothesis (Ho) that atmospheric pollution can

contribute to non-communicable diseases.

7th Step = Draw a table critical value of chi-square distribution.

P < 0.05 X2 0.05 = 3.841

APPENDIX BIV

1st Step = Formulate hypothesis

63
Ho: Stress and poor working condition of people can be a means of

acquiring non-communicable diseases.

Ha: The above statement is not true

i.e. Ho: P # 0 Vs Ha: P – 0

2nd Step = Select the Level of Significance

i.e. alpha (ϖ) and degree of freedom (df)

ϖ = 0.0513.841

df = (r – 1) (e – 1)

= (2 – 1) (2 – 1)

=1ϖ1

=1

3rd Step = State Test Statistic

Let the test statistic be

( ad−bc ) 2m
X2 =
Klmn

4th Step = State Decision Rule

i. Reject null hypothesis (Ho) if X2 calculated > X2 tab which is

equal to 0.05 ate degree of freedom (df) = 3.841

64
 ii. Accept null hypothesis (Ha) if X2 calculated < X2 tab 0.05 at

degree of freedom (df) 1 = 3.841.

5th Step = Compute test statistic in table 4:2:4

[ ( ad−bc ) ] 2 m
X2 =
Klmn

[ (52 X 8 )−(8 X 32)] 2 X 100

X2 =
60 X 40 X 84 X 16

[ ( 416 ) −(256)] 2 X 100

X2 =
60 X 40 X 84 X 16

( 166 ) 2 X 100
X2 =
60 X 40 X 84 X 16

25600 X 100
X2 = 5709600

2560000
X2 = 3225600

X2 = 0.79

6th Step = Apply Decision Rule

Since X2 calculated 0.79 < X2 tab 0.05 at df = 3.841, we therefore concluded

and accepted that null hypothesis (Ho) that stress and poor working

condition can be a means of acquiring non-communicable diseases.

7th Step = Draw a table critical value of chi-square distribution.

65
 P < 0.05 X2 0.05 = 3.841

APPENDIX BV

1st Step = Formulate hypothesis

Ho: Poverty and poor living condition of people can promote the spread of

non-communicable diseases.

Ha: The above statement is not true

i.e. Ho: P # 0 Vs Ha: P – 0

2nd Step = Select the Level of Significance

i.e. alpha (ϖ) and degree of freedom (df)

ϖ = 0.0513.841

66
 df = (r – 1) (e – 1)

= (2 – 1) (2 – 1)

=1ϖ1

=1

3rd Step = State Test Statistic

Let the test statistic be

( ad−bc ) 2m
X2 =
Klmn

4th Step = State Decision Rule

i. Reject null hypothesis (Ho) if X2 calculated > X2 tab which is

equal to 0.05 ate degree of freedom (df) = 3.841

ii. Accept null hypothesis (Ha) if X2 calculated < X2 tab 0.05 at

degree of freedom (df) 1 = 3.841.

5th Step = Compute test statistic in table 4:2:5

[ ( ad−bc ) ] 2 m
X2 =
Klmn

[ (50 X 10 )−(10 X 30)] 2 X 100

X2 =
60 X 40 X 80 X 30

[ (500 )−( 300) ] 2 X 100

X2 =
60 X 40 X 80 X 30

67
 ( 200 ) 2 X 100
X2 =
60 X 40 X 80 X 30

40000 X 100
X2 = 384000

4000000
X2 = 384000

X2 = 1.04

6th Step = Apply Decision Rule

Since X2 calculated 1.04 < X2 tab 0.05 at df = 3.841, we therefore concluded

and accepted that null hypothesis (Ho) that poverty and poor living standard

of people can promote the spread of non-communicable diseases.

7th Step = Draw a table critical value of chi-square distribution.

68
 P < 0.05 X2 0.05 = 3.841

SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE

Department of Environmental
Health Sciences,
School of Health Technology,
Kankia
Dear respondent;

I am an Environmental Health Technician student in the above mentioned

institution currently pursuing a Professional Diploma in Environmental
Health Sciences undertaking a research study titled “An Epidemiological
Approach to the Incidence of Non-Communicable diseases, A Case Study of
Malumfashi Local Government Area.

SECTION A

1. Sex: Male ( ) Female ( )

2. Age: 18-23years ( ) 24-29years ( ) 30-35years ( ) 36-
41years 42years and above ( )

69
3. Marital Status: Single ( ) Married ( )
4. Educational Background: Formal ( ) Informal( )
5. Religion: Islam ( ) Christianity( )

SECTION B

6. Do you know anything about non-communicable diseases? Yes ( ) No ( )

7. If yes, through which of the following ways?
a. Through personal experience ( )
b. Through personal research ( )
c. Through the media ( )
8. On your own understanding which among the following ways contribute
greatly to the incidence of non-communicable diseases in your
community?
a. Bad social habit ( )
b. Atmospheric pollution ( )
c. Stress and poor working condition ( )
d. Poverty and poor living standard of people ( )
e. Poor health education ( )
f. Other please specify………………………………………….
9. Do you believe that ignorance of the people on non-communicable
diseases can contribute to the incidence of these diseases? Yes ( ) No ( )
10.Does a bad social health habit contribute to acquiring of non-
communicable diseases? Yes ( ) No ( )
11.Which among the following groups of non-communicable diseases are
most common in your community?
a. Mental illness ( )
b. Nutritional diseases ( )
c. Poisoning ( )
d. Accidents ( )
e. Hypertension ( )

70
 f. Diabetes ( )
g. Asthma ( )
h. Sickle Cell Anaemia ( )
i. All of the above
12.Do you normally patronize medical service in case you are affected with
these diseases? Yes ( ) No ( )
13.If yes, how effective is the service rendered to you?
a. Much effective ( )
b. Moderate ( )
c. Less effective ( )
d. Poor ( )
14.Beside the effort of medical services in order to curtail the incidence of
non-communicable diseases, is there any assistance from Non-
Governmental Organizations? Yes ( ) No ( )
15.If NGOs do assist in which of the following ways?
a. Through public health education ( )
b. Provision of drugs ( )
16.Do you believe that atmospheric pollution can be a way of acquiring non-
communicable diseases? Yes ( ) No ( )
17.What personal effort are you making to protect yourself and family
against acquiring non-communicable diseases?
a. Avoiding bad social habit ( )
b. Improvement in nutritional status ( )
c. Improvement in living condition ( )
d. Regular medical check-up ( )
e. Health education ( )
18.Do you believe that stress and poor working condition of the people can
be a way of acquiring non-communicable diseases? Yes ( ) No ( )
19.Do you believe that poverty and poor living standard of people can be a
means of acquiring non-communicable diseases? Yes ( ) No ( )
71
20.What is your suggestion to both government and public at large towards
confronting the problem of non-communicable diseases?
a. Improve living condition ( )
b. Improve working condition ( )
c. Public health education ( )
d. Avoid bad social habit ( )
e. Improve nutritional status of the community ( )
f. Other please specify………………………………………………

Thanks for your cooperation

Aisha Magaji Malumfashi

72