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The word ‘density’, although familiar at first glance, is a complex concept upon closer examination.
The complexity mainly stems from the multitude of definitions of the term in different disciplines and
under different contexts. This chapter attempts to untangle the intricate concepts of density according
to two perspectives – namely, physical density and perceived density. A thorough comprehension of
these two distinct concepts of density will serve as a basis for understanding the meaning of high
density. Hopefully, this chapter will establish the ground for the discussions in later chapters on the
design of high-density cities with respect to the timeliest social and environmental issues.
Physical density
Physical density is a numerical measure of the
concentration of individuals or physical structures
within a given geographical unit. It is an objective,
quantitative and neutral spatial indicator. However, in
practice, physical density takes on a real meaning only
if it is related to a specified scale of reference.
For instance, density expressed as ratio of
population to land area can vary significantly with
reference to different scales of geographical unit. Take
Hong Kong as an example: if the land area of the whole
territory is taken into account, the overall population
density in Hong Kong is about 6300 persons per square
kilometre. However, only about 24 per cent of the total
area in Hong Kong is built up. Therefore, if the
geographical reference is confined to built-up land,
then the population density will be about 25,900
Source: Vicky Cheng
individuals per square kilometre, which is four times
the overall density of the territory. Hence, it is Figure 1.1 People density
important that the scales of geographical references be
explicitly defined in density calculation, otherwise
comparison of density measures will be difficult. others. In town planning, measurement of physical
Nevertheless, there is no standard measure of density; density can be broadly divided into two categories: people
there are only measures that are more widely used than density and building density. People density is expressed
4 AN UNDERSTANDING OF HIGH DENSITY
Regional density is the ratio of a population to the land Figure 1.4 Gross residential area
area of a region. The reference area is usually defined by
a municipal boundary and includes both developed The measure of gross residential density considers the
and undeveloped land. Regional density is often used as residential area in its integrity. In addition to the area
an indicator of population distribution in national allocated for residence, it also takes into account non-
planning policy. residential spaces such as internal roads, parks, schools,
community centres and so on which are meant to serve
Residential density the local community. Nevertheless, in practice, it is
difficult to clearly define the extent of these
Residential density is the ratio of a population to residentially related areas. Some developments may
residential land area. This measure can be further take into account lands for purposes of serving a wider
classified in terms of net and gross residential densities neighbourhood and others may include non-
based on the definition of the reference area. However, developable land such as steep slopes. This
there is no consensus on the definition of net and gross inconsistency of inclusion leads to great ambiguity in
areas; it varies across cities and countries. In the UK, gross density measurement and, in turn, makes
net residential area refers only to land covered by comparison difficult.
residential development, along with gardens and other
spaces that are physically included in it; this usually also
Occupancy density
takes into account half the width of adjacent roads
(TCPA, 2003). In Hong Kong and some states in the Occupancy density refers to the ratio of the number of
US, net residential area only consists of the parcels occupants to the floor area of an individual habitable
allocated for residence where internal road, parks and unit. The reference habitable unit can be any kind of
other public lands are excluded (Churchman, 1999; private or public space, such as a dwelling, office,
Hong Kong Planning Department, 2003). theatre and so on. However, the reference area usually
UNDERSTANDING DENSITY AND HIGH DENSITY 5
refers only to an enclosed area. Occupancy density is an resources required for construction; consequently, it
important measure in building services design as it can forecast the financial balance of investment and
provides an indicator for estimating the services returns.
required. For instance, the electricity demand, space
cooling and heating load, provision of fire safety
facilities, and so forth are estimated based on the
occupancy density.
Occupancy rate, which is the inverse measure of
occupancy density (i.e. ratio of floor area of individual
unit to number of occupants), is commonly used as an
indicator of space available for individual occupants.
Higher occupancy rate means larger habitable area for
individual occupants. Regulation of minimum
occupancy rate is often used in building design to
safeguard the health and sanitary condition of habitable
spaces.
7000
6000
Number of people/sq.km
5000
4000
10 20 30 40 m
3000
2000
1000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Distance from reference location/km
Source: Illustration redrawn by Vicky Cheng and adapted from Longley and Mesev (2002, p20)
Figure 1.11 Population density gradient from the town centre towards rural outskirts
8 AN UNDERSTANDING OF HIGH DENSITY
(a) (b)
Population density
Period: Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Period: Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
Source: Illustration redrawn by Vicky Cheng and adapted from Muller (2004, p62)
Figure 1.12 Density gradients over time: progress from stage 1 to stage 3 – (a) progressive decentralization with
decreasing population density in the urban centre and increasing density towards the outskirts; (b) centralization with
growing population density in the urban centre and outskirts, as well as enlarging borders towards the periphery
Through comparing the measured density profile with Figure 1.13 Density profile calculated over
the predefined profiles, settlements of different spatial concentric circles of radii of 200m, 400m,
structures can be classified. 800m and 1600m
UNDERSTANDING DENSITY AND HIGH DENSITY 9
Building density and The single-storey houses layout, on the other hand,
divides open space into tiny parcels for individual uses.
urban morphology
In this arrangement, the area for communal facilities is
Building density has an intricate relationship with urban limited; nevertheless, residents can enjoy their own
morphology; it plays an important role in the shaping of private open space.
urban form. For instance, different combinations of plot In the face of rapid urbanization, the relationship
ratio and site coverage will manifest into a variety of between building density and urban form has attracted
different built forms. As illustrated in Figure 1.14, the wide interest. Growing pressure of land scarcity as a
building transforms from a single-storey building to a consequence of increasing urban population has
multi-storey tower as the proportion of site coverage initiated extensive investigation on the spatial benefit of
decreases. multi-storey buildings. Mathematical and geometrical
In a similar vein, urban developments of the same analyses have been conducted to address the issue,
density can exhibit very different urban forms. particularly concerning the relationships between
Figure 1.15 shows three settlements with the same building height, plot ratio, site coverage and solar
residential density of 76 dwellings per hectare, but in obstruction (Gropius, 1935; Beckett, 1942; Segal,
different urban forms: multi-storey towers, medium-rise 1964; Martin and March, 1972; Evans, 1973;
buildings in central courtyard form, and parallel rows of Davidovich, 1968).
single-storey houses. Intrinsically, the three layouts are For an array of continuous courtyard form at a
different in many aspects; nevertheless, in terms of given plot ratio, increased building height will always
urban land use, the proportion and organization of lead to reduced solar obstruction, as shown in Figure
ground open space is of particular interest. 1.17. Or, to put it another way, provided that the
The high-rise layout creates large areas of open land solar obstruction angle is kept unchanged, increased
that are suitable for expansive communal facilities, such building height will heighten the plot ratio.
as libraries, sports grounds and community centres. Moreover, the site coverage will decrease
Nevertheless, without efficient land-use planning, these concurrently, which will lead to more ground open
spaces can run the risk of being left over, not properly space.
managed and end up producing problems. For urban form with an infinite array of parallel
The proportion of open area resulted in the tenement blocks, although geometrically different from
medium-rise courtyard form, although it is less than the courtyard form, the mathematical relationships
that of the high-rise layout. However, unlike the between building height, plot ratio, site coverage and
former, the courtyard space is enclosed and clearly solar obstruction remain the same. Therefore, the
defined. It can be shaped as the central stage of the observations obtained from the courtyard form apply
community and, thus, encourages full use of space. to the parallel block form as well.
Plot ratio = 1, Site coverage = 100 per cent Plot ratio = 1, Site coverage = 25 per cent
Figure 1.14 Two built forms with the same plot ratio but different proportions of site coverage
10 AN UNDERSTANDING OF HIGH DENSITY
(c)
(c) Low-rise
Figure 1.17 Relationships between building height, plot ratio, site coverage and solar obstruction
several existing urban forms (Alexander, 1993; Ellis, high degree of enclosure, intricacy of spaces and high
2004; Campoli and MacLean, 2007). activity levels, in which all of these qualities tend to
result in higher rates of information from the
environment itself.
Perceived density Social density describes the interaction between
Perceived density is defined as an individual’s people. It involves the various sensory modalities, the
perception and estimate of the number of people mechanisms for controlling interaction levels such as
present in a given area, the space available and its spacing, physical elements, territorial boundaries,
organization (Rapoport, 1975). Spatial characteristic hierarchy, the size and nature of the group involved, its
per se is important in the perception of density; but in homogeneity and rules for behaviour, in which all of
addition, the interaction between the individual and these qualities affect the rates of social interaction
the environment as a whole counts even more. (Chan, 1999). In general, for high spatial density, the
Individual cognitive attributes and socio-cultural primary problem is too little space, while for high social
norms are also factors that contribute to this density the primary problem is too many people with
interaction (Alexander, 1993). whom one must interact.
Furthermore, perceived density not only addresses Perceived density, therefore, is subjective as it relies
the relative relationships between individual and space, on individual apprehension; nevertheless, it is also
but also between individuals in the space. For example, neutral as it does not involve any personal evaluation or
suppose there are two spaces with the same occupancy judgement. Crowding, on the other hand, refers to the
rate of 3 square metres per person; in one case, there is state of psychological stress that is associated with a
a group of friends in a clubroom, while in another there negative appraisal of density (Churchman, 1999).
are several unacquainted people in a small lobby. Density, although a necessary antecedent of crowding,
Clearly, these two situations are very different in social is not a sufficient condition for causing the experience
and perceptual terms, even though they show the same of crowding (Stokols, 1972). Apart from physical
physical density (Chan, 1999). In order to distinguish conditions, crowding also involves the evaluation of
between these two different aspects of perceived situational variables, personal characteristics and
density, the concept of spatial density and social density coping assets (Baum and Paulus, 1987). Research
were introduced. suggests that as far as crowding is concerned, the
Spatial density refers to the perception of density influence of social density is more significant than
with respect to the relationship among spatial elements spatial density (McClelland and Auslander, 1978).
such as height, spacing and juxtaposition. High spatial However, the experience of crowding would be
density is related to environmental qualities, such as intensified as a consequence of limited space since the
freedom of adjusting one’s physical proximity to others
is reduced (Mackintosh et al, 1975; Saegert, 1979).
Screen/ Colour
partition
Furniture
Room shape
1972; Baum and Davis, 1976; Schiffenbauer et al, Zacharias and Stamps (2004) proposed that
1977; Bell et al, 2001). perceived density is a function of building layout.
In the urban environment, the perception of Based on the findings of their simulation experiments,
density has been found to be associated with the built building height, number of buildings, spacing and the
form and certain urban features. Rapoport (1975) extent of building coverage have significant effects
outlined the importance of a list of environmental cues, upon perceived density. Nevertheless, architectural
which are thought to have effects on perceived density; details and landscaping did not show significant
these hypothesized factors include building height-to- influences.
space ratio, building height, space openness, space By and large, research to date indicates that the
complexity, the number of people, the number of street perception of density is related to certain
signs, traffic, light level, naturalness of the environmental cues; however, it is important to keep in
environment, and the rhythm of activity. mind that besides physical characteristics, individual-
In a guidebook for housing development authored cognitive and socio-cultural factors are also prominent,
by Cooper-Marcus and Sarkissian (1988), design especially with respect to the notion of high density.
attributes such as the overall size of buildings, space There is not an explicit definition of high density; it
between buildings, variety in building façade, and varies from culture to culture and from person to
visual access to open and green space are acknowledged person. The next section furthers the discussion of
as contributing factors to the perception of density. On density with regard to the phenomenon of high density.
the other hand, Bonnes et al (1991) pointed out that
spatial features such as street width, building height,
High density
building size, and balance between built-up and vacant
spaces can affect people’s perception of density. Rapid urbanization since 1950 has exerted tremendous
Flachsbart (1979) conducted an empirical study to pressure on urban development in many cities and has
examine the effects of several built-form features upon been confronted with the scarce supply of land in
perceived density. According to his findings, shorter urban areas; densification has also become an
building block lengths and more street intersections important agenda in planning policies around the
could lower perceived density. However, surprisingly, world. High-density development has consequently
the influence of street width was found insignificant; been a topic of increasing interest worldwide; it
and other features such as street shape, slope and represents different notions in different countries,
building block diversity did not show noticeable effects. across different cultures and to different people.
14 AN UNDERSTANDING OF HIGH DENSITY
and services to improve the quality of urban living. Environment and preservation
However, some people argue that the opposite is also
true. In order to achieve high building density, massive
high-rise buildings are inevitable, and these massive
structures, crammed into small sites, can conversely
result in very little open space and a congested
cityscape. This may happen when high-density
development is carried out without planning.
Therefore, in order to avoid the negative impacts of
high density, thorough planning and appropriate
density control are essential.
Infrastructure such as roads, drainage and sewerage,
electricity, telecommunication networks and so on are
substantial in supporting urban development. These
infrastructural services, however, are very costly to
provide and maintain; and in many cases, a minimum
utilization threshold is required in order to operate Source: Vicky Cheng
these systems cost effectively. High people density, by Figure 1.22 High density helps to protect the countryside
concentrating a population in a smaller area, can make
greater use of these infrastructural services and help the
systems to run more economically. However, if the High building density can help to protect the
population exceeds the system capacity, high people countryside and agricultural land from urbanization.
density can contrarily lead to overload of the systems For instance, as mentioned earlier, only 24 per cent of
and deteriorate services. Again, in order to achieve the the land area in Hong Kong is built up; the rest of the
former outcome, it is important that the planning of land area remains largely rural in character and provides
high density and the provision of infrastructure go a pleasant recreational outlet for urban dwellers.
hand in hand. High people density can enhance the opportunity
for using public transit and thus help to reduce the use
of private cars. The reduction of private vehicles can
Transportation system lead to lower gasoline consumption and decreased
The public transport system is very costly to build and pollution from traffic. High people density can also
operate; like most infrastructural services, public facilitate the use of centralized energy systems, such as
transport needs a minimum utilization rate in order to the combined heat and power plant, which would
be profitable and efficient. High people density, by result in more efficient energy use and decreased
providing a greater number of users, would sustain the emission of pollutants from power generation.
use of the mass transit system and thus improve its On the other hand, high building density, which is
efficiency and viability. Furthermore, high building and usually in the form of high-rise clusters, may impede
people density means that both places and people are the potential of building integrated renewable energy
concentrated and close to each other. This offers more systems. Furthermore, high building density may
opportunities for walking and cycling, and therefore reduce space for trees and shrubs that purify the air and
would reduce the number of car trips, as well as the cool inner urban areas. The high proportion of built-up
travel distance per trip. The increase in proximity mass and the loss of greenery are causes of the urban
together with the increased use of public transit would heat island effect.
help to reduce traffic congestion in urban centres.
However, these benefits will only be realized if Personal and social elements
transportation systems are well planned. Otherwise,
high density can lead to traffic congestion and The proximity of people and places brought about by
overcrowding in mass transit facilities if the provision both high building and people density offers a high
of public transport is deficient. degree of convenience for work, service and
16 AN UNDERSTANDING OF HIGH DENSITY
entertainment. However, this proximity, especially order to maximize the benefits of high density,
between people, may force individuals to undergo some thorough and comprehensive planning strategy is
unwanted social contact and cause psychological stress. essential; otherwise, high-density development can lead
High people density may also lead to competition for to severe social and environmental problems.
the use of facilities and space and, in turn, create social Good planning is important; but as to what makes
conflicts. Moreover, high people density may result in good planning of high-density cities is another
reduced privacy and invoke the feeling of loss of control question. The rest of this book will address various
and anxiety. Nevertheless, with proper organization social and environmental issues concerning high-
and management, the proximity that arises from high density development, accompanied by design strategies
people density can conversely facilitate social corresponding to these issues. Hopefully this chapter
interaction and promote good neighbourhood has set out the ground for further discussion of high-
relations. density issues in later chapters and, altogether, this
The unpleasant experience as a result of book can provoke deeper reflection upon the potential
overcrowding is more related to high people density of high-density development.
and not necessarily associated with high building
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