ABSTRACT

SUBGLACIAL SEDIMENT TRANSPORT, ICE STREAM DYNAMICS,

AND CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF THE WHILLANS ICE
STREAM INFERRED FROM PARTICLE SURFACE
TEXTURE, FORM, AND COMPOSITION

Rebecca A. Puttkammer, MS
Department of Geology and Environmental Geosciences
Northern Illinois University, 2016
Ross D. Powell, Director

Subglacial sediment from the Whillans Ice Stream, West Antarctica was studied in order

to investigate the primary subglacial sediment transportation agent, ice stream dynamics, and

chemical weathering under Whillans Ice Stream (WIS). Scanning electron microscopy on quartz

sand grains, gravel form, roundness, and textural and compositional analyses were performed on

sediment samples from cores recovered from three subglacial sites including Upstream Whillans

(UpB) from 1988-93, Subglacial Lake Whillans (SLW) in 2012-13, and Whillans Grounding

Zone (WGZ) in 2014-15. This study is part of the Whillans Ice Stream Subglacial Access

Research Drilling (WISSARD) project that uses in situ samples to document the subglacial

processes that constrain current dynamics and stability of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS),

to recover records of past dynamics of the ice sheet, and to prove the existence of and then

document subglacial biological communities, their structure and ecosystem energies.

The subglacial drainage network under WIS is known to increase ice flow velocity during

periods when it “floods” out of one lake and into another and specifically, as SLW drains to the

Ross Sea. This study concludes the subglacial sediment coarser than mud is not fluvially

transported during these SLW drainage events, but rather the sediment is glacially transported in
 ii

a weak deformation till. Furthermore, there is no evidence of changes in sand and gravel

provenance either spatially from site-to-site or temporally at both SLW and WGZ; however,

there is evidence at WGZ that the grounding line has been dynamic through the Holocene.

Sediment stratigraphy at WGZ shows one prior grounding line fluctuation and a quite recent

grounding line retreat that most likely indicates modern instability of the grounding zone. These

conclusions support a previous study’s findings that sediment flux to the grounding line may be

insufficient to stabilize the ice stream against both rising and warming oceans by sediment

accumulation in the grounding-zone wedge. Sediment transfer in the weak deformation till is too

slow of a process compared with sediment transported in stiffer till or by more normal river

floods.

Finally, surface dissolution etching and mineral precipitation on freshly crushed surfaces

of quartz sand grains provides evidence of microbially mediated chemical reactions occurring

subglacially at all sites. Such changes on grain surfaces are thought uncommon in polar

subglacial settings due to low chemical energies and thus, for the reactions to occur, they are

most likely driven by microbes. The microbial activity discovered at SLW may not be limited to

the subglacial lake, but is likely pervasive throughout the subglacial hydrologic network as well

as the subglacial till. This finding points to the need for further spatial sampling to confirm the

inferences of the broad distribution of subglacial microbial activity that would have the potential

for releasing nutrients and organic matter to the Southern Ocean.

 NORTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY
DE KALB, ILLINOIS

AUGUST 2016

SUBGLACIAL SEDIMENT TRANSPORT, ICE STREAM DYNAMICS,

AND CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF THE WHILLANS ICE

STREAM INFERRED FROM PARTICLE SURFACE

TEXTURE, FORM, AND COMPOSITION

BY

REBECCA A. PUTTKAMMER
©2016 Rebecca A. Puttkammer

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE

MASTER OF SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL GEOSCIENCES

Thesis Director:
Ross D. Powell

 ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Ross D. Powell. I am grateful for

the opportunities he has provided me from graduate education and research to travel for

fieldwork and meetings. Dr. Ross D. Powell’s direction, patience, and encouragement allowed

me to gain confidence and knowledge in my research field and ability to communicate. I would

also like to thank my thesis committee members, Dr. Reed P. Scherer and Dr. Nathan D.

Stansell, for their guidance and mentorship during my graduate studies and Dr. Slawek Tulaczyk

from University of California of Santa Cruz and Dr. Franco Talarico from University of Siena

for their research knowledge.

I would not be completing my master’s education if it were not for my fiancé, Morgan

Tarbutton. He encouraged me to follow my interests by changing career paths and supported me

each step of the way. I will forever be thankful for his encouragement. I also would like to thank

my parents and siblings for being my cheerleaders and helping me complete my graduate studies.

The completion of this thesis would not be possible without the assistance from the

department’s staff, Nina Slack and Lucy Galpin, and our department’s lab manager, Josh

Schwartz, along with my fellow graduate students, Tim Hodson, Jason Coenen, and Kristyn Hill,

and IMSA student Apsen Wheeler for her work on the scanning electron microscope. Thank you

for your assistance. Finally, thank you to the WISSARD research group for their support and

collaboration and to NSF, NIU Graduate School, NIU College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, and

the Goldich Fund for research and travel funding.

 iii

DEDICATION

I dedicate this thesis to my fiancé Morgan, my parents Cindy and Rein, my brothers Todd,

Adam, and Timothy, and my sister Maryse. Thank you for your support and encouragement.
 iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. vi

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF APPENDICES ......................................................................................................... ix

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1

2. BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................ 3

Geologic Setting........................................................................................................ 3

Sample Site Locations............................................................................................... 6

3. METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 10

Sample Collection .................................................................................................... 10

Scanning Electron Microscopy ................................................................................ 12

Form, Roundness, and Surface Features .................................................................. 13

Composition .............................................................................................................. 16

4. RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 18

Scanning Electron Microscopy ................................................................................ 18

Form, Roundness, and Surface Features .................................................................. 22

Composition .............................................................................................................. 24

5. DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................. 30
 v
Subglacial Coarse Sediment Transport .................................................................... 30

Ice Stream Dynamics ............................................................................................... 33

Evidence of Microbially Mediated Chemical Weathering ...................................... 38

6. CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................ 41

REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 44

APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................ 50
 vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Table of Samples and Analyses Performed for Upb, SLW, and WGZ ...................... 11

C-1: Table of SEM Data for UpB, SLW, and WGZ ......................................................... 57

C-2: Table of Sand Composition Data for SLW and WGZ .............................................. 58
 vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Drainage system under the Antarctic Ice Sheet .......................................................... 4

2. Ice flow map of Antarctica ......................................................................................... 5

3. Locator map of UpB, SLW, and WGZ ....................................................................... 6

4. WGZ facies descriptions ............................................................................................. 9

5. SEM pictures of quartz sand grains from SLW .......................................................... 14

6. Weathering phase descriptions with SEM images ...................................................... 15

7. Zingg diagram for clast shape ..................................................................................... 15

8. Krumbein scale for roundness .................................................................................... 16

9. Frequency of surface microtextures on quartz sand grains by site from UpB,

SLW, and WGZ .......................................................................................................... 19

10. Frequency of surface microtextures on quartz sand grains by depth at SLW ............ 19

11. Frequency of surface microtextures on quartz sand grains by depth at WGZ ............ 20

12. Frequency of weathering phases on quartz sand grains by site from UpB,
SLW, and WGZ ......................................................................................................... 20

13. Frequency of weathering phases on quartz sand grains by depth at SLW and
WGZ ........................................................................................................................... 21

14. Frequency of dissolution etching and precipitation on phase 3 quartz sand

grains by site from UpB, SLW, and WGZ.................................................................. 21

15. Frequency of gravel form by site for SLW and WGZ ................................................ 22

16. Frequency of gravel form by clast composition by site for SLW and WGZ .............. 23
 viii
17. Frequency of gravel roundness by site for SLW and WGZ........................................ 23

18. Frequency of gravel composition for UpB, SLW, and WGZ ..................................... 25

19. Frequency of sand composition for SLW and WGZ .................................................. 25

20. Frequency of sand composition by depth at SLW ...................................................... 26

21. Frequency of gravel and sand composition by depth for WGZ-GC-1........................ 27

22. Frequency of sand composition by depth for WGZ-GC-4 compared to

WGZ-GC-1 ................................................................................................................. 28

23. Picture of fractured till in Unit II interpreted to be created during ice sheet
lift-off during rapid grounding line retreat at WGZ.................................................... 37

A-1. Frequency of surface microtextures and frequency of weathering phases on

quartz sand grains for each size fraction at UpB .............................................................. 51

A-2. Frequency of surface microtextures and frequency of weathering phases on

quartz sand grains for each size fraction at SLW ............................................................. 51

A-3. Frequency of surface microtextures and frequency of weathering phases on

quartz sand grains for each size fraction at WGZ ............................................................. 52

B-1. Till pellet formation models proposed by Cowan and others (2012) ....................... 55
 ix

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page

A. FREQUENCY OF SURFACE MICROTEXTURES AND WEATHERING

PHASES ON QUARTZ SAND GRAINS FOR EACH SIZE FRACTION ............... 50

B. MODELS OF TILL PELLET FORMATION NEAR GROUNDING ZONES ......... 53

C. TABLES OF SEM AND SAND COMPOSITION DATA ........................................ 56

 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The Whillans Ice Stream (WIS) is one of five Ross ice streams that flow from the West

Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) into the Ross Ice Shelf. The Whillans Ice Stream Subglacial Access

Research Drilling (WISSARD) research group has completed multiple field seasons to WIS in

order to understand the dynamics and microbial life of the ice stream. Ice stream dynamics are

important to understand because of their influence on the mass balance and stability of the

modern WAIS (Bennett, 2003). Ice streams are rapidly flowing portions of the Antarctic Ice

Sheet that are responsible for 90% of the ice lost (Bamber et al., 2000) and thus, are important

components to investigate when addressing mass balance concerns. The overall aim of the

project has focused on WAIS stability because the majority of the marine ice sheet is grounded

below sea level with grounding lines on reverse sloping beds (Lythe and Vaughan, 2001). The

current state of the grounding lines, the area where the ice transitions from being a grounded

glacier to a floating ice shelf, can become unstable with warming seas resulting in mass loss due

to runaway grounding lines. This process could eventually lead to ice sheet disintegration that

has the potential to raise sea level ~3.5 m (Schoof, 2007; Bamber et al., 2009). Understanding

the dynamics, subglacial processes, and history of WIS will lead to better modeling and

predictions of ice stream stability and thus, ice sheet stability (Bennett, 2003).

This thesis aims to answer (1) how subglacial sediment is primarily transported

downstream, (2) if the ice stream has been dynamic through time with either changes in sediment

sources and/or facies changes at the grounding zone, and (3) if evidence of microbially induced

 2
chemical weathering exists at other samples sites beyond Subglacial Lake Whillans (SLW). The

research concludes that subglacial sediment is glacially transported in a weak deformation till

and not fluvially transported during subglacial drainage events, that the ice stream has been

dynamic through time with evidence of a past grounding line fluctuation and a recent grounding

line retreat, and finally, that subglacial microbial activity documented in waters and sediment of

SLW may not be limited to that site, but may be pervasive throughout the subglacial till.
 3

CHAPTER 2

BACKGROUND

Geologic Setting

The Transantarctic Mountain range divides the Antarctic Ice Sheet into the West

Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) and the East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS). An extensive hydrologic

network of 379 subglacial lakes and streams beneath the Antarctic Ice Sheet (Wright and Siegert,

2012) acts as a subglacial water drainage system with over 120 of the lakes working as

temporary storage reservoirs for subglacial liquid water (Figure 1, Smith et al., 2009). The

subglacial drainage network that exists below the Whillans Ice Stream (WIS) along the Gould

Coast of the WAIS is active (Fricker et al., 2007) and evolving due to the sub-decadal fill and

drainage cycles (Fricker and Scambos, 2009). The subglacial drainage events beneath WIS may

cause an increase in flow velocity by the water acting as a lubricant at the ice-sediment interface

or between subglacial till grains (Kamb, 2001). The effect subglacial water movement has on the

fluctuation in ice flow rates is important to understand for ice stream dynamics and how they

affect ice mass flux and ice sheet stability (Siegfried et al., 2014; Fricker et al., 2007). The

drainage of water subglacially may also affect the subglacial sediment transport process, which

in turn may help determine stability of the grounding line. The active subglacial processes

coupled with the fact that the WAIS is grounded below sea level makes the Siple-Gould Coast

ice streams important to research for ice sheet stability.

 4

Figure 1: Drainage system under the Antarctic Ice Sheet. The shaded blue areas and blue lines
indicate approximate locations of subglacial lakes and rivers under the Antarctic Ice Sheet.
Purple regions indicate areas where ice is bedded below sea level. Red outlines indicate the
general locations of Whillans Ice Stream and Subglacial Lake Vostok. Figure adapted from Zina
Deretsky, courtesy of the National Science Foundation, via Wikimedia Common, 2007.

Whillans Ice Stream, formerly known as Ice Stream B, flows from WAIS to the Ross Ice

Shelf (RIS) along the Siple-Gould Coasts (Figure 2) between the Mercer Ice Stream (MIS) and

the stagnant Kamb Ice Stream (KIS). Whillans Ice Stream has been slowing down the last few

decades, a behavior that may be suggesting that it may become stagnant like the neighboring KIS

(Joughin et al., 2005). The WIS flows over weak deformation till (Tulaczyk et al., 1998; 2014)

deposited on top of a sedimentary sequence that fills a graben created by the rifting in the Siple

Coast region (Rooney et al., 1991). Samples from three locations along WIS were used to

understand the subglacial dynamics: upstream Whillans (UpB), Subglacial Lake Whillans

(SLW), and Whillans Grounding Zone (WGZ). The upstream site, UpB, was sampled during

multiple field seasons from the late 1980s to the early 1990s. The subglacial lake, SLW, and the

grounding zone, WGZ, sites were sampled by WISSARD and identified using ice surface
 5
elevation changes and hydrostatic hydropotential flow paths (Fricker et al. 2007; Carter and

Fricker, 2012). The location of the grounding zone site was chosen because it lies downstream

on the hydropotential flow path the outflow waters from SLW would most likely follow (Figure

3). The two sites were chosen by WISSARD in order to understand the ice stream till dynamics,

the WIS and grounding line history, and how the drainage events of SLW would affect the ice

flow of WIS and sedimentation at WGZ.

Figure 2: Ice flow map of Antarctica. The black square indicates the location of the Whillans Ice
Stream. The map colors indicate ice flow velocities with ice streams flowing relatively faster
than the surrounding ice. Figure adapted from Rignot et al. (2011).
 6
M 0 20 40 60 80 100 km
er
ce
r Ice
St
re
am
UpB
Gr
ou
nd
Whilla in
ns SLW g
Ice Str Lin
eam e

WGZ

East Antarctica
East Antarctica
West
Tra
ns

Antarctica
an

West
ta
rct

Antarctica
ic
M
ou

Ross
nt
a

Kamb Ice Stream

Ice Shelf
in
s

Ross Ice Shelf

Figure 3: Locator map of UpB, SLW, and WGZ. Solid yellow lines indicate the boundaries
between ice streams and slower moving portions of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, red stars
indicate the sample site locations, blue areas show subglacial lakes, dashed blue lines indicate
predicted subglacial hydropotential flow paths (Fricker et al. 2007; Carter and Fricker, 2012),
and red arrows show the direction surface of ice flow. Background imagery was created using
MODIS MOA (Scambos et al., 2007).

Sample Site Locations

Upstream Whillans Ice Stream (UpB)

UpB sample site (-83.45S, -137.76W) is located on the upstream end of WIS, well before

the ice stream converges with Mercer Ice Stream at the Whillans Ice Plain, ~300 km upstream

from WGZ (Figure 3). Sediment cores were collected at the UpB camp during multiple field

seasons and samples from 1988-89, 1991-92, and 1992-93 were used for sedimentological

analyses. UpB is located on one of the two tributaries that merge and form the trunk of WIS

(Engelhardt and Kamb, 1997). The ice thickness at the UpB sites ranges from 1,035-1,058 m and
 7
the sites are all located within a square kilometer area (Engelhardt and Kamb, 1997). Three

samples were used for scanning electron microscopy including UpB-88, PC-1, 140 cm, Sample

B2 from the 1988-89 field season, and bulk sample from 1991-92. Gravel composition and

texture data published in Tulaczyk et al. (1998) from the 1989-90 and 1992-93 fields seasons are

used for site-to-site comparisons. Sediment cores were described as consisting of poorly sorted

diamicton and lacked variation in sedimentological properties between cores or by depth

(Tulaczyk et al., 1998). The diamicton was classified as till because it was deposited

subglacially, lacked evidence of sorting from water, and the microfossils were reworked from

preexisting sediments of multiple of ages (Tulaczyk et al., 1998; Scherer, 1991).

Subglacial Lake Whillans (SLW)

SLW is located ~200 km downstream from the UpB field camp beneath the Whillans Ice

Plain where Mercer and Whillans Ice Streams converge (-84.2408S, -153.6948W). The

subglacial lake is approximately 60 km2 in area (Fricker and Scambos, 2009) and acts as a

temporary storage basin for subglacial water (Christianson et al., 2012). The lake was found

using satellite laser altimetry and is considered active as it receives water from further upstream,

which is then released in “floods” to the grounding zone at a sub-decadal periodicity (Siegfried

et al., 2016). The sample site within SLW was selected from reflection seismology (Horgan et

al., 2013a) and ice-penetrating radar data collected prior to the subglacial-access drilling season

(Christianson et al., 2012) in order to select a sample location that had maximum water column

depth. The ice thickness is ~800 m over the subglacial lake (Christianson et al., 2012) and the

water column was 2.2 m deep at the sample site during the fieldwork (Tulaczyk et al., 2014). The

lake had just discharged and was in the process of refilling during the sampling in the 2012-13
 8
field season by the WISSARD research team. For sedimentological analyses, a piston core

(SLW-PC-1) was sampled at two depths, 15-18 cm and 73-76 cm, a multicore (SLW-MC-1B) at

3-5 cm and 24-29 cm, and a second multicore (SLW-MC-3A) was used for a bulk sample from

sediment clinging to the outside of the corer. Samples were used for gravel composition, textural

and quartz sand grain microtextural analyses. Sediment cores were described as structureless

muddy diamicton, similar to the till at UpB, and showed evidence of deposition from subglacial

deformation during periods of ice grounding following discharge events (Hodson et al., 2016).

Whillans Grounding Zone (WGZ)

WGZ sampling site (-84.33523S, -163.61445W) is located where WIS transitions from a

grounded ice stream to become floating as part of the RIS. The field site at the grounding zone

was selected by using the hydrostatic hydropotential derived from surface and bedrock digital

elevation models to determine the flow path the discharged waters from SLW would most likely

follow to the Ross Sea (Figure 3) and high-resolution radar and seismic data were used to locate

the sea floor and bottom of the ice shelf (Fricker et al., 2011). The grounding zone site is ~100

km downstream from SLW and is located on RIS, ~4 km downstream from the current

grounding line. The RIS thickness is ~760 m at the sample site and the ocean cavity is 10 m deep

(Scherer et al., 2015). The WISSARD research team sampled the WGZ site during the 2014-15

field season. Gravel samples were taken from gravity cores, multicores, and as bulk samples as

sediment scrapings from the outside surfaces of different instrumentation that penetrated bottom

sediment. Two gravity cores (WGZ-GC-1; GC-4) were each sampled at six depths, correlating

the cores’ facies, for both gravel composition and texture analyses and quartz sand grain

microtexture analysis. The longest core, WGZ-GC-1, was described with four facies (Figure 4).
 9
Lithology/Units Descriptions
0 Unit I: 0-4 cm, rainout debris, open
I framework, absence of till pellets

10

Unit II: 4-34 cm, muddy diamicton,

II clast poor, presence of till pellets,
20 sharp basal contact

30
Depth (cm)

Unit III: 34-47 cm, silty-sandy

40 III diamicton, concentration of pebbles
at top, absence of till pellets,
gradational basal contact

50

60
Unit IV: 47-85 cm, muddy diamicton,
IV clast poor, presence of till pellets
70

80

Figure 4: WGZ facies descriptions. Geotek line-scan image, lithology/units, and unit descriptions
for WGZ-GC-1 sediment core.
 10

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Sample Collection

Cores from UpB were collected using a hot-water drill to melt a 10 cm diameter borehole

for subglacial access (Tulaczyk et al., 1998). A piston corer was used to collect sediment cores

(Tulaczyk et al., 1998) and samples were taken from sediment cores and bulk sediment for

analyses. Samples from SLW and WGZ were collected using a microbiologically “clean” hot-

water drill to eliminate contaminants during access to the subglacial lake and grounding zone.

Sediment cores were retrieved using three coring techniques: a 50 cm long, 60 mm diameter

multicorer with an automatic core catcher was used to sample the sediment/water interface, a

piston corer with 3 m length, 58 mm diameter used as a gravity corer at WGZ, and a percussion

corer with 5 m length, 10 cm diameter deployed as a gravity corer at SLW and omitted at WGZ

due to malfunctions (Tulaczyk et al., 2014). Cores were set vertically for at least 48 hours to

allow outgassing and settling before shipment (Hodson et al., 2016). Sediment samples were

taken at discrete core depths and from bulk samples (Table 1), and uniformly prepared for

analyses. Each sample was covered in distilled water, frozen, and thawed to promote gentle

disaggregation of dried sediment. Sediment was wet sieved, dried, and dry sieved into specific

size fractions for analyses.

 11
Table 1

Table of Samples and Analyses Performed for UpB, SLW, and WGZ
SITE SAMPLE DEPTH SEM FORM/TEXTURES SAND COMPOSITION GRAVEL COMPOSITION
UpB 88-89 PC-1 140 cm X
88-89 Sample B2 bulk X
91-92 bulk X
SLW MC-1A 5-6 cm X X
MC-1B 3-5 cm X X X X
MC-1B 24-29 cm X X X X
MC-3A 6 cm X X
MC-3A 21.5 cm X X
MC-3A 25 cm X X
MC-3A bulk X X X
PC-1 13-15 cm X X
PC-1 15-18 cm X X X X
PC-1 64 cm X X
PC-1 73-76 cm X X X X
PEC-1 34 cm X X
PEC-1 36.5 cm X X
WGZ Amphipod Trap bulk X X
Drill SS-1 bulk X X
Fishing Weight SS-22 bulk X X
GC-1 0-3 cm X X X X
GC-1 7-8 cm X X
GC-1 9-12 cm X X
GC-1 17-19 cm X X X
GC-1 19-20 cm X X X
GC-1 27-29 cm X X
GC-1 34-35 cm X X
GC-1 35-37 cm X X X
GC-1 39-41 cm X X X
GC-1 43-45 cm X X
GC-1 46-48 cm X X
GC-1 50-60 cm X X
GC-1 50-52 cm X X X
GC-1 51-52 cm X X
GC-1 52-56 cm X X
GC-1 55-56 cm X X X
GC-1 60 cm X X
GC-1 61-64 cm X X
GC-1 63-66 cm X X X
GC-1 65-68 cm X X
GC-1 68-70 cm X X X
GC-1 70-73 cm X X
GC-1 74-76 cm X X X
GC-1 76-78 cm X X X
GC-1 80-84 cm X X
GC-1 SS-7 bulk X X
GC-3 SS-15A bulk X X
GC-4 1-4 cm X X X
GC-4 8-10 cm X X X
GC-4 17-19 cm X X X
GC-4 36-38 cm X X X
GC-4 45-47 cm X X X
GC-4 51-53 cm X X X
GC-4 63 cm X X
GC-5 SS-22A bulk X X
GC-5 SS-22B bulk X X
GC-6 10 cm X X
GC-6 11 cm X X
GC-6 15 cm X X
GC-6 SS-23A bulk X X
GP-1 SS-8 bulk X X
Ice Core SS-30 bulk X X
MC-1A 0 cm X X
MC-2 SS-3A bulk X X
MC-3 SS-5 bulk X X
MC-3 SS-5A bulk X X
MC-4 SS-6 bulk X X
MC-5+6 SS-13 bulk X X
MC-7+8 SS-14 bulk X X
MC-10 SS-18 bulk X X
MC-11A 0-2 cm X X
MC-11A 0-3 cm X X
MC-11A 2-25 cm X X
Misc. Washings bulk X X
 12
Scanning Electron Microscopy

Surface microtexture analysis was performed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

on fine- to coarse-grained quartz sand. Thirty quartz sand grains from each sieved size fraction,

125-250, 250-500, and 500-1000 µm, and each sample were randomly selected under a reflected

light stereo microscope, mounted on an aluminum SEM mount using double-sided sticky tape,

sputter coated with a gold and palladium mix, and viewed using a JEOL SEM, model JSM-5610.

The number of grains analyzed from samples varies across the literature with different

researchers choosing a sample size that each deems representative of the population (Mahaney,

2002). Thirty grains from each size fraction were selected because the grains appeared to

represent the typical makeup of the sample, and the procedure also follows the work previously

completed on UpB sediment by Tulaczyk et al. (1998). Each sample of 30 quartz sand grains was

analyzed for the presence/absence of selected microtextures. Microtextures were defined

following the work of Krinsley and Doornkamp (2011), Mahaney (2002), and Tulaczyk et al.

(1998) and include relief, angularity, conchoidal fracturing, faceting, arc-shaped steps, grooves,

chattermarks, v-shaped percussion cracks, precipitation, and dissolution etch pits (Figure 5).

Each grain was also classified in one of three weathering phases (Figure 6): phase 1 (outcrop

weathering)- no visible signs of glacial abrasion or crushing and the grains have preserved

surface textures formed while in their original formations that are now in subglacial rock

outcrops; phase 2 (glacial overprinting)- glacial abrasion or crushing features are most recent and

overprint outcrop weathering; phase 3 (chemical overprinting)- dissolution or precipitation

features overprint glacial abrasion or crushing features and are most recent textures to develop.
 13
The surface microtexture data are compared based on most common features that develop

during glacial and fluvial transport following methods described by Krinsley and Doornkamp

(2011) and Mahaney (2002). Features common in glacial transport include high relief,

angularity, conchoidal fracturing, faceting, arc-shaped steps, grooves, and chattermarks

(Mahaney, 2002). Low relief, rounding, and v-shaped percussion cracks occur on quartz sand

grains subject to fluvial transport (Mahaney, 2002). The three particle size fractions were

analyzed separately to check for frequency discrepancies by size and reported in Appendix A.

The figures comparing different depths or site locations include all three particle size fractions

because no biases are noted by size (Appendix A). Overall, 270 quartz sand grains from UpB,

450 quartz sand grains from SLW, and 540 quartz sand grains from WGZ were analyzed using

SEM methods.

Form, Roundness, and Surface Features

Standard sedimentological methods were used to classify each gravel-sized clast, clasts

coarser than 2 mm, by form, roundness, and surface features. Orthogonal axes were measured

using calipers to define overall clast form and each clast was categorized as blade, rod, disc, or

equant shaped (Figure 7, following Zingg, 1935). Roundness for each clast was determined on

Krumbein’s visual comparison scale using 0.1 as the value representing the most angular to 0.9

representing the most rounded (Figure 8, following Krumbein, 1941). The clasts were also

analyzed for the presence/absence of faceting and striations. Clast data from SLW and WGZ

were compared to data collected by Tulaczyk et al. (1998) from UpB. Overall, 230 clasts from

UpB (Tulaczyk et al., 1998), 296 clasts from SLW, and 1,041 clasts from WGZ were analyzed

for form, roundness, and surface features.

 14

Figure 5: SEM pictures of quartz sand grains from SLW. Quartz sand grain (A) shows phase 1
weathering and rounding (r), (B) shows phase 3 weathering with etch pits overprinting
conchoidal fracturing (cf) and arc-shaped steps (as), (C) is an angular grain (a) with conchoidal
fracturing (cf), (D) shows phase 3 weathering with precipitation features (p) on the surface, (E)
shows phase 3 weathering with grooves (g) and etch pits (e) on the surface, and (F) shows
conchoidal fracturing (cf), chattermarks (cm), and arc-shaped steps (as).
 15

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Outcrop Weathering Glacial Overprinting
no microtextures microtextures associated
associated with physical with glacial transport are
breakage most recent and
overprint outcrop
weathering
Chemical Overprinting
dissolution or
precipitation features are
most recent and
overprint physical
breakage features

Figure 6: Weathering phase descriptions with SEM images. SEM images of sand-sized quartz
grains from subglacial WIS. Phase 1 grains transition to phase 2 grains during glacial transport
when glacial transport surface microtextures such as conchoidal fracturing, arc shaped steps,
grooves, etc. overprint outcrop weathering. Phase 2 quartz sand grains transition to phase 3 when
precipitation or dissolution etching overprints physical breakage features from active glacial
transport. Quartz sand grains can cycle between phase 2 and phase 3.
1.0
intermediate/long

Disc Equant
0.66

Blade Rod
0 0.66 1.0
short/intermediate

Figure 7: Zingg diagram for clast shape. The orthogonal axes of each clast were measured and
the ratio of the short over intermediate axis and ratio of intermediate over long axis were
calculated. Clast form was determined using the Zingg diagram for blade, rod, disc, and equant
forms (Zingg, 1935).
 16

ROUNDNESS = .1 .2 .3 .4 .5
BROKEN PEBBLES

.3 .4 .4

.5
.5 .4
KRUMBEIN SCALE
.6 .7 .8 .9 FOR ROUNDNESS

Figure 8: Krumbein scale for roundness. Each clast was classified on a roundness scale from 0.1
(angular) to 0.9 (round) using the Krumbein scale for visual comparison. Figure adapted from
Krumbein (1941).

Composition

Gravel-sized clasts and sand grains (250-1000 µm) were examined for composition using

a reflected-light stereo microscope. Each clast or grain was classified in a sedimentary,

metamorphic, plutonic, volcanic, or till aggregate lithic group or in a feldspar, quartz, or heavy

minerals plus others mineral group. Compositions were identified using mineralogy and textures

such as crystalline, clastic, foliated, and mineral grain size. Till pellets, a type of till aggregate,

were identified using Cowan and others’ (2012) definition of rounded rod- to equant-shaped

sedimentary products of deformable beds (Appendix B). Till pellets stay intact during gentle

disaggregation (Cowan et al., 2012) and can occur in both the gravel- and sand-sized fractions.

Over 300 sand grains from each sample were examined to reduce the probable error to less than

6% at a 95.4% confidence level (Galehouse, 1971) and a ribbon method was used for grain
 17
counting. Overall, 230 clasts from UpB (Tulaczyk et al., 1998), 646 clasts and 1,618 sand grains

from SLW, and 1,041 clasts and 10,684 sand grains from WGZ were analyzed for composition.
 18

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

Scanning Electron Microscopy

The quartz sand grains from all three sites, UpB, SLW, and WGZ, and different depth

intervals have higher frequency occurrences of surface microtextures that are indicative of

physical breakage compared to features that are typically produced by high energy fluvial

environments such as rounding and v-shaped percussion cracks (Figures 9-11). The quartz sand

grains from all sites and depths are mostly divided between phase 2 (glacial overprinting) and

phase 3 (chemical overprinting) weathering phases with over 10% higher frequency of phase 3

grains at each site and down cores at SLW (Figure 12, 13). The quartz sand grains at WGZ

indicate a weathering transition from phase 3 to phase 2 and back to phase 3 frequency

domination down core (Figure 13). The chemical overprinting is demonstrated by over 70% of

phase 3 grains at each site having dissolution etch pits, and over 20% having precipitation

features that are superimposed on glacially abraded or crushed phase 2 surfaces (Figure 14).

Microtextures were identified using an SEM with capabilities of 300,000x magnification.

Microtextures on sampled quartz grains were compared to images available from Mahaney

(2002) to correctly identify features. Microtextures associated with glacial and fluvial transport

and dissolution etch pits were clearly identified using the SEM magnifying capabilities.

Precipitation features were identified using visual comparisons, however, energy-dispersive x-

ray spectroscopy was not available to identify the chemistry of the precipitants.
 19
100 Study sites
UpB
SLW
80 Glacial Fluvial
WGZ
Frequency (%)

60

40

20

0
High Angular Conchoidal Faceted Arc-Shaped Grooves Chatter- Low Rounded V-Shaped
Relief Fracture Steps marks Relief Percussion
Cracks

Figure 9: Frequency of surface microtextures on quartz sand grains by site from UpB, SLW, and
WGZ. Surface microtextures were identified on quartz sand grains between 125-1000 µm using
an SEM and each grain was analyzed for the presence/absence for each microtexture.
Microtextures listed to the left of the dashed line indicate glacial transport features and those to
the right are indicative of fluvial transport. UpB n=270, SLW n=450, WGZ n=540.

Depth below
sea floor
100
3-5 cm
15-18 cm
Glacial Fluvial
80 24-29 cm
73-76 cm
Frequency (%)

60

40

20

0 High Angular Conchoidal Faceted Arc-Shaped Grooves Chatter- Low Rounded V-Shaped
Relief Fracture Steps marks Relief Percussion
Cracks

Figure 10: Frequency of surface microtextures on quartz sand grains by depth at SLW. Surface
microtextures were identified on quartz sand grains between 125-1000 µm using an SEM to look
at temporal changes of subglacial transport at SLW. Microtextures listed to the left of the dashed
line indicate glacial transport features and those to the right are indicative of fluvial transport.
Ninety quartz sand grains were analyzed for each sample interval.
 20
Depth below
100 sea floor
0-3 cm
19-20 cm
80 Glacial Fluvial
39-41 cm
55-56 cm
Frequency (%)

60 68-70 cm
74-76 cm
40

20

0
High Angular Conchoidal Faceted Arc-Shaped Grooves Chatter- Low Rounded V-Shaped
Relief Fracture Steps marks Relief Percussion
Cracks

Figure 11: Frequency of surface microtextures on quartz sand grains by depth at WGZ. Surface
microtextures were identified on quartz sand grains between 125-1000 µm using an SEM to look
at temporal changes of subglacial transport at WGZ. Microtextures listed to the left of the dashed
line indicate glacial transport features and those to the right are indicative of fluvial transport.
Ninety quartz sand grains were analyzed for each sample interval.

Study sites
60
UpB
SLW
50
WGZ

40
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0
Outcrop Glacial Chemical
Weathering Overprinting Overprinting
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Figure 12: Frequency of weathering phases on quartz sand grains by site from UpB, SLW, and
WGZ. Weathering phases were identified for each sampled quartz sand grain between 125-1000
µm using an SEM. UpB n=270, SLW n=450, WGZ n=540.
 21
Depth below Depth below
sea floor sea floor
80 80
3-5 cm 0-3 cm
70 15-18 cm 70 19-20 cm
24-29 cm 39-41 cm
60 60
73-76 cm 55-56 cm
68-70 cm
Frequency (%)

50

Frequency (%)
50
74-76 cm
40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
Outcrop Glacial Chemical Outcrop Glacial Chemical
Weathering Overprinting Overprinting Weathering Overprinting Overprinting
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Figure 13: Frequency of weathering phases on quartz sand grains by depth at SLW and WGZ.
Weathering phases were identified for each sampled quartz sand grain between 125-1000 µm
using an SEM from SLW (left) and WGZ (right). Ninety quartz sand grains were analyzed for
each sample interval.

80
70
60
Study sites
Frequency (%)

50
UpB
40 SLW
30 WGZ
20
10
0
Dissolution Etching Precipitation

Figure 14: Frequency of dissolution etching and precipitation on phase 3 quartz sand grains by
site from UpB, SLW, and WGZ. Surface microtextures were identified for each sampled quartz
sand grain between 125-1000 µm using an SEM. UpB n=270, SLW n=450, WGZ n=540.
 22
A chi-square test was performed for a contingency table consisting of the three sites,

UpB, SLW, and WGZ, and the presence/absence of dissolution etching on phase 3 grains as the

two categories. The chi-square statistic was calculated with two degrees of freedom at 0.1201.

The p-value is 0.9417 and the result is not significant at p < 0.01. The variation in dissolution

etching on phase 3 grains is not significant from site to site.

Form, Roundness, and Surface Features

Gravel-sized clasts at SLW were 41% equant, 34% disc, 16% rod, and 9% blade shaped

and clasts at WGZ were 37% equant, 39% disc, 16% rod, and 8% blade shaped (Figure 15). Both

sites show high frequency occurrences of equant- and disc-shaped gravel for all composition

categories (Figure 16). Clasts are mainly subangular to angular for SLW and WGZ (Figure 17)

and only 5% of clasts at SLW and 1% at WGZ show weak striations. Faceting occurs on 52% of

clasts at SLW and 51% at WGZ. Gravel-sized clasts from UpB are subrounded to subangular,

50% faceted, and 1% striated (Tulaczyk et al., 1998).

50 Study sites
SLW
40 WGZ
Frequency (%)

30

20

10

0
Blade Rod Disc Equant

Figure 15: Frequency of gravel forms by site for SLW and WGZ. Clast form was identified for
each sampled gravel-sized clast using the Zingg diagram for blade, rod, disc, and equant shapes
(Zingg, 1935). SLW n=296, WGZ n=1,041.
 23
Clast forms
80
Blade Disc
70
Rod Equant
60
Frequency (%)

50
40
30
20
10
0
Sedimentary Metamorphic Plutonic Feldspar Quartz Aggregates

Figure 16: Frequency of gravel form by clast composition by site for SLW and WGZ. Clast form
was identified for each sampled gravel-sized clast using the Zingg diagram for blade, rod, disc,
and equant shapes (Zingg, 1935). SLW n=296, WGZ n=1,041.

50 Study sites
SLW
WGZ
40

30
Frequency (%)

20

10

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Krumbein Scale

Figure 17: Frequency of gravel roundness by site for SLW and WGZ. Each clast was classified
on a roundness scale from 0.1 (angular) to 0.9 (rounded) using the Krumbein scale for visual
comparison (Krumbein, 1941). Gravel-sized clasts from SLW and WGZ range from subangular
to angular. SLW n=296, WGZ n=1,041.
 24
Caliper measurements of gravel-sized clasts allowed form to be mathematically

calculated and classified using a Zingg diagram and visual comparison of roundness of each clast

to a Krumbein scale reduced errors. Each clast was examined under a reflected-light stereo

microscope to reduce the probably of misidentifying striations or faceting. Gravel-sized clasts

were scarce at some depths in sediment cores preventing form, roundness, and surface features to

be analyzed temporally.

Composition

Gravel-sized clasts from SLW were classified as 50% metamorphic, 37% plutonic, 4%

feldspar particles, and 9% quartz particles; and gravel from WGZ was categorized as 56%

metamorphic, 29% plutonic, 3% feldspar particles, 11% quartz particles, and 1% till aggregates

(Figure 18). Clasts from UpB were 8% sedimentary, 60% metamorphic, 23% plutonic, 6%

quartz, and 3% volcanic (Figure 18, Tulaczyk et al., 1998). Sand grains from SLW were

classified as 6% metamorphic, 4% plutonic, 12% feldspar, 77% quartz, and 1% other mineral

grains (Figure 19). Sand grains from WGZ were categorized as 9% metamorphic, 5% plutonic,

11% feldspar, 72% quartz, 2% other mineral grains, and 1% till aggregates (Figure 19). Sand

composition down core from four sample depth intervals at SLW has little variation (Figure 20).

Sand and gravel composition down core at WGZ varies slightly in the presence and absence of

till pellets in both WGZ-GC-1 and WGZ-GC-4 (Figure 21, 22).

Each gravel clast and sand grain was assessed under a reflected-light stereo microscope

for close examination of mineralogy and textures for compositional identification. Coarse-

grained igneous and metamorphic rocks along with quartz and feldspar grains dominated the

compositions and were easily identifiable. Gravel-sized clasts were scarce at some depths in
 25
M 0 20 40 60 80 100 km
er
ce
r
Clast composition
Ice
St Sedimentary
re
am
UpB
Gr
ou Metamorphic
nd
Whilla in
ns SLW g
Ice Str Lin Plutonic
eam e

WGZ Feldspar

Quartz

Heavy Minerals
East Antarctica and Other
West

Till Aggregate
Antarctica

Kamb Ice Stream Ross Ice Shelf

Volcanic

Figure 18: Frequency of gravel composition for UpB, SLW, and WGZ. Pie charts are frequency
of composition for gravel-sized clasts at each sample site. Background imagery was created
using MODIS MOA (Scambos et al., 2007) and hydropotential flow paths (Fricker et al. 2007;
Carter and Fricker, 2012). UpB n=230 (Tulaczyk et al., 1998), SLW n=646, WGZ n=1,041.

M 0 20 40 60 80 100 km
er Clast composition
ce
r Ice
St
re Sedimentary
am
UpB
Gr Metamorphic
ou
nd
Whilla in
ns SLW g
Ice Str
ea m
Lin
e
Plutonic

WGZ Feldspar

Quartz

Heavy Minerals
East Antarctica
and Other
West
Antarctica
Till Aggregate
Kamb Ice Stream Ross Ice Shelf
Volcanic

Figure 19: Frequency of sand composition for SLW and WGZ. Pie charts are frequency of
composition for sand grains between 250-500 µm for SLW and WGZ. Background imagery was
created using MODIS MOA (Scambos et al., 2007) and hydropotential flow paths (Fricker et al.
2007; Carter and Fricker, 2012). SLW n=1,618, WGZ n=10,684.
 26
Sand Composition %
0 50 100 Clast composition
3-5 Sedimentary

Metamorphic
Depth (cm)
15-18
Plutonic
24-29
Feldspar

Quartz
73-76
Heavy Mineral
and Other
Till Aggregate

Volcanic

Figure 20: Frequency of sand composition by depth at SLW. Bar charts are frequency of
composition for sand grains between 250-500 µm. Over 300 sand grains were analyzed for each
sample interval.
 27
Lithology/Units Sand Composition % Gravel Composition %
0 50 100 0 50 100
0
I 38

28
10 11

Clast composition
II 19
20 Sedimentary

45
Metamorphic
30
Plutonic
Depth (cm)

41

40 III 43
Feldspar
17
Quartz
42
50 10 Heavy Minerals
30 and Other
Till Aggregate
60
18
IV Volcanic
6
15
70
8
4
4
80
6

Figure 21: Frequency of gravel and sand composition by depth for WGZ-GC-1. Geotek line-scan
image, lithology, bar charts for frequency of sand composition between 250-1,000 µm, bar charts
for frequency of gravel-sized clast composition, and total number of clasts analyzed by depth for
WGZ-GC-1. Over 300 sand grains were analyzed for each sample depth interval and sand-sized
fraction (250-500 and 500-1,000 µm).
 28

Figure 22: Frequency of sand composition by depth for WGZ-GC-4 compared to WGZ-GC-1.
Geotek line-scan image, lithology, and bar charts for frequency of sand composition between
250-1,000 µm for WGZ-GC-1 (left) and WGZ-GC-4 (right). Over 300 sand grains were analyzed
for each sample depth interval and sand-sized fraction (250-500 and 500-1,000 µm). The upper
20 cm of WGZ-GC-4 were not recovered.
 29
sediment cores and to prevent low sample population inaccuracies, cores presented in this study

with gravel composition data also include sand grain composition data. Over 300 sand grains

from each sample were identified by composition to reduce the probable error to less than 6% at

a 95.4% confidence level (Table C-2; Galehouse, 1971).

Composition data for gravel-sized clasts at SLW were verified using data collected by

Franco Talarico (unpublished). Gravel-sized clasts were classified as 57% metamorphic, 38%

plutonic, 4% sedimentary, and the remaining (<1%) was unclassified. Tulaczyk and others

(1998) classified sand composition at UpB as 16% lithic, 27% feldspar, and 59% quartz. The

data is excluded from figures in this study because the lithic sand grain compositions were not

further classified as plutonic, volcanic, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The SLW and WGZ sand

composition data were compared to Licht and others (2005) and were found to be most similar to

the West Antarctic samples from WIS and KIS and were dissimilar to samples from the East

Antarctic. Direct comparisons for each ice stream cannot be made to Licht and others (2005) as

different size fractions were used for analyses, 500-2000 µm for Licht and others, 250-1000 µm

for this study.

 30

CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

Subglacial Coarse Sediment Transport

Samples were collected from sites that are connected by modeled hydropotential flow

lines under WIS. Under WIS, sediment can be transported subglacially by plucking, abrasion,

and shear in subglacial deformation till and/or fluvially in streams fed by the waters discharged

from subglacial lakes. Deformation till has been identified previously under the ice stream at

UpB (Tulaczyk et al., 1998). Quartz sand grains from each site were examined for surface

microtextures in order to determine if they have been fluvially or glacially transported in the

deformation till, or if it has been a combination of both. Surface microtextures from past glacial

regimes are unknown, however, legacy effects should be mentioned because the till is potentially

recycled (Scherer, 1991), but likely less so than till deposited on present-day continental shelves.

Legacy effects are disregarded in this study because the variation in gravel composition by site

shows evidence of comminution as the sediment is transported downstream and the ice stream

thins (see Discussion- Ice Stream Dynamics). We would expect the glacial transport features to

increase in frequency downstream due to further comminution, however, weathering phase data

show no increase in either phase 2 (glacially overprinted), or phase 3 (chemically overprinted)

grains. This further supports the decision to exclude legacy effects in interpretations because the

grains appear to cycle between phase 2 and phase 3 indicating relatively fast rates of diagenesis

in the subglacial environment that overprint fresh surfaces. Excluding microbial activity that may
 31
mediate and increase the rate of chemical weathering, diagenesis on subglacial quartz grains

from WIS would take at least 105 years (Tulaczyk et al., 1998). However, because comminution

of the sediment is evident, the chemical processes involved in the diagenesis is likely

biologically driven to enhance the mineral weathering rates (Christner et al. 2014; Wadham et

al., 2010). The surface microtextures used for both the subglacial transport and weathering phase

analyses are likely developed during the current glacial regime.

By comparing the frequency of the microtextures, the quartz sand grain surfaces indicate

glacial transport at UpB, SLW, and WGZ (Figure 9). Samples were analyzed at multiple depths

for relative temporal changes at SLW and WGZ and each indicated glacial transport at the

sampled depths (Figures 10, 11). This supports the interpretations by Hodson et al. (2016) who

found that even though SLW is considered a lake, its sediment is deposited by subglacial

deformation during grounding events following water discharge rather than being fluvial. The

flooding from SLW may be enough water to lubricate the ice-sediment interface to increase ice

flow velocity during discharge events (Kamb, 2001) but not enough energy is available during

the flooding to transport sediment coarser than mud.

Gravel data from SLW and WGZ support the SEM results indicating glacial transport

with the majority of clasts disc- and equant-shaped and subangular on the Krumbein scale

(Figures 15, 17). The shape and roundness analyses must be jointly interpreted since disc- and

equant-shaped clasts can be indicative of multiple transport agents and clast form may be more

informative about the character of the source rock than the depositional environment. Coupled

with roundness data, the subangular disc- and equant-shaped clasts are consistent with glacial

transport as sediment carried by glaciers is very angular and texturally immature. Gravel data

also show over 50% faceting at UpB, SLW, and WGZ but striations occur on less than 5% of
 32
clasts at all three sites (cf. Tulaczyk et al., 1998; this study). The lack of striations on the clasts

can be attributed to the lithology of the gravel fraction. Hard crystalline rocks, such as coarse-

grained metamorphic and plutonic clasts, are rarely striated (Hubbard and Glasser, 2005) and the

gravel composition at all three sites is dominated by metamorphic and plutonic clasts (cf.

Tulaczyk et al., 1998; this study).

Quartz sand grain analysis also shows the majority of the grains are phase 2 (glacially

overprinted) and phase 3 (chemically overprinted) at each site. Neither phase 2 nor 3 increases in

prevalence downstream (Figure 12), indicating the sediment cycles efficiently between active

glacial transport (phase 2) and a weathering process that overprints the glacial crushing features

(phase 3). The grains are likely undergoing active glacial transport where grain-to-grain

interaction produces phase 2 grains. Coenen and others (2015) found diatom fragment abundance

was lower at SLW than UpB and this study found a decrease in softer, less resistant (i.e.

sedimentary, volcanic) particles as sediment was glacially transported downstream. Both these

findings support that the sediments are actively transported in the till. The comminution of

particles may occur during periods of low porewater pressure when the ice stream thins or during

grain collision in the shear zone of the subglacial till. The subglacial chemical weathering that

transitions the grains to phase 3 is likely to occur when the grain is not undergoing active glacial

transport but during times when the grain is cushioned and protected from grain-to-grain

interaction by finer particles in the deforming till. These cushioning conditions can be achieved

during high porewater pressures or if the grain sits below the shallow shear zone in the till

(Tulaczyk et al., 1998). The quartz sand grains can cycle between phase 2 and phase 3 in the

deformation till depending on the current subglacial and ice stream conditions.
 33
Understanding subglacial sediment flux from SLW to WGZ may help determine the

stability of the ice stream. Sediment deposited at the grounding zone forms a wedge that creates

a topographic high, enhances drag, and causes the ice to thicken above the flotation level (Alley

et al., 2007). The thickening of the ice may provide stability against ice sheet retreat during small

sea level rise (Alley et al., 2007). Sediment transported subglacially in deformation till is a

relatively slow process compared to fluvial transport because the till deformation is shallow at

WIS, less than a few decimeters (Hodson et al., 2016). Data presented indicates sediment coarser

than silt-sizes are not being transported through the subglacial drainage system, however, SLW

does fluvially discharge finer-grained sediment (Hodson et al., 2016). Finer particles, silt and

clays (or muds), that are transported and deposited at WGZ may be sufficient to offset projected

sea level rise with accumulation rates on the order of 1 cm yr-1 but not enough to offset increased

melting rates at the grounding zone due to a warming ocean (Hodson et al., 2016).

Ice Stream Dynamics

The mass balance of WAIS can fluctuate due to the changing velocity, direction, or

stagnation of ice streams. The neighboring ice stream to WIS, Kamb Ice Stream, has been

stagnant for ~150 years (Retzlaff and Bentley, 1993) and WIS has been decelerating (Joughin et

al., 2002). Deceleration may be the binge period of ice sheets during which the mass balance is

positive (MacAyeal, 1993), however, the stagnation may affect the sediment deposition at the

grounding zone and also affect ice stream stability with rising and warming seas. Variable ice

stream flow can also affect ice flow lines and over time may change where the ice is sourced.

Till composition may be very similar to the sediment source because glacial transport physically

breaks up clasts and chemical weathering, suppressed due to the subglacial conditions (Maltman,
 34
2012), does not alter the composition. Therefore, changing flow lines may carry different

sediment compositions that act as signatures for different sediment sources or source beds.

Gravel compositions of subglacial till at all three sites along WIS have similar relative

abundances with small variances (Figure 18). Gravel from UpB is 8% more sedimentary clasts

and 3% more of volcanic clasts (Tulaczyk et al., 1998) than at SLW and WGZ. The small

decrease in the frequencies of the relatively weak sedimentary and volcanic clasts may be due to

comminution as the particles are transported down stream. Till pellets occur (only 1%

abundance) at WGZ and are absent at UpB and SLW which is attributed to the favorable

conditions of grounding zones for till pellet formation (Appendix B, Domack et al., 1999; Cowan

et al., 2012; 2014). Compositions of the sand-sized fraction from SLW and WGZ are also similar

only notably differing with occurrence of till pellets; being absent at SLW but present at WGZ

(Figure 19).

The subglacial lake and grounding zone sample sites are located on the same modeled

hydropotential flow line, however, the fluvial drainage system is not transporting sediment

coarser than 63 µm. Therefore, coarse sediment is likely transported subglacially in deforming

till that is more likely to be following the glacier flow lines. There is no evidence of notable

variation in the relative composition frequency from site to site. This finding indicates till at each

site has the same sediment source and perhaps no change in glacier flow lines; or if there have

been shifts in glacier flow lines, the new sediment source is compositionally similar or the same.

Unfortunately, the geology under the WAIS is poorly constrained due to a lack of outcrop and

subglacial drill cores.

No substantial changes in compositional frequency down core at SLW and WGZ indicate

there has not been introduction of new material or change in sediment source temporally (Figures
 35
20, 21). This finding indicates no sediment input from other ice streams from changing ice flow

lines because source rocks differ from one ice stream to another and no changes occur by depth.

However, changes in the presence and absence of till pellets in WGZ facies do indicate temporal

changes in deposition. Dating methods are being attempted on WGZ cores, however, no ages are

currently available to constrain the amount of time the cores represent. Two cores, WGZ-GC-1

and WGZ-GC-4, were used to describe facies changes at WGZ. The units from the two cores

were correlated using lithological descriptions, gravel and sand fraction composition, and diatom

assemblages (Coenen et al., 2015). Units IV and II in two WGZ cores are described as muddy,

clast poor diamicton facies and the till pellets occur in both the sand- and gravel-sized fractions

(Figures 21, 22). Unit III is a silty-sandy diamicton facies and Unit I consists of open-framework

ice shelf rainout-debris. Both of these units lack till pellets in the sand- and gravel-sized fractions

(Figures 21, 22).

The facies types combined with the presence/absence of till pellets suggest the grounding

line has been dynamic and there are changes in sediment deposition. The data indicate there was

a transition from a subglacial environment to sub-ice shelf at 47 cm depth in WGZ-GC-1, the 25

cm depth equivalent in WGZ-GC-4. Micropaleontological analyses found a variation in diatom

assemblages within the subglacial Unit IV (Coenen et al., 2015) that is not evident in the coarse

sediment compositions and sediment core descriptions. This finding may represent a sediment

source change for particles finer than sand due to changes in the subglacial hydrology, perhaps a

change in hydropotential flow paths to WGZ. The change in hydropotential flow paths would

affect fluvially transported particles but not the coarser, glacially transported sediment.

Micropaleontological analyses also found a radiolarian encasing a modern pelagic diatom

assemblage within Unit III confirming the facies description of a sub-ice shelf unit (Coenen et
 36
al., 2015). A sharp contact at 34 cm depth in WGZ-GC-1 and at 12 cm depth in WGZ-GC-4 may

indicate an erosional contact at the transition from sub-ice shelf back to subglacial systems.

There is also a recent grounding line retreat recorded at 4 cm depth in WGZ-GC-1 as the till

transitions from a muddy diamicton in Unit II to having an open framework, rainout debris facies

in Unit I (the topmost interval of WGZ-GC-4 was not recovered).

At the top of Unit II, just below the upper contact with Unit I, there is evidence of ice

sheet lift-off with the presence of fracturing in the till (Figure 23), as has been documented at

another Antarctic grounding zone (cf. Powell et al., 1996). The fracturing occurs near the surface

of the subglacial till and may be caused by the freezing of till porewater during the pressure

release from the grounding line retreat or by the till freezing to the glacier sole during the

pressure release as the ice stream lifts off the till (Powell et al., 1996). These features indicate the

grounding line must have retreated quite recently as the rainout debris is only 4 cm thick, basal

melt rates are 15 to 22 m a-1 (Marsh et al., 2015), and active rainout of 7 m thick basal ice debris

was observed to be very rapid at the time of observations. These findings indicate modern

instability in the grounding zone. There is no compositional evidence of changing sediment

sources during either the past or modern grounding zone retreats.

Pritchard and others (2012) found evidence of an increase in ice shelf thinning rates in

West Antarctica caused by basal melting from the supply of warm oceanic waters. An increase in

ocean heat flux in the Amundsen Sea is likely causing Pine Island and Smith glaciers to both

speed up and retreat (Thomas et al., 2004). Without a significant increase in buttressing, the

Amundsen sector is now undergoing a marine ice sheet instability that will contribute to sea level

rise (Rignot el al., 2014). Recent studies found that the sedimentation at WGZ may not be

enough to offset both rising and warming seawater in the Ross Sea (Hodson et al., 2016). The
 37

Unit I

Unit II

Figure 23: Picture of fractured till in Unit II interpreted to be created during ice sheet lift-off
during rapid grounding line retreat at WGZ. Red square indicates the location of fracturing
observed on a sediment multicore collected from WGZ and red dashed line shows the contact
between Unit 1 and Unit II. This most recent grounding line retreat is thought to be very young
due to the thinness of the rainout debris above the till contact. Photo credit: Ross D. Powell,
Northern Illinois University, 2015.
 38
grounding zone at WIS lacks sediment wedges that may help stabilize the ice stream during

grounding line retreat, indicating the grounding zone may be immature (Horgan et al., 2013b).

These findings, along with this study, indicate the WIS grounding line has recently retreated and

may become unstable if sedimentation cannot offset the effects from warming seas.

Evidence of Microbially Mediated Chemical Weathering

An extensive hydrologic network of at least 379 subglacial lakes often with

interconnecting river systems exists under the Antarctic Ice Sheet (Wright and Siegert, 2012).

WISSARD microbiologists found viable bacteria at SLW and identified ~4,000 DNA sequences

in the water column and ~2,500 DNA sequences in the upper sediments (Christner et al., 2014).

A second research group found possible bacteria in Subglacial Lake Vostok in East Antarctica in

accretion ice sections (Shtarkman et al., 2013). Confirming the existence of bacteria in a

subglacial lake leads to the question of whether the life is unique to the subglacial lake

environment or if it can survive throughout the subglacial river system and subglacial till.

Subglacial biological activity must rely on alternative means of energy such as chemical sources

because the environment is in permanent darkness and cold (Siegert et al., 2001).

Weathering beneath glaciers is likely microbially mediated because subglacial conditions

are considered abiotic as the environment is at constant freezing temperatures, in permanent

darkness, and anoxic (Tranter et al., 2002). Fresh surfaces have survived on glacially crushed

quartz grains in subaerial environments, exposed to soil weathering, for at least 105 years

(Mahaney, 1995) and fresh surfaces of quartz grains have survived without chemical weathering

in environments of low chemical weathering agressivity for ~106 years (Kanaori et al., 1985;

Margolis and Kennett, 1971). The chemical weathering on the subglacial quartz grains from WIS
 39
is proposed to take at least 105 years according to Tulaczyk and others (1998). However, the

rates of chemical weathering on minerals are enhanced and likely due to microbially mediated

weathering (Christner et al., 2014).

Microbes have been found widespread below glaciers and may be classified as

chemolithoautotrophs as they likely derive their energy from the dissolution and oxidation of

minerals in subglacial environments where water is present (Skidmore et al., 2005). Studies have

found silicate mineral dissolution can dominate when calcite saturation is achieved in isolation

(Wadham et al., 2010) and evidence has been found of enhanced silicate weathering under

neighboring Kamb and Bindshadler Ice Streams (Skidmore et al., 2010). The weathering of

silicate minerals, such as feldspars and micas, liberates nutrients for sustaining microbial life

(Wadham et al., 2010). SLW has an average pH of 8.1 and the solutes in SLW were dominated

by weathering products of silicate minerals (cations- Na+ and K+, anions- SO42- and HCO3-)

suggesting the microbially mediated chemical weathering included silicate minerals (Christner et

al., 2014).

Tulaczyk and others (1998) sampled quartz and feldspar sand grains from UpB and

reported a dominance of chemical weathering microtextures such as dissolution etching. The

source of chemical weathering should be reevaluated because the presence of microbes has been

confirmed at SLW. From the SEM analyses performed on quartz sand grains at UpB, SLW, and

WGZ of this study, the majority of the sand grains showed either glacial overprinting (phase 2)

on original outcrop weathered surfaces (phase 1) or chemical overprinting (phase 3) on the

glacially overprinted (phase 2) surfaces (Figure 12). The surface microtextures used to define

phase 2 and phase 3 are likely developed during the current glacial system (see Discussion-

Subglacial Coarse Sediment Transport). The frequency of dissolution etching on chemically

 40
overprinted (phase 3) grains from UpB and WGZ were compared to SLW grains. The

comparison was made to SLW because microbiologists confirmed the presence of bacteria in the

subglacial lake and dissolution of mineral grains is likely evidence of microbial activity.

Dissolution etching occurred on 73% of phase 3 quartz sand grains at UpB and 74% at WGZ

compared to 75% at SLW. Variations in dissolution etching on phase 3 grains are not significant

from site to site. These findings indicate the microbial activity may be pervasive throughout the

subglacial till at WIS because the dissolution etching present on the quartz sand grains develops

in inert subglacial conditions during the current glacial system. The chemical weathering rate is

enhanced in the microbially driven subglacial system as evident by the weathering microtextures

on fresh surfaces of glacially crushed grains.

The systems of rivers connected to the subglacial lakes carry discharged lake water that is

likely transporting bacteria. Hodson and others (2016) found that SLW does fluvially discharge

finer-grained sediment that bacterium would be considered. The chemically weathered quartz

sand grains (coarser-grained sediment), however, are glacially transported during the shearing of

the deformation till. This indicates the quartz sand grains are not transported with the bacteria

thus the microbial activity may occur outside of the network of lakes and rivers, likely in the

pore spaces of the till. Therefore, the microbial activity is likely to be pervasive throughout the

subglacial till and is not unique to the system of subglacial lakes and network of rivers.
 41

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS

Multiple standard sedimentological analyses were completed on sediment cores and bulk

samples collected from Upstream Whillans, Subglacial Lake Whillans, and Whillans Grounding

Zone. The scanning electron microscopy and gravel form, roundness, and surface feature

analyses indicate likely glacial transport of subglacial sediments in the deformation till. Flooding

from SLW may lubricate the ice-sediment interface to increase ice flow velocity but the water

discharge does not have enough energy to transport coarse sediment. Significantly, the evidence

is lacking for fluvial transport of grains larger than 63 µm during subglacial drainage events and

substantiates Hodson et al.’s (2016) findings that only the finer-grained mud-size particles are

transported during discharge events at SLW.

Compositional analyses of gravel- and sand-sized fractions indicates there is no change in

sediment sources or new material introduced at each of the three study sites, nor temporally at

SLW and WGZ. The analysis also shows WIS has been dynamic through time with evidence of

past grounding line fluctuations and a recent grounding line retreat. The WISSARD team has

focused on WAIS stability because the majority of the ice sheet is grounded below sea level on

reverse sloping beds (Lythe and Vaughan, 2001). The WISSARD team has concluded that

sediment flux to the grounding line is likely to be insufficient to stabilize the ice stream against

rising and warming seas (Hodson et al., 2016), and the recent retreat of the Whillans grounding

line indicates modern instability of the grounding zone. Such instabilities could eventually lead
 42
to mass ice loss due to runaway grounding lines and ice sheet disintegration that would further

raise sea level (Schoof, 2007; Bamber et al., 2009). This process may have already begun in the

Amundsen Sea sector as the glaciers have experienced retreat and acceleration likely due to

warming ocean waters (Thomas et al., 2004) and the Amundsen Sea glaciers are likely

undergoing marine ice sheet instability (Rignot et al., 2014).

Surface microtexture analysis on quartz sand grains indicate that the microbial activity

found at SLW may not be unique to subglacial lakes and rivers but is likely pervasive throughout

the subglacial till. Subglacial conditions are not conducive to life, however, bacteria are

surviving in the environmental conditions at SLW and the microbial activity is likely present in

the subglacial till. These findings broaden our understanding of where life can survive and stress

the importance of clean sampling technologies to prevent future contamination. The findings

may also have implications when considering the amount of organic matter and nutrients that can

be transported to the Southern Ocean and how they can affect oceanic biogeochemical cycling

(Fricker et al., 2011).

This thesis aims to provide knowledge on subglacial life and dynamics of the Whillans

Ice Stream and grounding zone that can be used for better predictions of future ice sheet stability.

Sediment from cores at SLW is poorly constrained in age; we do know it is post-Last Glacial

Maximum. Additional data are still being collected from the WGZ sediment cores to add to the

results presented here and to provide more details on the ice stream dynamics and grounding line

stability. Future sedimentological analyses should be performed on other silicate minerals, such

as feldspars, to confirm the evidence of microbially mediated chemical weathering on mineral

grains. Further investigations of grounding zone conditions should also be performed to monitor
 43
WGZ stability; the future work should include all Siple-Gould Coast ice streams in order to

understand the current and future stability of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet.
 44

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 50

APPENDIX A

FREQUENCY OF SURFACE MICROTEXTURES AND WEATHERING PHASES

ON QUARTZ SAND GRAINS FOR EACH SIZE FRACTION
 51
Grain Size
80
125-250 µm
Grain Size
100 70 250-500 µm
125-250 µm
500-1000 µm
250-500 µm 60
Glacial Fluvial
80 500-1000 µm

Frequency (%)
50
Frequency (%)

60 40

30
40
20
20
10

0 0
High Angular Conchoidal Faceted Arc-Shaped Grooves Chatter- Low Rounded V-Shaped Outcrop Glacial Chemical
Relief Fracture Steps marks Relief Percussion Weathering Overprinting Overprinting
Cracks Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Figure A-1: Frequency of surface microtextures (left) and frequency of weathering phases (right)
on quartz sand grains for each size fraction at UpB. Surface microtextures and weathering phases
were identified on quartz sand grains from three particle size fractions, 125-250 µm, 250-500
µm, and 500-1,000 µm, using an SEM to look at variation due to size. Microtextures (left) listed
to the left of the dashed line indicate glacial transport features and those to the right are
indicative of fluvial transport. Thirty quartz sand grains were analyzed for each sample size
fraction.

Grain Size
60
125-250 µm
Grain Size
100 250-500 µm
125-250 µm 50
500-1000 µm
250-500 µm
80
Glacial Fluvial
500-1000 µm 40
Frequency (%)
Frequency (%)

60
30

40 20

20 10

0 0
High Angular Conchoidal Faceted Arc-Shaped Grooves Chatter- Low Rounded V-Shaped Outcrop Glacial Chemical
Relief Fracture Steps marks Relief Percussion Weathering Overprinting Overprinting
Cracks Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Figure A-2: Frequency of surface microtextures (left) and frequency of weathering phases (right)
on quartz sand grains for each size fraction at SLW. Surface microtextures and weathering
phases were identified on quartz sand grains from three particle size fractions, 125-250 µm, 250-
500 µm, and 500-1,000 µm, using an SEM to look at variation due to size. Microtextures (left)
listed to the left of the dashed line indicate glacial transport features and those to the right are
indicative of fluvial transport. Thirty quartz sand grains were analyzed for each sample size
fraction.
 52
Grain Size
60
125-250 µm
100 Grain Size
250-500 µm
125-250 µm 50
500-1000 µm
250-500 µm
80
Glacial Fluvial
500-1000 µm 40

Frequency (%)
Frequency (%)

60
30

40 20

20 10

0 0
High Angular Conchoidal Faceted Arc-Shaped Grooves Chatter- Low Rounded V-Shaped Outcrop Glacial Chemical
Relief Fracture Steps marks Relief Percussion Weathering Overprinting Overprinting
Cracks Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Figure A-3: Frequency of surface microtextures (left) and frequency of weathering phases (right)
on quartz sand grains for each size fraction at WGZ. Surface microtextures and weathering
phases were identified on quartz sand grains from three particle size fractions, 125-250 µm, 250-
500 µm, and 500-1,000 µm, using an SEM to look at variation due to size. Microtextures (left)
listed to the left of the dashed line indicate glacial transport features and those to the right are
indicative of fluvial transport. Thirty quartz sand grains were analyzed for each sample size
fraction.
 53

APPENDIX B

MODELS OF TILL PELLET FORMATION NEAR GROUNDING ZONES

 54
The samples from WIS show a presence of till pellets at the grounding zone location

during subglacial conditions. Till pellets are absent in sub-ice shelf conditions and subglacial

conditions further upstream from the grounding zone. Cowan and others (2012) describe two

models of till pellet formation occurring in deformable beds, a mechanical model and a thermal

evolution model, that may be a applied to WIS to explain why till pellets are formed in

subglacial grounding zone conditions and not further upstream.

The first model, mechanical model, can be described by Cowan and others (2012) as an

in situ process occurring in a thin zone of deformation in homogenous subglacial till (Figure B-1

A). When porewater pressure is low, such as near the glacier snout where the ice stream is thin or

where meltwater production is limited, shear stress near the ice-sediment interface causes

compaction and fracturing (brecciation) of compacted sediment as described by van der Meer

(1993). Eventually, the shear causes rotation and the production of angular till aggregates (Figure

B-1 B). The process progresses and the till becomes further compacted and strengthened causing

the ice stream to continue to slow (Figure B-1 C). If the ice stream thickens and advances, basal

melting will resume and porewater pressure will increase. The shear stress will increase near the

ice-sediment interface and allow the rotation and rounding of the angular till aggregates into

rounded till pellets.

The second model, thermal evolution model, also described by Cowan and others (2012)

is an in situ process that occurs in homogenous subglacial till when basal melting ceases near the

grounding line as the ice stream thins (Figure B-1 F). Large pore spaces begin to freeze causing

fine-grained till to compact, dewater by transferring the water into larger pores, and eventually

completely freeze (Figure B-1 G-H). If the ice stream thickens and advances, basal melting will
 55

Figure B-1: Till pellet formation models proposed by Cowan and others (2012). The mechanical
model can be conceptualized using A-E and the thermal evolution model by F-J. Figure from
Cowan et al., 2012.

resume and the subglacial till will thaw. The thawed subglacial till will begin to shear and the till

aggregates will rotate and round into till pellets.

Both these models may be applied to WIS in order to explain the till pellet presence in

subglacial till near grounding zones. These models would not apply to sites further upstream

during stable conditions because the variation in basal melting necessary for till pellet formation

would likely not exist and high porewater pressure has been modeled for UpB, which would also

restrict the till pellet formation (Tulaczyk et al., 1998). It is reasonable to apply these models to

WGZ because basal melting and porewater pressure could fluctuate due to ice stream

thinning/thickening near the grounding zone. WIS also flows over subglacial till that can be

sheared, permitting deformation to occur in a thin layer of till near the ice-sediment interface,

which is necessary for till pellet formation (Engelhardt and Kamb, 1998).
 56

APPENDIX C

TABLES OF SEM AND SAND COMPOSITION DATA


Table C-1

Table of SEM Data for UpB, SLW, and WGZ

ARC- V-SHAPED
HIGH CONCHOIDAL SHAPED CHATTER- LOW PERCUSSION ETCH
SITE SAMPLE DEPTH SIZE RELIEF ANGULAR FRACTURE FACETED STEPS GROOVES MARKS RELIEF ROUNDED CRACKS PITS PRECIPITATION PHASE 1 PHASE 2 PHASE 3
UpB 88-89 Core 1 140 cm 125-250 µm 63% 97% 63% 10% 67% 23% 3% 37% 3% 0% 80% 33% 0% 33% 67%
88-89 Core 1 140 cm 250-500 µm 100% 93% 40% 3% 93% 20% 0% 0% 3% 0% 87% 17% 0% 43% 57%
88-89 Core 1 140 cm 500-1000 µm 100% 97% 20% 0% 93% 10% 0% 0% 3% 0% 80% 30% 0% 27% 73%
88-89 Sample B2 bulk 125-250 µm 70% 100% 57% 7% 53% 10% 3% 30% 0% 0% 40% 50% 0% 27% 73%
88-89 Sample B2 bulk 250-500 µm 100% 93% 7% 3% 100% 10% 0% 0% 7% 3% 83% 27% 0% 63% 37%
88-89 Sample B2 bulk 500-1000 µm 100% 100% 10% 0% 97% 7% 3% 0% 3% 0% 97% 27% 0% 43% 57%
91-92 bulk 125-250 µm 90% 97% 53% 10% 60% 23% 3% 10% 3% 0% 47% 17% 0% 30% 70%
91-92 bulk 250-500 µm 100% 100% 23% 3% 97% 10% 3% 0% 0% 0% 97% 23% 0% 60% 40%
91-92 bulk 500-1000 µm 100% 97% 23% 3% 97% 17% 3% 0% 3% 0% 90% 37% 3% 50% 47%
SLW MC-1B 3-5 cm 125-250 µm 100% 97% 37% 0% 90% 7% 0% 0% 3% 0% 73% 20% 0% 47% 53%
MC-1B 3-5 cm 250-500 µm 100% 93% 50% 0% 73% 20% 0% 0% 7% 0% 90% 37% 7% 37% 57%
MC-1B 3-5 cm 500-1000 µm 100% 97% 33% 0% 73% 10% 0% 0% 3% 0% 77% 33% 3% 27% 70%
MC-1B 24-29 cm 125-250 µm 100% 97% 40% 0% 63% 17% 0% 0% 3% 0% 60% 30% 0% 17% 83%
MC-1B 24-29 cm 250-500 µm 100% 97% 30% 3% 70% 13% 0% 0% 3% 0% 90% 23% 0% 30% 70%
MC-1B 24-29 cm 500-1000 µm 100% 97% 33% 0% 63% 7% 3% 0% 3% 0% 57% 30% 7% 30% 63%
MC-3A bulk 125-250 µm 87% 93% 73% 3% 50% 3% 0% 13% 7% 0% 53% 17% 0% 73% 27%
MC-3A bulk 250-500 µm 73% 97% 47% 0% 83% 17% 7% 27% 3% 0% 60% 23% 0% 47% 53%
MC-3A bulk 500-1000 µm 80% 87% 53% 7% 70% 17% 0% 20% 13% 3% 67% 13% 3% 57% 40%
PC-1 15-18 cm 125-250 µm 87% 90% 63% 7% 60% 13% 0% 13% 10% 0% 67% 40% 0% 33% 67%
PC-1 15-18 cm 250-500 µm 90% 87% 43% 0% 63% 3% 0% 10% 13% 0% 67% 27% 0% 37% 63%
PC-1 15-18 cm 500-1000 µm 93% 80% 43% 7% 73% 7% 0% 7% 20% 0% 63% 20% 0% 50% 50%
PC-1 73-76 cm 125-250 µm 90% 90% 67% 3% 50% 17% 0% 10% 10% 0% 60% 27% 0% 30% 70%
PC-1 73-76 cm 250-500 µm 93% 93% 53% 0% 77% 3% 0% 7% 7% 0% 63% 17% 0% 43% 57%
PC-1 73-76 cm 500-1000 µm 87% 83% 40% 0% 67% 7% 0% 13% 17% 0% 67% 20% 7% 50% 43%
WGZ GC-1 0-3 cm 125-250 µm 77% 93% 77% 7% 60% 27% 0% 23% 7% 0% 30% 30% 0% 53% 47%
GC-1 0-3 cm 250-500 µm 83% 93% 47% 0% 73% 3% 0% 17% 7% 0% 67% 37% 3% 43% 53%
GC-1 0-3 cm 500-1000 µm 93% 97% 33% 3% 70% 10% 3% 7% 3% 0% 70% 37% 0% 30% 70%
GC-1 19-20 cm 125-250 µm 90% 97% 50% 7% 80% 13% 0% 10% 3% 0% 67% 43% 0% 40% 60%
GC-1 19-20 cm 250-500 µm 97% 87% 37% 0% 67% 3% 0% 3% 13% 3% 57% 30% 3% 27% 70%
GC-1 19-20 cm 500-1000 µm 93% 73% 37% 0% 83% 3% 0% 7% 27% 0% 67% 33% 0% 43% 57%
GC-1 39-41 cm 125-250 µm 97% 100% 43% 0% 77% 13% 3% 3% 0% 0% 60% 53% 0% 70% 30%
GC-1 39-41 cm 250-500 µm 97% 93% 53% 3% 57% 7% 0% 3% 7% 0% 63% 37% 0% 50% 50%
GC-1 39-41 cm 500-1000 µm 83% 100% 37% 3% 90% 0% 0% 17% 0% 3% 77% 30% 3% 47% 50%
GC-1 55-56 cm 125-250 µm 87% 90% 43% 3% 70% 7% 0% 13% 10% 0% 67% 43% 7% 53% 40%
GC-1 55-56 cm 250-500 µm 90% 97% 57% 7% 80% 3% 0% 10% 3% 0% 73% 43% 0% 60% 40%
GC-1 55-56 cm 500-1000 µm 87% 87% 40% 3% 83% 0% 0% 13% 13% 0% 70% 40% 0% 40% 60%
GC-1 68-70 cm 125-250 µm 97% 90% 43% 3% 77% 3% 0% 3% 10% 0% 90% 47% 0% 43% 57%
GC-1 68-70 cm 250-500 µm 77% 90% 47% 3% 83% 3% 0% 23% 10% 0% 63% 47% 0% 30% 70%
GC-1 68-70 cm 500-1000 µm 77% 90% 27% 7% 83% 0% 0% 23% 10% 0% 77% 63% 3% 27% 70%
GC-1 74-76 cm 125-250 µm 87% 93% 33% 0% 63% 7% 0% 13% 7% 0% 97% 57% 0% 40% 60%
GC-1 74-76 cm 250-500 µm 90% 90% 50% 3% 77% 0% 0% 10% 10% 0% 87% 40% 0% 40% 60%
GC-1 74-76 cm 500-1000 µm 87% 90% 37% 3% 70% 0% 0% 13% 10% 0% 80% 50% 0% 50% 50%
57

Table C-2

Table of Sand Composition Data for SLW and WGZ

QUARTZ OTHER TILL

SITE SAMPLE DEPTH SIZE SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC PLUTONIC FELDSPAR GRAIN MINERAL AGGREGATE VOLCANIC
SLW MC-1B 3-5 cm 250-500 µm 0% 5 ± 2.1% 3 ± 1.6% 13 ± 3.2% 78 ± 3.9% 1 ± 0.9% 0% 0%
MC-1B 24-29 cm 250-500 µm 0% 6 ± 2.3% 4 ± 1.9% 13 ± 3.3% 76 ± 4.2% 0% 1 ± 1.0% 0%
PC-1 15-18 cm 250-500 µm 0% 7 ± 2.6% 4 ± 2.0% 12 ± 3.3% 78 ± 4.2% 0% 0% 0%
PC-1 73-76 cm 250-500 µm 0% 6 ± 2.5% 4 ± 2.0% 11 ± 3.3% 78 ± 4.3% 1 ± 1.0% 0% 0%
WGZ GC-1 0-3 cm 250-500 µm 0% 7 ± 2.5% 3 ± 1.7% 17 ± 3.7% 71 ± 4.5% 2 ± 1.4% 0% 0%
GC-1 0-3 cm 500-1000 µm 0% 15 ± 3.1% 10 ± 2.6% 14 ± 3.0% 60 ± 4.2% 0% 0% 0%
GC-1 17-19 cm 250-500 µm 0% 9 ± 3.2% 4 ± 2.2% 15 ± 4.0% 69 ± 5.2% 2 ± 1.6% 1 ± 1.1% 0%
GC-1 17-19 cm 500-1000 µm 0% 19 ± 3.6% 11 ± 2.8% 14 ± 3.1% 54 ± 4.5% 1 ± 0.9% 1 ± 0.9% 0%
GC-1 35-37 cm 250-500 µm 0% 7 ± 2.4% 4 ± 1.8% 9 ± 2.6% 76 ± 3.9% 3 ± 1.6% 0% 0%
GC-1 35-37 cm 500-1000 µm 0% 23 ± 3.7% 12 ± 2.9% 10 ± 2.7% 53 ± 4.4% 1 ± 0.9% 0% 0%
GC-1 50-52 cm 250-500 µm 0% 10 ± 3.1% 5 ± 2.2% 13 ± 3.5% 70 ± 4.7% 1 ± 1.0% 1 ± 1.0% 0%
GC-1 50-52 cm 500-1000 µm 0% 26 ± 5.0% 15 ± 4.1% 12 ± 3.7% 45 ± 5.7% 0% 2 ± 1.6% 0%
GC-1 63-66 cm 250-500 µm 0% 8 ± 2.6% 4 ± 1.9% 11 ± 3.0% 74 ± 4.2% 0% 2 ± 1.4% 0%
GC-1 63-66 cm 500-1000 µm 0% 20 ± 3.9% 12 ± 3.2% 13 ± 3.3% 51 ± 4.9% 1 ± 1.0% 3 ± 1.7% 0%
GC-1 76-78 cm 250-500 µm 0% 9 ± 2.8% 4 ± 1.9% 11 ± 3.1% 74 ± 4.3% 1 ± 1.0% 1 ± 1.0% 0%
GC-1 76-78 cm 500-1000 µm 1 ± 0.8% 24 ± 3.5% 15 ± 2.9% 15 ± 2.9% 43 ± 4.1% 0% 2 ± 1.2% 0%
GC-4 1-4 cm 250-500 µm 0% 11 ± 3.3% 5 ± 2.3% 14 ± 3.7% 68 ± 5.0% 1 ± 1.1% 0% 0%
GC-4 1-4 cm 500-1000 µm 0% 22 ± 4.1% 14 ± 3.4% 6 ± 2.3% 56 ± 4.9% 1 ± 1.0% 1 ± 1.0% 0%
GC-4 8-10 cm 250-500 µm 0% 11 ± 3.4% 6 ± 2.6% 11 ± 3.4% 70 ± 5.0% 0% 1 ± 1.1% 0%
GC-4 8-10 cm 500-1000 µm 0% 22 ± 3.7% 11 ± 2.8% 9 ± 2.6% 57 ± 4.5% 1 ± 0.9% 1 ± 0.9% 0%
GC-4 17-19 cm 250-500 µm 0% 9 ± 2.6% 3 ± 1.5% 10 ± 2.7% 73 ± 4.0% 3 ± 1.5% 0% 0%
GC-4 17-19 cm 500-1000 µm 0% 19 ± 3.1% 11 ± 2.5% 9 ± 2.3% 59 ± 3.9% 1 ± 0.8% 0% 0%
GC-4 36-38 cm 250-500 µm 0% 11 ± 3.1% 5 ± 2.2% 11 ± 3.1% 70 ± 4.6% 2 ± 1.4% 1 ± 1.0% 0%
GC-4 36-38 cm 500-1000 µm 0% 25 ± 3.8% 14 ± 3.1% 8 ± 2.4% 52 ± 4.4% 1 ± 0.9% 2 ± 1.2% 0%
GC-4 45-47 cm 250-500 µm 0% 12 ± 3.3% 6 ± 2.4% 7 ± 2.6% 68 ± 4.7% 1 ± 1.0% 6 ± 2.4% 0%
GC-4 45-47 cm 500-1000 µm 0% 21 ± 3.6% 13 ± 3.0% 5 ± 1.9% 52 ± 4.4% 1 ± 0.9% 9 ± 2.5% 0%
GC-4 51-53 cm 250-500 µm 0% 9 ± 2.7% 5 ± 2.1% 9 ± 2.7% 75 ± 4.1% 1 ± 1.0% 1 ± 1.0% 0%
GC-4 51-53 cm 500-1000 µm 0% 23 ± 3.9% 14 ± 3.2% 7 ± 2.4% 53 ± 4.6% 0% 2 ± 1.3% 0%
*Probable error was calculated for a 95.4% level of confidence following Galehouse (1971)
58