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GEOPHYSICAL FLUID DYNAMICS
 Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
Understanding (Almost) Everything with Rotating
Shallow Water Models

Vladimir Zeitlin
Laboratory of Dynamical Meteorology, Sorbonne University and École Normale
Supérieure Paris, France

3
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Vladimir Zeitlin 2018
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2018
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017959942
ISBN 978–0–19–880433–8
DOI 10.1093/oso/9780198804338.001
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
To the memory of G. Zaslavsky
Preface

The book explains the key notions and fundamental processes of the dynamics of the
fluid envelopes of the Earth (transposable to other planets) from the unifying viewpoint
of rotating shallow-water model (RSW). The model, in its one- or two-layer versions,
plays a distinguished role in geophysical fluid dynamics. It has been used now for about
a century to aid conceptual understanding of various phenomena, for elaboration of
approaches and methods to be used later in more complete models, for development
and testing of numerical codes and schemes of data assimilations, and for many other
purposes. In spite of its simplicity, the model grasps the essential features of the com-
plete ‘primitive equations’ models of large- and medium-scale atmospheric and oceanic
motions. Although RSW, most often, can not give a full quantitative explanation of ob-
servations, it provides qualitative (and, in many cases, semi-quantitative) understanding.
It gives simple and clear representation of the principal dynamical processes and helps
to develop physical intuition. In addition, it allows for efficient high-resolution numer-
ical methods which achieve, with modest computational resources, resolutions and time
spans hardly possible with the full primitive equations. The quasi-geostrophic reduction
of the model is no less celebrated, having been used, for example, for the first successful
numerical weather prediction.
After deriving one- and two-layer versions of the RSW model directly from the
primitive equations and exploring its properties, we will explain and illustrate the funda-
mentals of geophysical fluid dynamics with its help, and treat traditional and recently
arisen applications. We will be explaining both mathematics and physics underlying
dynamical phenomena and the methods used to analyse them, with necessary demon-
strations. However, most often we will remain on a heuristic level and will be, frequently
in the first place, looking for qualitative insights. Hence, we will illustrate dynamical pro-
cesses under consideration with abundant figures, and often sacrifice technical details or
relegate them to exercises.
The book targets fluid dynamicists, physicists, and applied mathematicians inter-
ested in the dynamics of the climate system and the modelling of atmospheric and
oceanic phenomena, mathematically minded meteorologists and oceanographers, in-
cluding graduate and post-graduate students. It can be used as a complement to standard
textbooks in geophysical fluid dynamics, dynamical meteorology, and physical ocean-
ography. The book is self-contained and provides, in a concise manner, all necessary
prerequisites, except for basic mathematics. It is divided in to three parts. Part I is a geo-
physical fluid dynamics course in RSW terms and is supplied with problems/exercises
which complement demonstrations in the main text. Solutions of the problems can
be obtained from the Editorial Office on demand. Part II contains advanced top-
ics and studies of principal dynamical phenomena. Part III considers some modern
viii Preface

developments in rotating shallow-water modelling. Each chapter of the book ends by

a short résumé of the main points, and bibliographic remarks, for better orientation. A
detailed Index serves the same purpose.
The first, and partially the second part are based on the course in geophysical fluid
dynamics which is being taught by the author at the Université P. and M. Curie and
École Normale Supérieure (Paris). The rest of the book is largely based on the original
works of the author with students and collaborators.
Acknowledgements

A considerable part of material of this book is based on my work with friends and col-
laborators F. Bouchut, S. Medvedev, G. Reznik, and T. Dubos as well as with former
masters and PhD students, some of them now colleagues, M. BenJelloul, E. Gouzien, J.
Gula, N. Lahaye, J. Lambaerts, J. LeSommer, R. Plougonven, B. Ribstein, M. Rostami,
E. Scherer, A. Stegner, and M. Tort, all of which is gratefully acknowledged.
Contents

Part I Modelling Large-scale Oceanic and Atmospheric

Flows: From Primitive to Rotating Shallow-Water Equations
and Beyond
1 Introduction 3
2 Primitive Equations Model 6
2.1 Preliminaries 6
2.2 A crash course in fluid dynamics 6
2.2.1 The perfect fluid 6
2.2.2 Real fluids: incorporating molecular transport 13
2.3 Rotation, sphericity, and tangent plane approximation 14
2.3.1 Hydrodynamics in the rotating frame with gravity 14
2.3.2 Hydrodynamics in spherical coordinates
and the ‘traditional’ approximation in GFD 15
2.3.3 The tangent plane approximation 17
2.4 Primitive equations in the oceanic and atmospheric context 17
2.4.1 Oceanic context 18
2.4.2 Atmospheric context 19
2.4.3 Remarkable properties of the PE dynamics 22
2.4.4 What do we lose by assuming hydrostatics? 26
2.5 Summary, comments, and bibliographic remarks 27
2.6 Problems 28
3 Simplifying Primitive Equations: Rotating Shallow-Water
Models and their Properties 29
3.1 Vertical averaging of horizontal momentum and mass conservation equations 29
3.2 Archetype models 33
3.2.1 One-layer RSW model 33
3.2.2 Two-layer RSW model with a rigid lid 34
3.2.3 Two-layer RSW model with a free upper surface 34
3.2.4 RSW model on the sphere 36
3.3 Vortices and waves in rotating shallow-water models 36
3.3.1 One-layer RSW model 36
3.3.2 Two-layer RSW model 40
3.4 Lagrangian approach and variational principles for shallow-water models 42
3.4.1 Lagrangian formulation of one-layer RSW 42
3.4.2 Lagrangian formulation of two-layer RSW 46
xii Contents

3.5 Summary, comments, and bibliographic remarks 47

3.6 Problems 48
4 Wave Motions in Rotating Shallow Water with Boundaries,
Topography, at the Equator, and in Laboratory 49
4.1 Introducing lateral boundaries and shelf 49
4.1.1 Kelvin waves in RSW with an idealised coast 49
4.1.2 Waves in RSW with idealised coast and a shelf 52
4.2 Waves over topography/bathymetry far from lateral boundaries 57
4.2.1 Topographic waves 57
4.2.2 Mountain (lee) waves in RSW 59
4.3 Waves in outcropping flows 62
4.4 Equatorial waves 67
4.4.1 Equatorial waves in one-layer model 67
4.4.2 Waves in two-layer RSW with a rigid lid on the equatorial
beta plane 75
4.5 Waves in rotating annulus 77
4.5.1 RSW in cylindrical geometry 77
4.5.2 Analytic solution of the eigenvalue problem 79
4.6 Summary, comments, and bibliographic remarks 83
4.7 Problems 85
5 Getting Rid of Fast Waves: Slow Dynamics 86
5.1 General properties of the horizontal motion. Geostrophic equilibrium 86
5.2 Slow dynamics in a one-layer model 88
5.2.1 Derivation of the QG equations 88
5.2.2 Rossby waves and vortex dynamics: β plane vs f plane 90
5.2.3 QG dynamics in the presence of topography. Mountain
Rossby waves 91
5.2.4 Frontal geostrophic dynamics 95
5.3 Slow dynamics in the two-layer model with a rigid lid 96
5.3.1 Derivation of the QG equations 96
5.3.2 Rossby waves in the two-layer QG model 98
5.3.3 Baroclinic instability: first acquaintance 98
5.3.4 Frontal geostrophic regimes 100
5.4 Slow dynamics in two-layer model with a free surface 101
5.4.1 Equations of motion, parameters, and scaling 101
5.4.2 QG equations 102
5.5 Large-scale slow dynamics in the presence of wave guides 102
5.5.1 A reminder on multi-scale asymptotic expansions 102
5.5.2 Slow motions in the presence of a lateral boundary 103
5.5.3 Slow motions over escarpment 106
5.5.4 Slow motions at the equator 108
 Contents xiii

5.6 Summary, comments, and bibliographic remarks 114

5.7 Problems 116
6 Vortex Dynamics on the f and beta Plane and Wave Radiation
by Vortices 117
6.1 Two-dimensional vortex dynamics 117
6.1.1 2D Euler equations in stream-function–vorticity variables 117
6.1.2 Lagrangian formulation of 2D hydrodynamics of a perfect
fluid 119
6.1.3 Dynamics of point vortices 120
6.1.4 Contour dynamics 121
6.1.5 Structure (Casimir)-preserving discretisations of vorticity
equation in Fourier space 122
6.2 Quasi-geostrophic modons in the β- and f -plane approximations 124
6.2.1 Influence of the beta effect upon a monopolar vortex 124
6.2.2 Constructing QG modon solutions: one-layer case 125
6.2.3 Constructing QG modon solutions: two-layer case 127
6.3 A crash course in 2D turbulence 134
6.3.1 Reminder on statistical description of turbulence 134
6.3.2 Developed turbulence: energy and enstrophy cascades 136
6.4 When vortices emit waves: Lighthill radiation 137
6.4.1 2D hydrodynamics and vortex-pair solution in complex
notation 138
6.4.2 Gravity waves in cylindrical geometry 138
6.4.3 Lighthill radiation 139
6.4.4 Back-reaction of wave radiation 140
6.4.5 Lighthill radiation in the presence of rotation 141
6.5 Summary, comments, and bibliographic remarks 142
6.6 Problems 143
7 Rotating Shallow-Water Models as Quasilinear Hyperbolic
Systems, and Related Numerical Methods 144
7.1 One-layer model 145
7.1.1 1.5-dimensional one-layer RSW model 145
7.1.2 Lagrangian approach to the 1.5-dimensional model 145
7.1.3 Quasilinear and hyperbolic systems 147
7.1.4 Wave breaking in non-rotating and rotating one-layer RSW 148
7.1.5 Hydraulic theory applied to rotating shallow water 150
7.1.6 A brief description of finite-volume numerical methods for
one-layer RSW 153
7.1.7 Illustration: breaking of equatorial waves 158
7.2 Two-layer model 159
7.2.1 1.5 dimensional two-layer RSW 159
xiv Contents

7.2.2 Characteristic equation and loss of hyperbolicity 160

7.2.3 Rankine–Hugoniot conditions 162
7.2.4 A finite-volume numerical method for two-layer RSW 163
7.3 Summary, comments, and bibliographic remarks 164
7.4 Problems 166

Part II Understanding Fundamental Dynamical Phenomena

with Rotating Shallow-Water Models
8 Geostrophic Adjustment and Wave–Vortex (Non)Interaction 169
8.1 Geostrophic adjustment in the barotropic (one-layer) model 169
8.1.1 Quasi-geostrophic regime 169
8.1.2 Frontal geostrophic regime 175
8.2 Geostrophic adjustment in the baroclinic (two-layer) model 180
8.2.1 Quasi-geostrophic regime 180
8.2.2 Frontal geostrophic regime 181
8.3 Geostrophic adjustment in one dimension and the first idea
of frontogenesis 183
8.3.1 Theoretical considerations 183
8.3.2 Numerical simulations: Rossby adjustment 189
8.4 Geostrophic adjustment in the presence of boundaries, topography,
and at the equator 191
8.4.1 Geostrophic adjustment with a lateral boundary 191
8.4.2 Geostrophic adjustment over escarpment 191
8.4.3 Geostrophic adjustment in the equatorial beta plane 192
8.5 Summary, comments, and bibliographic remarks 194
9 RSW Modons and their Surprising Properties: RSW Turbulence 197
9.1 QG vs RSW modons: one-layer model 197
9.1.1 General properties of steady solutions 197
9.1.2 ‘Ageostrophic adjustment’ of QG modons 198
9.1.3 Properties of RSW modons 201
9.2 QG vs RSW modons: two-layer model 203
9.2.1 Adjustment of barotropic QG modons 203
9.2.2 Adjustment of baroclinic QG modons 204
9.2.3 Adjustment of essentially ageostrophic modons 204
9.3 Shock modons 206
9.4 Interactions of RSW modons 208
9.4.1 2 modons → 2 modons collision 209
9.4.2 2 → 2 ‘loose’ modon collision 209
9.4.3 2 modons → tripole collisions 210
9.4.4 2 modons → tripole + monopole collisions 210
9.4.5 Collisions of shock modons 213
 Contents xv

9.5 2D vs RSW turbulence 213

9.5.1 Set-up and initialisations 214
9.5.2 General features of the evolution of the vortex system 215
9.5.3 Non-universality of RSW turbulence 218
9.6 Summary, comments, and bibliographic remarks 219
10 Instabilities of Jets and Fronts and their Nonlinear Evolution 221
10.1 Instabilities: general notions and techniques 221
10.1.1 Definitions and general concepts 221
10.1.2 (In)stability criteria for plane-parallel flows 223
10.1.3 Direct approach to linear stability analysis
of plane-parallel and circular flows 225
10.2 Geostrophic barotropic and baroclinic instabilities of jets 226
10.2.1 Barotropic instability of a Bickley jet on the f plane 226
10.2.2 Baroclinic instability of a Bickley jet in the f plane 228
10.3 Ageostrophic instabilities in the Phillips model: Rossby–Kelvin
and shear instabilities 232
10.4 Ageostrophic instabilities of jets and their nonlinear evolution 235
10.4.1 Linear stability 235
10.4.2 Nonlinear saturation of essentially ageostrophic
instabilities 241
10.4.3 A brief summary of the results on essentially
ageostrophic instabilities of mid-latitude jets 244
10.5 Understanding the nature of inertial instability 244
10.6 Instabilities of jets at the equator and their nonlinear evolution,
with emphasis on inertial instability 248
10.6.1 Linear stability and nonlinear saturation of instabilities
in one-layer RSW model at the equator 248
10.6.2 Linear stability and nonlinear saturation of instabilities
in two-layer RSW model at the equator 254
10.6.3 A brief summary of the results on instabilities
of equatorial jets 260
10.7 Instabilities of coastal currents and their nonlinear evolution 261
10.7.1 Passive lower layer: results of the linear stability analysis 261
10.7.2 Passive lower layer: nonlinear evolution of the instability 262
10.7.3 Active lower layer: results of linear stability analysis 266
10.7.4 Active lower layer: nonlinear saturation of instabilities 269
10.7.5 A brief summary of the results on instabilities of coastal
currents 273
10.8 Instabilities of double-density fronts and the role of topography 275
10.8.1 Set-up, scaling, parameters, and boundary conditions 275
10.8.2 Linear stability analysis 277
xvi Contents

10.8.3Nonlinear saturation of the instabilities 280

10.8.4A brief summary of the results on instabilities of double
fronts over topography 283
10.9 Summary, comments, and bibliographic remarks 284
11 Instabilities in Cylindrical Geometry: Vortices and Laboratory Flows 289
11.1 Axisymmetric vortex solutions in rotating shallow water 290
11.1.1 One-layer model 290
11.1.2 Two-layer model 291
11.2 Instabilities of isolated quasi-geostrophic vortices and their
nonlinear evolution 292
11.2.1 One-layer configuration, barotropic vortices 292
11.2.2 Two-layer configuration, baroclinic upper-layer vortex 295
11.3 Instabilities of ageostrophic vortices and their nonlinear evolution 299
11.3.1 General considerations 299
11.3.2 Results of the linear stability analysis 300
11.3.3 Nonlinear saturation of the instabilities 305
11.4 Instabilities of intense hurricane-like vortices and their nonlinear evolution 310
11.4.1 Idealised rotating shallow-water hurricane 311
11.4.2 Results of the linear stability analysis 313
11.4.3 Nonlinear saturation of the hurricane’s instability 314
11.4.4 A brief summary of the results on instabilities
of idealised hurricanes 317
11.5 Instabilities of laboratory flows in rotating annuli 317
11.5.1 Stability of two-layer flows under the rigid lid 317
11.5.2 Stability of flows in rotating annulus with outcropping
and topography 325
11.5.3 A brief summary of the results of analysis of instabilities
in the rotating annulus 335
11.6 Summary, comments, and bibliographic remarks 336
12 Resonant Wave Interactions and Resonant Excitation
of Wave-guide Modes 338
12.1 Resonant wave triads: first acquaintance 338
12.1.1 Perturbation theory for Rossby waves 338
12.1.2 Wave resonances and wave modulation 340
12.2 Resonant excitation of trapped coastal waves by free
inertia–gravity waves 341
12.2.1 Resonant excitation of wave-guide modes: general
philosophy 341
12.2.2 Resonant excitation of Kelvin waves by free
inertia–gravity waves at abrupt shelf: barotropic model 342
 Contents xvii

12.2.3 Resonant excitation of Kelvin waves by free

inertia–gravity waves at abrupt shelf: baroclinic model 347
12.2.4 Resonant excitation of coastal waves by free
inertia–gravity waves at the shelf with gentle slope 355
12.3 Resonant excitation of baroclinic Rossby and Yanai waves in the
equatorial wave guide 364
12.3.1 Reminder on two-layer equatorial RSW and general
conditions of removal of resonances 364
12.3.2 Wave–wave resonances 365
12.3.3 Wave mean current resonances 372
12.4 Summary, comments, and bibliographic remarks 376
13 Wave Turbulence 379
13.1 The main hypotheses and ideas of the wave turbulence approach 379
13.1.1 A reminder on Hamiltonian description of wave
systems 379
13.1.2 The principal idea of wave turbulence approach 383
13.1.3 Kinetic equations for decay and non-decay dispersion
laws 383
13.1.4 Exact solutions of kinetic equations 384
13.1.5 Conservation laws and dimensional estimates 388
13.2 Applications of the wave turbulence theory to waves in rotating
shallow water 389
13.2.1 Wave turbulence of inertia–gravity waves on the f plane 389
13.2.2 Weak turbulence of short inertia–gravity waves
on the equatorial β plane 393
13.2.3 Weak turbulence of the Rossby waves on the β plane 399
13.3 Turbulence of inertia–gravity waves in rotating shallow water:
theory vs numerical experiment 401
13.4 Historical comments, summary, and bibliographic remarks 403

Part III Generalisations of Standard Rotating Shallow-water

Model, and their Applications
14 Rotating Shallow-Water model with Horizontal Density and/or
Temperature Gradients 409
14.1 Derivation of the thermal rotating shallow-water model and its properties 409
14.1.1 Derivation of the model 409
14.1.2 Gas dynamics analogy 411
14.1.3 Waves and vortices 411
14.1.4 Quasi-geostrophic TRSW 412
14.1.5 Variational principle for TRSW 413
14.2 Instabilities of jets and vortices in thermal rotating shallow water 414
xviii Contents

14.2.1 New instabilities in TRSW: first example 414

14.2.2 Instabilities of thermal vortices in TRSW 414
14.2.3 Stationary vortex solutions 415
14.2.4 Results of the linear stability analysis of a thermal
cyclone 415
14.2.5 Nonlinear saturation of the instability 418
14.2.6 Discussion of the results 419
14.3 Summary, comments, and bibliographic remarks 419
15 Rotating Shallow-Water Models with Moist Convection 421
15.1 Constructing moist-convective shallow-water models 421
15.1.1 General context and philosophy of the approach 421
15.1.2 Introducing moisture in primitive equations 422
15.1.3 Vertical averaging with convective fluxes 422
15.1.4 Linking convection and condensation 424
15.1.5 Surface evaporation and its parameterisations 425
15.1.6 Two-layer model with a dry upper layer and its
one-layer limit 426
15.2 Properties of moist-convective RSW models 427
15.2.1 Limiting cases 427
15.2.2 Conservation laws 429
15.3 Mathematics of moist-convective rotating shallow water 430
15.3.1 Quasilinear form and characteristic equations 430
15.3.2 Discontinuities and Rankine–Hugoniot conditions 432
15.3.3 Illustration: wave scattering on a moisture front 432
15.4 Applications to ‘moist’ instabilities of geostrophic jets and vortices 434
15.4.1 Moist instability of the baroclinic Bickley jet 434
15.4.2 Moist instability of geostrophic vortices 435
15.5 Moist dynamics of tropical cyclone-like vortices 439
15.6 Summary, discussion, and bibliographic remarks 441
16 Rotating Shallow-Water Models with Full Coriolis Force 446
16.1 ‘Non-traditional’ rotating shallow-water model in the tangent
plane approximation 446
16.1.1 Vertical averaging of ‘non-traditional’ primitive
equations 446
16.1.2 Non-traditional RSW models 449
16.2 ‘Non-traditional’ rotating shallow-water model on the sphere 450
16.2.1 Including the effects of curvature in the RSW with full
Coriolis force 450
16.2.2 Variational principle for the primitive equations
in spherical geometry 452
16.2.3 Characteristic scales and parameters 455
 Contents xix

16.2.4 Columnar motion reduction in the variational principle 456

16.2.5 Derivation of the non-traditional rotating shallow-water
equations 460
16.3 Example of crucial influence of non-traditional corrections:
inertial instability with full Coriolis force 463
16.3.1 Inertial instability with full Coriolis force: theoretical
considerations 463
16.3.2 Inertial instability with full Coriolis force: direct
approach to the linear stability analysis 467
16.4 Summary, discussion, and bibliographic remarks 472

References 475
Index 485
Part I
Modelling Large-scale Oceanic
and Atmospheric Flows: From
Primitive to Rotating
Shallow-Water Equations and
Beyond
1
Introduction

Even a brief look at satellite images of the Earth, like the one shown in the left panel of
Figure 1.1, makes it clear how thin is the Earth atmosphere (or at least its part determin-
ing weather) with respect to the Earth radius. Indeed, the depth of the whole atmosphere
is several tens of kilometres, and its weather-active part, the troposphere, is about 10 kms
high in mid-latitudes, becoming higher towards the equator. Alternatively, if the whole of
the atmosphere is compressed in a homogeneous layer, it would have thickness of about
10 km, which is negligible compared to the Earth radius of about 6400 km. Neverthe-
less, as already clear from Figure 1.1, many dynamical processes are going on in this
thin fluid film, and a lot of structures of considerable horizontal size are distinguishable
in cloud forms (although clouds do not act as ideal dynamical tracers as they can ap-
pear and disappear due to thermodynamical processes). For example, a pair of synoptic
disturbances, with their characteristic comma-shaped form are visible in the Northern
hemisphere in the figure. Such disturbances are large-scale cyclonic vortices produced
by instabilities of the upper-tropospheric jet-stream. A meandering tropospheric equa-
torial jet can be also identified in the cloud pattern. Such jets are at the origin of tropical
cyclones. Other examples of dynamical structures distinguishable in clouds will be given
throughout this book. The ocean is also a thin film of fluid, compared with the Earth
size, with maximal depths of several kilometres. Again, satellite images reveal existence
of dynamical structures of large horizontal scale in the ocean, like oceanic vortices visible
in the plankton bloom shown in the right panel of Figure 1.1. A typical ratio of thick-
ness of the fluid layer at the scales of the dynamical structures shown in Figure 1.1 to its
horizontal extent is very small. A natural desire then arises to exploit the shallowness of
such structures while trying to understand their dynamics. As usual in physics, every-
thing depends on the scales of interest. We focus here on synoptic-scale motions in the
atmosphere, like synoptic disturbances in the left panel of Figure 1.1, having a charac-
teristic horizontal scale of 1000 kms, or meso-scale motions in the ocean, like vortices in
the right panel of Figure 1.1, having a characteristic scale of several tens of kilometres.
On the contrary, if we consider, for example, an intense small-scale atmospheric vortex,
like a tornado, the notion of shallowness would not be appropriate.

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics. Vladimir Zeitlin,

Oxford University Press (2018). © Vladimir Zeitlin. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198804338.001.0001
4 Introduction

Figure 1.1 Satellite images of the globe and of vortices in Arabian Sea ( false colours). Courtesy
NOAA.

The use of quasi two-dimensional models for understanding synoptic-scale motions

in the atmosphere and meso-scale motions in the atmosphere goes back to the early days
of meteorology and physical oceanography, and this tradition is perpetuated. Principal
dynamical phenomena in both media at these scales were first understood in such mod-
els, and the first successful weather prediction was made with the help of a model of this
kind.
Unlike other branches of physics where, even now, there is a freedom of imagination
for inventing models governing fundamental processes, meteorology and oceanography,
in what concerns their dynamical essence, are based on the hydrodynamical equations
which were well established more than two centuries ago. These equations constitute the
dynamical cores of weather and climate prediction models. The physics of the processes
which are to be included in these models, like phase transitions of water or radiative
transfer, is also well known and well understood. It is, rather, a necessity to treat sim-
ultaneously a number of physical processes at very different space- and time scales,
together with difficulties of numerical implementation, which explain why accurate wea-
ther prediction is possible only for a couple of days, and why climate models diverge
in predicting, for example, humidity and precipitations. The (necessary) complexity
of ‘all-inclusive’ weather and climate prediction models, and a number of parameter-
isations of small-scale processes, inevitable in constructing numerical implementations,
often mask the details of dynamics. Correct reproduction of these details is, however, in-
dispensable for checking consistency of big models themselves. Quasi two-dimensional
models, which are the subject of this book, are based on considerable simplifications
with respect to the big models using the full ‘primitive’ dynamical equations. These
 Introduction 5

simplifications are based on systematic approximations of the full equations of motion

and elimination of certain spatial and temporal scales. Their justification comes from
the quasi-dimensional character of synoptic and meso-scale motions in, respectively,
atmosphere and ocean, and they often represent an optimal compromise between com-
plexity and fidelity of representation of dynamical phenomena at these scales. The quasi
two-dimensional models are much easier to implement numerically; they often allow an
analytical, or semi-analytical, treatment of the problems, and provide a physical intuition,
which is precious in analysing observational data or outputs of ‘big’ models.
In the following, we introduce the primitive equations model and construct a hier-
archy of approximations to the primitive equations, based on space and time averaging.
We explain the principal properties of models obtained in this way, their dynamical con-
tent, the ways to include more elaborate physics like phase transitions, and describe their
applications to various dynamical phenomena.
2
Primitive Equations Model

2.1 Preliminaries
Geophysical fluid dynamics (GFD), as applied to oceanic and atmospheric flows, means
hydrodynamics in a rotating frame, in spherical geometry (for large scales), and com-
plex domains (coasts, topography/bathymetry), with thermal effects and stratification,
and, in general, of multi-phase fluids (air + water vapour + liquid water + ice in the
atmosphere, (salty) water + ice in the ocean). By large scales, on which this book is
focused, we mean scales in the range from the planetary scale ∼ 104 km to synoptic
scales in the atmosphere, ∼ 103 km, and meso-scales in the ocean, 10–102 km. The
atmospheric and oceanic data at these scales reveal two different types of dynamical en-
tities: vortices and waves, cf. Figures 2.1 to 2.3. Note that we do not mean here sound
waves (typically small scale, and fast) in the atmosphere, and surface waves (swell) in
the ocean, but instead mean internal waves propagating in the interior of the fluid and
having considerable wave-lengths (cf. Figure 2.3). We will see later in this chapter that
the very existence of these two types of dynamical ‘actors’ reflects some deep prop-
erties of GFD, and one of the fundamental questions in the field, to be abundantly
addressed in what follows, is about dynamical coupling, or uncoupling, of waves and
vortices.
In this chapter, we will recall the fundamentals of fluid mechanics, introduce the
standard approximations, leading to the primitive equations (PE) model for large-scale
atmospheric and oceanic motions, and analyse the basic properties of this model.

2.2 A crash course in fluid dynamics

2.2.1 The perfect fluid
Governing equations
The fluid is a continuous mechanical system so its evolution is derived from the local
momentum and mass conservation. It is also a thermodynamical system with an equation

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics. Vladimir Zeitlin,

Oxford University Press (2018). © Vladimir Zeitlin. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198804338.001.0001
 A crash course in fluid dynamics 7

12
80 10
8
70 6
60 588
4
2
50

–2
–4
40

–6
–8
30
20

–10
–12
582
576
570
588

588 576
588
576
588 570 546
540
564
558 564
552
552
582 546
588 558
564 588
558 564 594
570
576
582
588

GFS Analysis: 00Z Wed 18 JUL 2012 200 mb Streamlines and Isotachs (m/s) GFS Analysis: 00Z Wed 18 JUL 2012 500 mb Heights (dam), Vorticity (1e–5/sec )

Figure 2.1 Streamlines of the flow and values of the modulus of velocity (colour) at the 200 mb level
(left panel), and relative vorticity (colour) and isolines of geopotential at the 500 mb level (right panel) of
the atmosphere in the Northern hemisphere, as follows from the analysis of atmospheric data. Images
generated by the Center for Ocean–Land–Atmosphere Studies (COLA) at George Mason University
from the data from the forecast models of NOAA’s National Center for Environmental Prediction
(NCEP).

Time: 08-APR-2014 00:00 Time: 08-APR-2014 00:00

DATA SET: global nrt modt h Allaot DATA SET: global nrt malo h Allaot
0.9984 0.8591
0.9
0.7 0.25
46ºN 0.58
0.54 46ºN 0.15
0.5 0.09
42ºN 0.46 42ºN 0.07
0.42 0.05
LATITUDE

LATITUDE

0.38 0.03
38ºN 0.34 38ºN
0.3 0.01
0.26 –0.01
34ºN 0.22 34ºN –0.03
0.18 –0.05
30ºN 0.14 30ºN
0.1 –0.07
0.06 –0.09
26ºN 0.02
–0.02 26ºN –0.11
–0.2 –0.15
22ºN –0.4 22ºN –0.25
–0.7099 –1.359
75ºW 65ºW 55ºW 45ºW 35ºW 25ºW 75ºW 65ºW55ºW 45ºW 35ºW 25ºW
LONGITUDE LONGITUDE
Maps of Absolute Dynamic Topography Allsat (m) Maps of Sea Level Anomalies Allsat (m)

Figure 2.2 The Gulf Stream (left panel) and related vortices (right panel) as seen in satellite altimetry
data. Velocity, to the leading order, follows isopleths of the height anomaly, presented in the figure. The
altimeter products were produced and distributed by the Copernicus Marine and Environment
Monitoring Service (CMEMS).

of state. The Eulerian description of the perfect fluid in terms of the vector velocity field
v(x, t), and scalar density and pressure fields ρ(x, t), P(x, t), which are defined at each
point x of the volume occupied by the fluid at any time t, is based on the following
equations of motion: the Euler equation expressing conservation of momentum,
 
∂v
ρ + v · ∇v = –∇P + F, (2.1)
∂t
8 Primitive equations model

Andaman Sea

Barren Island

5 km
N

Figure 2.3 Internal waves in the atmosphere (left) and in the ocean (right), as seen by satellite
observations. Part of the coast line (left panel) and an island (right panel) give an idea of spatial
scale. Courtesy NASA.

where F represents an external forcing, and the continuity equation

∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv) = 0. (2.2)
∂t

These equations are written in a universal vector form. If otherwise not explicitly stated,
we assume a Cartesian system of coordinates x, y, z, formed by a triple of orthonormal
unit vectors x̂, ŷ, ẑ, with the radius vector x = xx̂ + yŷ + zẑ. The gradient operator ∇
∂ ∂ ∂
is then expressed as ∇ = x̂ ∂x + ŷ ∂y + ẑ ∂z , and the velocity field as v = x̂u + ŷv + ẑw, in
terms of its components. The dot notation is used for the scalar product of two vectors. A
shorthand notations ∂(...)∂x
≡ ∂x (. . .) ≡ (. . .)x etc., will be often used for partial derivatives
throughout the book.
To close the system (2.1), (2.2), an equation of state relating pressure P and density
ρ is needed. In a general case, the equation of state for a one-phase system (we postpone
the treatment of multi-phase systems to Chapter 15) has the form

P = P(ρ, s), (2.3)

where s(x, t) is the entropy per unit mass in the fluid. A case of particular interest in fluid
dynamics is the barotropic fluid (also called homentropic or isentropic), with

P = P(ρ) ↔ s = const, (2.4)

which is sufficient to close the system (2.1) to (2.2). In the case of baroclinic fluid (2.3)
an additional equation for s is necessary. In the perfect fluid, with no heat exchanges
between fluid masses, the entropy is simply advected by the flow:

∂s
+ v · ∇s = 0. (2.5)
∂t
Another random document with
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the others after a distressing wait of ten minutes at the inward lock.
“Begob, I thought we was all lost. ’Twas a close shave. But I’ll go no
more below. I’ve had enough.” He was thinking of a small bank
account—six hundred dollars in all—which he had saved, and of a
girl in Brooklyn who was about to marry him. “No more!”

But, at that, as it stood, there was no immediate danger of work

being offered. The cave-in had cost the contractors thousands and in
addition had taught them that mere air pressure and bracing as
heretofore followed were not sufficient for successful tunneling.
Some new system would have to be devised. Work on both halves of
the tunnel was suspended for over a year and a half, during which
time McGlathery married, a baby was born to him, and his six
hundred had long since diminished to nothing. The difference
between two and five dollars a day is considerable. Incidentally, he
had not gone near his old foreman in all this time, being somehow
ashamed of himself, and in consequence he had not fared so well.
Previously Cavanaugh had kept him almost constantly employed,
finding him faithful and hard-working, but now owing to stranger
associates there were weeks when he had no work at all and others
when he had to work for as little as one-fifty a day. It was not so
pleasant. Besides, he had a sneaking feeling that if he had behaved
a little more courageously at that time, gone and talked to his old
foreman afterward or at the time, he might now be working for good
pay. Alas, he had not done so, and if he went now Cavanaugh would
be sure to want to know why he had disappeared so utterly. Then, in
spite of his marital happiness, poverty began to press him so. A
second and a third child were born—only they were twins.
In the meantime, Henderson, the engineer whom Cavanaugh had
wanted to consult with at the time, had devised a new system of
tunneling, namely, what subsequently came to be known as the pilot
tunnel. This was an iron tube ten feet in length and fifteen feet in
diameter—the width of the tunnel, which was carried forward on a
line with the axis of the tunnel into the ground ahead. When it was
driven in far enough to be completely concealed by the earth about,
then the earth within was removed. The space so cleared was then
used exactly as a hub is used on a wagon wheel. Beams like spokes
were radiated from its sides to its centre, and the surrounding earth
sustained by heavy iron plates. On this plan the old company had
decided to undertake the work again.
One evening, sitting in his doorway thumbing his way through an
evening paper which he could barely read, McGlathery had made all
this out. Mr. Henderson was to be in charge as before. Incidentally it
was stated that Thomas Cavanaugh was going to return as one of
the two chief foremen. Work was to be started at once. In spite of
himself, McGlathery was impressed. If Cavanaugh would only take
him back! To be sure, he had come very near losing his life, as he
thought, but then he had not. No one had, not a soul. Why should he
be so fearful if Cavanaugh could take such chances as he had?
Where else could he make five dollars a day? Still, there was this
haunting sensation that the sea and all of its arms and branches,
wherever situated, were inimical to him and that one day one of them
would surely do him a great injury—kill him, perhaps. He had a
recurring sensation of being drawn up into water or down, he could
not tell which, and of being submerged in ooze and choking slowly. It
was horrible.
But five dollars a day as against one-fifty or two or none at all
(seven, once he became very proficient) and an assured future as a
tunnel worker, a “sand-hog,” as he had now learned such men as
himself were called, was a luring as well as a disturbing thought.
After all, he had no trade other than this he had begun to learn under
Cavanaugh. Worse he was not a union man, and the money he had
once saved was gone, and he had a wife and three children. With
the former he had various and sundry talks. To be sure, tunneling
was dangerous, but still! She agreed with him that he had better not,
but—after all, the difference that five, maybe seven, instead of two a
day would make in their living expenses was in both their minds.
McGlathery saw it. He decided after a long period of hesitation that
perhaps he had best return. After all, nothing had happened to him
that other time, and might it ever again, really? He meditated.
 As has been indicated, a prominent element in McGlathery’s
nature was superstition. While he believed in the inimical nature of
water to him, he also believed in the power of various saints, male
and female, to help or hinder. In the Catholic Church of St. Columba
of South Brooklyn, at which McGlathery and his young wife were
faithful attendants, there was a plaster statue of a saint of this same
name, a co-worker with St. Patrick in Ireland, it appears, who in
McGlathery’s native town of Kilrush, County of Clare, on the water’s
edge of Shannon, had been worshipped for centuries past, or at
least highly esteemed, as having some merit in protecting people at
sea, or in adventures connected with water. This was due, perhaps,
to the fact that Kilrush was directly on the water and had to have a
saint of that kind. At any rate, among other things, he had
occasionally been implored for protection in that realm when
McGlathery was a boy. On his setting out for America, for instance,
some few years before at the suggestion of his mother, he had made
a novena before this very saint, craving of him a safe conduct in
crossing the sea, as well as prosperity once he had arrived in
America. Well, he had crossed in safety, and prospered well enough,
he thought. At least he had not been killed in any tunnel. In
consequence, on bended knees, two blessed candles burning before
him in the rack, a half dollar deposited in the box labeled “St.
Columba’s Orphans,” he finally asked of this saint whether, in case
he returned to this underground tunnel work, seeing that necessity
was driving him, would he be so kind as to protect him? He felt sure
that Cavanaugh, once he applied to him, and seeing that he had
been a favorite worker, would not begrudge him a place if he had
one. In fact he knew that Cavanaugh had always favored him as a
good useful helper.
After seven “Our Fathers” and seven “Hail Marys,” said on his
knees, and a litany of the Blessed Virgin for good measure, he
crossed himself and arose greatly refreshed. There was a pleasant
conviction in his mind now, newly come there before this image, that
he would never come to real harm by any power of water. It was a
revelation—a direct communication, perhaps. At any rate, something
told him to go and see Cavanaugh at once, before the work was well
under way, and not be afraid, as no harm would come to him, and
besides, he might not get anything even though he desired it so
much if he delayed. He bustled out of the church and over to the
waterfront where the deserted shaft was still standing, and sure
enough, there was Cavanaugh, conversing with Mr. Henderson.
“Yis—an’ what arr ye here fer?” he now demanded to know of
McGlathery rather amusedly, for he had sensed the cause of his
desertion.
“I was readin’ that ye was about to start work on the tunnel again.”
“An’ so we arr. What av it?”
“I was thinkin’ maybe ye’d have a place fer me. I’m married now
an’ have three children.”
“An’ ye’re thinkin’ that’s a reason fer givin’ ye something, is it?”
demanded the big foreman rather cynically, with a trace of
amusement. “I thought ye said ye was shut av the sea—that ye was
through now, once an’ fer all?”
“So I did, but I’ve changed me mind. It’s needin’ the work I am.”
“Very well, then,” said Cavanaugh. “We’re beginnin’ in the mornin’.
See that ye’re here at seven sharp. An’ mind ye, no worryin’ or
lookin’ around. We’ve a safe way now. It’s different. There’s no
danger.”
McGlathery gratefully eyed his old superior, then departed, only to
return the next morning a little dubious but willing. St. Columba had
certainly indicated that all would be well with him—but still— A man
is entitled to a few doubts even when under the protection of the best
of saints. He went down with the rest of the men and began cleaning
out that nearest section of the tunnel where first water and then earth
had finally oozed and caked. That done he helped install the new
pilot tunnel which was obviously a great improvement over the old
system. It seemed decidedly safe. McGlathery attempted to explain
its merits to his wife, who was greatly concerned for him, and
incidentally each morning and evening on his way to and from his
task he dropped in at St. Columba’s to offer up a short silent prayer.
In spite of his novena and understanding with the saint he was still
suspicious of this dread river above him, and of what might happen
to him in spite of St. Columba. The good saint, due to some error on
the part of McGlathery, might change his mind.
Nothing happened, of course, for days and weeks and months.
Under Cavanaugh’s direction the work progressed swiftly, and
McGlathery and he, in due time, became once more good friends,
and the former an expert bracer or timberer, one of the best, and
worth seven a day really, which he did not get. Incidentally, they were
all shifted from day to night work, which somehow was considered
more important. There were long conversations now and again
between Cavanaugh and Henderson, and Cavanaugh and other
officials of the company who came down to see, which enlightened
McGlathery considerably as to the nature and danger of the work.
Just the same, overhead was still the heavy river—he could feel it
pushing at him at times, pushing at the thick layer of mud and silt
above him and below which with the aid of this new pilot shield they
were burrowing.
Yet nothing happened for months and months. They cleared a
thousand feet without a hitch. McGlathery began to feel rather
comfortable about it all. It certainly seemed reasonably safe under
the new system. Every night he went down and every morning came
up, as hale and healthy as ever, and every second week, on a
Tuesday, a pay envelope containing the handsome sum of seventy-
two dollars was handed him. Think of it! Seventy-two dollars!
Naturally, as a token of gratitude to St. Columba, he contributed
liberally to his Orphans’ Home, a dollar a month, say, lit a fresh
candle before his shrine every Sunday morning after high mass, and
bought two lots out on the Goose Creek waterfront—on time—on
which some day, God willing, he proposed to build a model summer
and winter cottage. And then—! Well, perhaps, as he thought
afterward, it might have been due to the fact that his prosperity had
made him a little more lax than he should have been, or proud, or
not quite as thoughtful of the saint as was his due. At any rate, one
night, in spite of St. Columba—or could it have been with his aid and
consent in order to show McGlathery his power?—the wretched
sneaky river did him another bad turn, a terrible turn, really.
 It was this way. While they were working at midnight under the
new form of bracing, based on the pilot tunnel, and with an air
pressure of two thousand pounds to the square inch which had so
far sufficed to support the iron roof plates which were being put in
place behind the pilot tunnel day after day, as fast as space
permitted, and with the concrete men following to put in a form of
arch which no river weight could break, the very worst happened.
For it was just at this point where the iron roof and the mud of the
river bottom came in contact behind the pilot tunnel that there was a
danger spot ever since the new work began. Cavanaugh had always
been hovering about that, watching it, urging others to be careful
—“taking no chances with it,” as he said.
“Don’t be long, men!” was his constant urge. “Up with it now! Up
with it! In with the bolts! Quick, now, with yer riveter—quick! quick!”
And the men! How they worked there under the river whenever
there was sufficient space to allow a new steel band to be
segmentally set! For at that point it was, of course, that the river
might break through. How they tugged, sweated, grunted, cursed, in
this dark muddy hole, lit by a few glittering electric arcs—the latest
thing in tunnel work! Stripped to the waist, in mud-soaked trousers
and boots, their arms and backs and breasts mud-smeared and wet,
their hair tousled, their eyes bleary—an artist’s dream of bedlam, a
heavenly inferno of toil—so they labored. And overhead was the
great river, Atlantic liners resting upon it, thirty or fifteen or ten feet of
soil only, sometimes, between them and this thin strip of mud
sustained, supposedly, by two thousand pounds of air pressure to
the square inch—all they had to keep the river from bleeding water
down on them and drowning them like rats!
“Up with it! Up with it! Up with it! Now the bolts! Now the riveter!
That’s it! In with it, Johnny! Once more now!”
Cavanaugh’s voice urging them so was like music to them, their
gift of energy, their labor song, their power to do, their Ei Uchnam.
But there were times also, hours really, when the slow forward
movement of the pilot tunnel, encountering difficult earth before it,
left this small danger section unduly exposed to the rotary action of
the water overhead which was constantly operating in the bed of the
river. Leaks had been discovered from time to time, small tricklings
and droppings of earth, which brought Cavanaugh and Henderson to
the spot and caused the greatest tension until they had been done
away with. The air had a tendency to bore holes upward through the
mud. But these were invariably stanched with clay, or, if growing
serious, bags of shavings or waste, the air pressure blowing outward
from below being sufficient to hold these in place, provided the
breach was not too wide. Even when “all hands” were working
directly under a segment wide enough for a ring of plates, one man
was told off to “kape an eye on it.”
On the evening in question, however, after twenty-eight men,
including Cavanaugh and McGlathery, had entered at six and
worked until midnight, pushing the work as vigorously as usual,
seven of the men (they were told off in lots of seven to do this) were
allowed to go up to the mouth of the tunnel to a nearby all-night
saloon for a drink and a bite of food. A half hour to each lot was
allowed, when another group would depart. There was always a
disturbing transition period every half hour between twelve and two,
during which one group was going and another coming, which
resulted at times in a dangerous indifference which Cavanaugh had
come to expect at just about this time and in consequence he was
usually watching for it.
On the other hand, John Dowd, ditcher, told off to keep an eye on
the breach at this time, was replaced on this particular night by
Patrick Murtha, fresh from the corner saloon, a glass of beer and the
free lunch counter still in his mind. He was supposed to watch
closely, but having had four glasses in rapid succession and
meditating on their excellence as well as that of the hot frankfurters,
the while he was jesting with the men who were making ready to
leave, he forgot about it. What now—was a man always to keep his
eye on the blanked thing! What was going to happen anyway? What
could happen? Nothing, of course. What had ever happened in the
last eight months?
“Sssst!”
 What was that? A sound like the blowing off of steam. All at once
Cavanaugh, who was just outside the pilot tunnel indicating to
McGlathery and another just where certain braces were to be put, in
order that the pilot tunnel might be pushed forward a few inches for
the purpose of inserting a new ring of plates, heard it. At a bound he
was back through the pilot hub, his face aflame with fear and rage.
Who had neglected the narrow breach?
“Come now! What the hell is this?” he was about to exclaim, but
seeing a wide breach suddenly open and water pour down in a swift
volume, his spirit sank and fear overcame him.
“Back, men! Stop the leak!”
It was the cry of a frightened and yet courageous man at bay.
There was not only fear, but disappointment, in it. He had certainly
hoped to obviate anything like this this time. But where a moment
before had been a hole that might have been stopped with a bag of
sawdust (and Patrick Murtha was there attempting to do it) was now
a rapidly widening gap through which was pouring a small niagara of
foul river water, ooze and slime. As Cavanaugh reached it and
seized a bag to stay it, another mass of muddy earth fell, striking
both him and Murtha, and half blinding them both. Murtha scrambled
away for his life. McGlathery, who had been out in the front of the
fatal tunnel with others, now came staggering back horribly
frightened, scarcely knowing what to do.
“Quick, Dennis! Into the lock!” Cavanaugh called to him, while he
himself held his ground. “Hurry!” and realizing the hopelessness of it
and his own danger, Dennis thought to run past, but was stopped by
the downpour of water and mud.
“Quick! Quick! Into the lock! For Christ’s sake, can’t ye see what’s
happenin’? Through with ye!”
McGlathery, hesitating by his chief’s side, fearful to move lest he
be killed, uncertain this time whether to leave his chief or not, was
seized by Cavanaugh and literally thrown through, as were others
after him, the blinding ooze and water choking them, but placing
them within range of safety. When the last man was through
Cavanaugh himself plunged after, wading knee-deep in mud and
water.
“Quick! Quick! Into the lock!” he called, and then seeing
McGlathery, who was now near it but waiting for him, added, “In, in!”
There was a mad scramble about the door, floating timbers and bags
interfering with many, and then, just as it seemed as if all would
reach safety, an iron roof plate overhead, loosened by the breaking
of plates beyond, gave way, felling one man in the half-open
doorway of the lock and blocking and pinning it in such a way that it
could be neither opened nor closed. Cavanaugh and others who
came up after were shut out. McGlathery, who had just entered and
saw it, could do nothing. But in this emergency, and unlike his
previous attitude, he and several others on the inside seized upon
the dead man and tried to draw him in, at the same time calling to
Cavanaugh to know what to do. The latter, dumbfounded, was
helpless. He saw very clearly and sadly that very little if anything
could be done. The plate across the dead man was too heavy, and
besides, the ooze was already pouring over him into the lock. At the
same time the men in the lock, conscious that although they were
partially on the road to safety they were still in danger of losing their
lives, were frantic with fear.
Actually there were animal roars of terror. At the same time
McGlathery, once more realizing that his Nemesis, water, had
overtaken him and was likely to slay him at last, was completely
paralyzed with fear. St. Columba had promised him, to be sure, but
was not this that same vision that he had had in his dreams, that
awful sense of encroaching ooze and mud? Was he not now to die
this way, after all? Was not his patron saint truly deserting him? It
certainly appeared so.
“Holy Mary! Holy St. Columba!” he began to pray, “what shall I do
now? Mother of God! Our Father, who art in Heaven! Bejasus, it’s a
tight place I’m in now! I’ll never get out of this! Tower of Ivory! House
of Gold! Can’t we git him in, boys? Ark of the Covenant! Gate of
Heaven!”
 As he gibbered and chattered, the others screaming about him,
some pulling at the dead man, others pulling at the other door, the
still eye of Cavanaugh outside the lock waist-deep in mud and water
was surveying it all.
“Listen to me, men!” came his voice in rich, heavy, guttural tones.
“You, McGlathery! Dennis!! Arr ye all crazy! Take aaf yer clothes and
stop up the doorway! It’s yer only chance! Aaf with yer clothes, quick!
And those planks there—stand them up! Never mind us. Save
yerselves first. Maybe ye can do something for us afterwards.”
As he argued, if only the gap in the door could be closed and the
compressed air pushing from the tunnel outward toward the river
allowed to fill the chamber, it would be possible to open the other
door which gave into the next section shoreward, and so they could
all run to safety.
His voice, commanding, never quavering, even in the face of
death, subsided. About and behind him were a dozen men huddled
like sheep, waist-deep in mud and water, praying and crying. They
had got as close to him as might be, still trying to draw upon the
sustaining force of his courage, but moaning and praying just the
same and looking at the lock.
“Yis! Yis!” exclaimed McGlathery of a sudden, awakening at last to
a sense of duty and that something better in conduct and thought
which he had repeatedly promised himself and his saint that he
would achieve. He had been forgetting. But now it seemed to him
once more that he had been guilty of that same great wrong to his
foreman which had marked his attitude on the previous occasion—
that is, he had not helped him or any one but himself. He was a
horrible coward. But what could he do? he asked himself. What
could he do? Tearing off his coat and vest and shirt as commanded,
he began pushing them into the opening, calling to the others to do
the same. In a twinkling, bundles were made of all as well as of the
sticks and beams afloat in the lock, and with these the gap in the
door was stuffed, sufficiently to prevent the air from escaping, but
shutting out the foreman and his men completely.
 “It’s awful. I don’t like to do it,” McGlathery kept crying to his
foreman but the latter was not so easily shaken.
“It’s all right, boys,” he kept saying. “Have ye no courage at aal?”
And then to the others outside with him, “Can’t ye stand still and
wait? They may be comin’ back in time. Kape still. Say yer prayers if
ye know any, and don’t be afraid.”
But, although the air pressing outward toward Cavanaugh held the
bundles in place, still this was not sufficient to keep all the air in or all
the water out. It poured about the dead man and between the chinks,
rising inside to their waists also. Once more it threatened their lives
and now their one hope was to pull open the shoreward door and so
release themselves into the chamber beyond, but this was not to be
done unless the escaping air was completely blocked or some other
method devised.
Cavanaugh, on the outside, his whole mind still riveted on the men
whom he was thus aiding to escape, was the only one who realized
what was to be done. In the panel of the door which confronted him,
and the other, which they were trying to break open, were thick glass
plates, or what were known as bull’s eyes, through which one could
see, and it was through the one at his end that Cavanaugh was
peering. When it became apparent to him that the men were not
going to be able to open the farthest door, a new thought occurred to
him. Then it was that his voice was heard above the tumult,
shouting:
“Break open the outside bull’s eye! Listen to me, Dennis! Listen to
me! Break open the outside bull’s eye!”
Why did he call to Dennis, the latter often asked himself
afterwards. And why did Dennis hear him so clearly? Through a
bedlam of cries within, he heard, but also realized that if he or they
knocked out the bull’s eye in the other door, and the air escaped
through it inward, the chances of their opening it would be improved,
but the life of Cavanaugh and his helpless companions would
certainly be destroyed. The water would rush inward from the river,
filling up this chamber and the space in which stood Cavanaugh.
Should he? So he hesitated.
 “Knock it out!” came the muffled voice of his foreman from within
where he was eyeing him calmly. “Knock it out, Dennis! It’s yer only
chance! Knock it out!” And then, for the first time in all the years he
had been working for him, McGlathery heard the voice of his
superior waver slightly: “If ye’re saved,” it said, “try and do what ye
can fer the rest av us.”
In that moment McGlathery was reborn spiritually. Although he
could have wept, something broke in him—fear. He was not afraid
now for himself. He ceased to tremble, almost to hurry and awoke to
a new idea, one of undying, unfaltering courage. What! There was
Cavanaugh outside there, unafraid, and here was he, Dennis
McGlathery, scrambling about like a hare for his life! He wanted to go
back, to do something, but what could he? It was useless. Instead,
he assumed partial command in here. The spirit of Cavanaugh
seemed to come over to him and possess him. He looked about,
saw a great stave, and seized it.
“Here, men!” he called with an air of command. “Help knock it out!”
and with a will born of terror and death a dozen brawny hands were
laid on it. With a mighty burst of energy they assaulted the thick plate
and burst it through. Air rushed in, and at the same time the door
gave way before them, causing them to be swept outward by the
accumulated water like straws. Then, scrambling to their feet, they
tumbled into the next lock, closing the door behind them. Once in,
they heaved a tremendous sigh of relief, for here they were safe
enough—for the time being anyhow. McGlathery, the new spirit of
Cavanaugh in him, even turned and looked back through the bull’s
eye into the chamber they had just left. Even as they waited for the
pressure here to lower sufficiently to permit them to open the inner
door he saw this last chamber they had left his foreman and a dozen
fellow workers buried beyond. But what could he do? Only God, only
St. Columba, could tell him, perhaps, and St. Columba had saved
him—or had he?—him and fifteen other men, the while he had
chosen to allow Cavanaugh and twelve men to perish! Had St.
Columba done that—or God—or who?
“’Tis the will av God,” he murmured humbly—but why had God
done that?
 But somehow, the river was not done with him yet, and that,
seemingly, in spite of himself. Although he prayed constantly for the
repose of the soul of Thomas Cavanaugh and his men, and avoided
the water, until five years later, still there was a sequel. By now
McGlathery was the father of eight children and as poor as any
average laborer. With the death of Cavanaugh and this accident, as
has been said, he had forsworn the sea—or water—and all its works.
Ordinary house shoring and timbering were good enough for him,
only—only—it was so hard to get enough of this at good pay. He was
never faring as well as he should. And then one day when he was
about as hard up as ever and as earnest, from somewhere was
wafted a new scheme in connection with this same old tunnel.
A celebrated engineer of another country—England, no less—had
appeared on the scene with a new device, according to the papers.
Greathead was his name, and he had invented what was known as
“The Greathead Shield,” which finally, with a few changes and
adaptations, was to rid tunnel work of all its dangers. McGlathery,
sitting outside the door of his cottage overlooking Bergen Bay, read it
all in the Evening Clarion, and wondered whether it could be true. He
did not understand very much about this new shield idea even now,
but even so, and in spite of himself, some of the old zest for
tunneling came back to him. What times he had had, to be sure!
What a life it had been, if a dog’s one—and Cavanaugh—what a
foreman! And his body was still down there entombed—erect, no
doubt, as he was left. He wondered. It would be only fair to dig him
out and honor his memory with a decent grave if it could be done.
His wife and children were still living in Flatbush. It stirred up all the
memories, old fears, old enthusiasms, but no particular desire to
return. Still, here he was now, a man with a wife and eight children,
earning three a day, or less—mostly less—whereas tunneling paid
seven and eight to such as himself, and he kept thinking that if this
should start up again and men were advertised for, why shouldn’t he
go? His life had been almost miraculously saved these two times—
but would it be again?—that was the great question. Almost
unceasingly he referred the matter to his saint on Sundays in his
church, but receiving no definite advice as yet and there being no
work doing on the tunnel, he did nothing.
But then one day the following spring the papers were full of the
fact that work would soon actually be resumed, and shortly
thereafter, to his utter amazement, McGlathery received a note from
that same Mr. Henderson under whom Cavanaugh had worked,
asking him to call and see him. Feeling sure that it was the river that
was calling him, he went over to St. Columba’s and prayed before
his saint, putting a dollar in his Orphans’ box and a candle on his
shrine, and then arising greatly refreshed and reassured, and after
consulting with his wife, journeyed over to the river, where he found
the old supervisor as before in a shed outside, considering one
important matter and another.
What he wanted to know was this—did McGlathery want to take
an assistant-foremanship under a new foreman who was going to be
in charge of the day work here, one Michael Laverty by name, an
excellent man, at seven dollars a day, seeing that he had worked
here before and understood the difficulties, etc.? McGlathery stared
in amazement. He an assistant-foreman in charge of timbering! And
at seven dollars a day! He!
Mr. Henderson neglected to say that because there had been so
much trouble with the tunnel and the difficulties so widely advertised,
it was rather difficult to get just the right sort of men at first, although
McGlathery was good enough any time. But the new shield made
everything safe, he said. There could be no calamity this time. The
work would be pushed right through. Mr. Henderson even went so
far as to explain the new shield to him, its excellent points.
But McGlathery, listening, was dubious, and yet he was not
thinking of the shield exactly now, nor of the extra pay he would
receive, although that played a big enough part in his calculations,
but of one Thomas Cavanaugh, mason foreman, and his twelve
men, buried down below there in the ooze, and how he had left him,
and how it would only be fair to take his bones out, his and the
others’, if they could be found, and give them a decent Christian
burial. For by now he was a better Catholic than ever, and he owed
that much to Cavanaugh, for certainly Cavanaugh had been very
good to him—and anyhow, had not St. Columba protected him so
far? And might he not in the future, seeing the position he was in?
Wasn’t this a call, really? He felt that it was.
Just the same, he was nervous and troubled, and went home and
consulted with his wife again, and thought of the river and went over
and prayed in front of the shrine of St. Columba. Then, once more
spiritualized and strengthened, he returned and told Mr. Henderson
that he would come back. Yes, he would come.
He felt actually free of fear, as though he had a mission, and the
next day began by assisting Michael Laverty to get out the solid
mass of earth which filled the tunnel from the second lock outward. It
was slow work, well into the middle of the summer before the old or
completed portion was cleared and the bones of Cavanaugh and his
men reached. That was a great if solemn occasion—the finding of
Cavanaugh and his men. They could recognize him by his big boots,
his revolver, his watch, and a bunch of keys, all in position near his
bones. These same bones and boots were then reverently lifted and
transferred to a cemetery in Brooklyn, McGlathery and a dozen
workers accompanying them, after which everything went smoothly.
The new shield worked like a charm. It made eight feet a day in soft
mud, and although McGlathery, despite his revived courage, was
intensely suspicious of the river, he was really no longer afraid of it in
the old way. Something kept telling him that from now on he would
be all right—not to fear. The river could never hurt him any more,
really.
But just the same, a few months later—eight, to be exact—the
river did take one last slap at him, but not so fatally as might have
appeared on the surface, although in a very peculiar way, and
whether with or without St. Columba’s aid or consent, he never could
make out. The circumstances were so very odd. This new cutting
shield, as it turned out, was a cylinder thirteen feet long, twenty feet
in diameter, and with a hardened steel cutting edge out on front, an
apron, fifteen inches in length and three inches thick at the cutting
edge. Behind this came what was known as an “outside diaphragm,”
which had several openings to let in the mud displaced by the
shield’s advance.
Back of these openings were chambers four feet in length, one
chamber for each opening, through which the mud was passed.
These chambers in turn had hinged doors, which regulated the
quantity of mud admitted, and were water tight and easily closed. It
was all very shipshape.
Behind these little chambers, again, were many steel jacks, fifteen
to thirty, according to the size of the shield, driven by an air pressure
of five thousand pounds to the square inch, which were used to push
the shield forward. Back of them came what was known as the tail
end of the shield, which reached back into the completed tunnel and
was designed to protect the men who were at work putting in the
new plates (at that danger point which had killed Cavanaugh)
whenever the shield had been driven sufficiently forward to permit of
a new ring of them.
The only danger involved in this part of the work lay in the fact that
between this lining and the tail end of the shield was always a space
of an inch to an inch and a half which was left unprotected. This
small opening would, under ordinary circumstances, be insignificant,
but in some instances where the mud covering at the top was very
soft and not very thick, there was danger of the compressed air from
within, pushing at the rate of several thousand pounds to the square
inch, blowing it away and leaving the aperture open to the direct
action of the water above. This was not anticipated, of course, not
even thought of. The shield was going rapidly forward and it was
predicted by Henderson and Laverty at intervals that the tunnel
would surely go through within the year.
Some time the following winter, however, when the shield was
doing such excellent work, it encountered a rock which turned its
cutting edge and, in addition, necessitated the drilling out of the rock
in front. A bulkhead had to be built, once sufficient stone had been
cut away, to permit the repairing of the edge. This took exactly fifteen
days. In the meantime, at the back of the shield, at the little crevice
described, compressed air, two thousand pounds to the square inch,
was pushing away at the mud outside, gradually hollowing out a cup-
like depression eighty-five feet long (Mr. Henderson had soundings
taken afterwards), which extended backward along the top of the
completed tunnel toward the shore. There was then nothing but
water overhead.
It was at this time that the engineers, listening to the river, which,
raked by the outpouring of air from below, was rolling gravel and
stones above the tunnel top and pounding on it like a drum, learned
that such was the case. It was easy enough to fix it temporarily by
stuffing the crevice with bags, but one of these days when the shield
was repaired it would have to be moved forward to permit the
insertion of a new ring of plates, and then, what?
At once McGlathery scented trouble. It was the wretched river
again (water), up to its old tricks with him. He was seriously
disturbed, and went to pray before St. Columba, but incidentally,
when he was on duty, he hovered about this particular opening like a
wasp. He wanted to know what was doing there every three minutes
in the day, and he talked to the night foreman about it, as well as
Laverty and Mr. Henderson. Mr. Henderson, at Laverty’s and
McGlathery’s request, came down and surveyed it and meditated
upon it.
“When the time comes to move the shield,” he said, “you’ll just
have to keep plenty of bags stuffed around that opening,
everywhere, except where the men are putting in the plates. We’ll
have extra air pressure that day, all we can stand, and I think that’ll
fix everything all right. Have plenty of men here to keep those bags
in position, but don’t let ’em know there’s anything wrong, and we’ll
be all right. Let me know when you’re ready to start, and I’ll come
down.”
When the shield was eventually repaired and the order given to
drive it just twenty-five inches ahead in order to permit the insertion
of a new ring of plates, Mr. Henderson was there, as well as Laverty
and McGlathery. Indeed, McGlathery was in charge of the men who
were to stuff the bags and keep out the water. If you have ever seen
a medium-sized red-headed Irishman when he is excited and
determined, you have a good picture of McGlathery. He was
seemingly in fifteen places at once, commanding, exhorting,
persuading, rarely ever soothing—and worried. Yes, he was worried,
in spite of St. Columba.
The shield started. The extra air pressure was put on, the water
began to pour through the crevice, and then the bags were put in
place and stopped most of it, only where the ironworkers were
riveting on the plates it poured, poured so heavily at times that the
workers became frightened.
“Come now! What’s the matter wid ye! What arr ye standin’ there
fer? What arr ye afraid av? Give me that bag! Up with it! That’s the
idea! Do ye think ye’re goin’ to be runnin’ away now?”
It was McGlathery’s voice, if you please, commanding!—
McGlathery, after his two previous experiences! Yet in his vitals he
was really afraid of the river at this very moment.
What was it that happened? For weeks after, he himself, writhing
with “bends” in a hospital, was unable to get it straight. For four of
the bags of sawdust burst and blew through, he remembered that—it
was a mistake to have sawdust bags at all. And then (he
remembered that well enough), in stuffing others in, they found that
they were a bag short, and until something was secured to put in its
place, for the water was streaming in like a waterfall and causing a
flood about their ankles, he, McGlathery, defiant to the core, not to
be outdone by the river this time, commanded the great thing to be
done.
“Here!” he shouted, “the three av ye,” to three gaping men near at
hand, “up with me! Put me there! I’m as good as a bag of sawdust
any day. Up with me!”
Astonished, admiring, heartened, the three of them jumped
forward and lifted him. Against the small breach, through which the
water was pouring, they held him, while others ran off for more bags.
Henderson and Laverty and the ironworkers, amazed and amused
and made braver themselves because of this very thing—filled with
admiration, indeed, by the sheer resourcefulness of it, stood by to
help. But then, if you will believe it, while they were holding him
there, and because now there was nothing but water above it, one
end of the shield itself—yes, that great iron invention—was lifted by
the tremendous air pressure below—eleven or thirteen or fourteen
inches, whatever space you can imagine a medium sized man being
forced through—and out he went, McGlathery, and all the bags, up
into the river above, the while the water poured down, and the men
fled for their lives.
A terrific moment, as you can well imagine, not long in duration,
but just long enough to swallow up McGlathery, and then the shield,
having responded at first to too much air pressure, now responding
to too little (the air pressure having been lessened by the escape),
shut down like a safety valve, shutting off most of the water and
leaving the tunnel as it was before.
But McGlathery!
Yes, what of him?
Reader—a miracle!
A passing tug captain, steaming down the Hudson at three one
bright December afternoon was suddenly astonished to see a small
geyser of water lift its head some thirty feet from his boat, and at the
top of it, as it were lying on it, a black object which at first he took to
be a bag or a log. Later he made it out well enough, for it plunged
and bellowed.
“Fer the love av God! Will no one take me out av this? Git me out
av this! Oh! Oh! Oh!”
It was McGlathery right enough, alive and howling lustily and no
worse for his blow-out save that he was suffering from a fair case of
the “bends” and suffering mightily. He was able to scream, though,
and was trying to swim. That old haunting sensation!—he had had it
this time, sure enough. For some thirty or forty seconds or more he
had been eddied swiftly along the top of the tunnel at the bottom of
the river, and then coming to where the air richocheted upward had
been hustled upward like a cork and literally blown through the air at
the top of the great volume of water, out into space. The sudden shift
from two thousand pounds of air pressure to none at all, or nearly
none, had brought him down again, and in addition induced the
severe case of “bends” from which he was now suffering. But St.
Columba had not forgotten him entirely. Although he was suffering
horribly, and was convinced that he was a dead man, still the good
saint must have placed the tug conveniently near, and into this he
was now speedily lifted.
“Well, of all things!” exclaimed Captain Hiram Knox, seeing him
thoroughly alive, if not well, and eyeing him in astonishment. “Where
do you come from?”
“Oh! Oh! Oh!” bawled McGlathery. “Me arms! Me ribs! Oh! Oh! Oh!
The tunnel! The tunnel below, av course! Quick! Quick! It’s dyin’ av
the bends I am! Git me to a hospital, quick!”
The captain, truly moved and frightened by his groans, did as
requested. He made for the nearest dock. It took him but a few
moments to call an ambulance, and but a few more before
McGlathery was carried into the nearest hospital.
The house physician, having seen a case of this same disease
two years before, and having meditated on it, had decided that the
hair of the dog must be good for the bite. In consequence of this
McGlathery was once more speedily carted off to one of the locks of
this very tunnel, to the amazement of all who had known of him (his
disappearance having aroused general excitement), and he was
stared at as one who had risen from the grave. But, what was better
yet, under the pressure of two thousand pounds now applied he
recovered himself sufficiently to be host here and tell his story—
another trick of his guardian saint, no doubt—and one rather
flattering to his vanity, for he was now in no least danger of dying.
The whole city, if not the whole country, indeed, was astounded by
the accident, and he was a true nine days’ wonder, for the papers
were full of the strange adventure. And with large pictures of
McGlathery ascending heavenward, at the top of a geyser of water.
And long and intelligent explanations as to the way and the why of it
all.