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Gardens in Japan

Chapter · January 2014

DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-7747-7_9016

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  Author Prof. Dr. Ir. Wybe Kuitert

Graduate School of Environmental Studies,

Seoul National University, South Korea

Gardens in Japan
in: Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in
Non-Western Cultures · ISBN 978-94-007-3934-5 · Article ID: 78169 · Chapter ID: 9016

 Editor Helaine Selin

The Early Centuries

Before a clearly defined native garden art appears in Japan's history

somewhere in the eighth century, evidence is found of activities in the
field of landscape design. It is mainly through archeology that these early
centuries speak to us. At Jo‐no‐koshi (Mie prefecture) a set of rocks was
unearthed that stand upright in a rather naturalistic manner. This group
had been put up along three narrow well heads lined with shingles that
flow together to feed a small stream. The arrangement has been dated
between the end of the 4th and middle of the 5th century. The setting
vaguely resembles a manner of handling rocks and shingles seen in a few
gardens of the seventh and eighth centuries. One can only guess about
the meaning these arrangements would have had for the ones who made
it, or ordered it to be made (Nara National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, 2009).

1
Survey drawing of the excavated rocks and shingles at Jo-no-koshi (From: Nara National
Research Institute for Cultural Properties 2009, 15)

Skill in engineering in this early history can be seen in bold burial mounds
of advanced design, surrounded by moats. Some square ponds lined with
rocks were found, as were quite a few artistic works in carved stone made
to have some liquid flow (Asuka Shiryōkan 1986). These were probably
used for rituals involving rice wine or water for purification; similar
artifacts are known from the continent. A well‐known record, dated 612,
speaks of a man who came from Paekche, a Korean kingdom; he built a
garden arrangement and made a Chinese style bridge in the garden of the
emperor. His name was Michi‐no‐ko Takumi in the Japanese reading of
the Chinese characters of his name (Sakamoto, 1965). It underlines how
the early history of landscape design in Japan followed the models of the
continent. At the mid‐seventh century palace site of Fujiwara‐kyō,
remains of a winding garden pond have been found. At a slightly later site,
parts of an extensive pond garden were unearthed (Higashikage, 2013).
The pond had rather heavy embankments in piled‐up rock, an island and
a fountain‐like feature. Most likely it had been part of the seventh century
imperial Asuka palace of the emperor Tenmu (r. 673-686). Though only
partly excavated, and much smaller, this garden arrangement resembles
in all its details the seventh century pond garden Anap‐ji in Korea.

2
The Nara Period (710-784)

Nara was founded as an imperial city in 710 AD; it was planned after
Chinese geometrical schemes with streets running in a grid pattern. The
imperial palace held a central position in the northern part of the city. It is
known from scarce records that there were several gardens. None of
these remain, but two extensive gardens were discovered and redone
after detailed excavation and research.

Southeast of the main palace compound, a detached palace, Tō‐in, was

constructed in the early eighth century. The garden of Tō‐in, or the East
Palace Garden, is one of the gardens mentioned in contemporary records.
Extensive archeological surveying gave a wealth of added information.
The original pond bottom was paved with large flat stones. Like the Asuka
pond, the heavy embankment of the East Palace Garden follows a design
of simple curves, again similar to the Korean example. Interestingly, the
garden had been rebuilt later in the same century, after a covering of the
earlier design with soil. The second, younger pond was paved with much
smaller pebbles, and the embankment runs in softer, more expressive
curves. Rather than embankments, this second pond was contained with
shores or beaches covered with smaller stones, the shingles found on
Japan's seashore. Here and there at small peninsulas, rock groups
suggested weather‐beaten sea cliffs in miniature. A group of rather big
and craggy stones is set as a decoration in the shore opposite the remains
of a hall, traced from remains of foundation pillars. It is this second phase
of the East Palace Garden that shows a clear departure from the
continental style and the introduction of clearly native landscape motifs;
the typical shingle beaches and rocky promontories of Japan's natural sea
coast would continue to inspire garden designers for centuries to come.
The East Palace Garden has been reconstructed on top of the
archeological remains. Buildings, a bridge and planting were remade in a
hypothetical reconstruction of what could be guessed from what was
found in the soil. For redoing the garden, the second phase with its
supposedly more native expression was chosen as a point of departure
(Kuitert, 1991; Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties,
2009). It was opened to the public in 2004.

3
A second garden recovered from eighth century Nara is known as the
Palace Site Garden (Kyūseki teien), or after its address in the old city of
Nara, Sakyō sanjō nibo kyūseki teien. The site was probably a private
retreat of some courtly family or the emperor himself. It is in walking
distance from the East Palace Garden (Tō‐in). The most distinctive feature
of this garden is a double S‐curved, winding stream bed. The bottom of
this water feature was paved with fist‐sized stones in the old continental
manner, but decorative rock groups at protruding curves and beaches
covered with pebbles are completely in the native naturalistic manner.
Drawing from a natural river this winding stream has its water running
from north to south. It is generally accepted that the garden was used for
the so‐called winding‐stream banquet: guests were sitting along the
stream, writing poetry. A poem had to be finished before a cup of wine set
on a float would reach the poet. This festivity became famous after the
Chinese calligrapher Wang Xizhi (303-379) invited 41 men for a winding
stream banquet on the third day of the third month in 353. Poetry written
on the occasion was compiled in the Records of the Orchid Pavilion, a
Chinese literary classic, well known in eighth century Japan. The Palace
Site Garden will also have been used for similar winding stream banquets.
The rockwork excavated was in such perfect condition that it was decided
to reconstruct the garden with most of the original stones. Remains of
two sets of wooden boxes were found, set among the stones of the pond
bottom; these were probably planting boxes for irises. A banquet hall was
reconstructed departing from the remains of pillar foundations found. As
plant material for the Nara garden reconstructions the Chinese plum
(Prunus mume) and Japanese pine (Pinus thunbergii) are used among
other plants (Kuitert, 1991; Nara National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, 2009).

4
Banquet hall reconstructed at the eighth century rock arrangements of the winding
stream at the Palace Site Garden in Nara (photo by author 29 October 2010)

The Heian Period (794-1185)

In 794 the city of Heiankyō, now Kyoto, was founded as a new capital in
a plain surrounded on three sides by hills. The city would remain the most
prosperous cultural center for many centuries to come. The site for the
new city was well chosen and blessed with a lot of pure water and natural
springs, giving great advantage for the household and for garden building.
Indeed, natural ponds and streams were used in large palatial gardens. In
some cases dams were built to contain more spacious garden ponds. At
the back and in between the palace buildings sand was spread out in
small court gardens and a little stream ran among flowers, shrubs and
bamboo planted as decoration. The old glory is perceived in garden
remains in Kyoto such as the one at Shinsen‐en or at Saga‐in, a place now
known as the temple Daikaku‐ji. At other places, excavations again
revealed garden details. Rocks arranged to make a waterfall were found
in some sites. These are never high, as gardens were made in the plain.

5
The noblemen of the capital built their palaces in a peculiar architectural
style. After the name of the main hall, the shinden, it is called the
"shinden style," or shindenzukuri. Being planned together with the
buildings, the garden developed into a typical shindenzukuri garden style
as well. Of course, each garden was different, but some characteristics
can be defined. Seen from the main hall, white sand was spread in the
front part of the garden; beyond it, one found a large pond that could
have one or more islands. An arched and a level bridge connected islands
and shores. Along the edge of the pond one could find pebble beaches, or
standing rocks arranged to suggest a weather-beaten sea cliff. The
typical garden stream mostly ran from the northeastern corner through
the garden, often passing under the corridors connecting palace buildings,
then among some low garden mounds, before emptying into the pond,
usually in the southern half of the garden. Low hills at the back of the
garden provided a background on the southern side (Mori, 1945; Kuitert,
2002, 2007). Inner city estates had their gardens fenced in, but fences
were low always allowing for views to the hills surrounding the city on the
east, north, and west (Motonaka, 1994).

But times were changing and the twelfth century found the nobles in an
unstable political situation. To counter the increasingly pessimistic
worldview that prevailed, they built themselves large temples, with
gardens referred to as paradise style, or Pure Land (Jōdō) gardens (Mori,
1980b). Such gardens meant to reconstruct the Buddhist paradise of
Amida in this world and have a temple hall with an image of Amida as a
central element. Yorimichi Fujiwara in Uji, for instance, reconstructed his
palace and modeled it as a temple named Byōdō-in, set in a large
landscape site. Without any fence or bordering structures the temple
buildings were scattered over the area, one pavilion jutting out over the
Uji River. The still extant Amida-dō Hall, now known as the Phoenix Hall is
shown on the Japanese 10 yen coin. After an archaeologic survey,
medieval repairs were removed and the original pebbled beach in front of
the Hall was repaired in recent years. The shallow slope of this beach
indicates how buildings were placed sensitively within the wider river
plain landscape, without any forceful, large-scale engineering.

6
The shallow pebble beach suggests a river gravel bar on which the Phoenix Hall of
Byōdō-in was built (photo by author 24 August 2011)

These early centuries of landscape design in Japan take the continuity of

natural landscape as a fundamental quality of garden beauty. This is
typical of court noble gardens of palaces, and of the temples in the
paradise style. Other still extant gardens of the paradise style are in
Hiraizumi, Iwate Prefecture, or the Shiramizu-Amida-dō in Fukushima
Prefecture, and Enjō-ji and Jōruri-ji close to Nara. Many elements of the
palace style remained to be used in these temple gardens as well; ponds
and islands are typical. The garden stream of the temple Mōtsu-ji in
Hiraizumi is extensive and resembles garden streams as represented in
paintings of the period. Around this time a nobleman wrote a
well-developed manual on garden theory - the eleventh century Sakuteiki
(Hayashiya, 1973; Hisatsune, 1979; Mori, 1986; Tanaka, 1990; Vieillard,
1997; Kuitert, 1998; Takei, 1995, 2001). It set the tradition for centuries
to come. The manual stresses the workings of a poetic understanding of
nature that is basic to garden making as it attaches importance to a
thorough understanding of the topography of the site. Nameless workers,
supervised by noblemen, built gardens in this period; a class of gardening
priests soon followed (Kuitert, 2002).

7
The Kamakura Period (1185-1334)

Although a shogun's government of military men was set up in Kamakura,

the center of culture remained Heiankyō (modern Kyoto), and all through
the Kamakura Period garden art remained under strong influence from
the earlier style. Temple gardens built by order of military men followed
the pattern of the Paradise style. For instance, Yorimasa Minamoto, after
suppressing Hiraizumi in 1189 where he had seen its Paradise temples,
was greatly impressed by their magnificence. He started building
Yofuku‐ji in Kamakura in the same year and in 1192 the ceremonial
services for inaugurating the new buildings were performed. At present
on the designated historic site the remnants of this garden can be seen
(Fukuda, 2011).

Residential gardens of the military class did not escape the influences
from the palaces of grander men, but the scale was smaller, and as the
meaning as a space for ceremony was also less apparent, more attention
was paid to practical use. Also, with a garden space becoming smaller, it
became rather a place to look at and enjoy by admiring than a place to
enter. Gardens therefore were rather a visual thing in their perceptions,
and were meant to entertain or impress visitors and guests. Starting from
the thirteenth century, garden culture came to receive Chinese influence
again, this time through visiting priests. High‐ranking priests of the
Chinese Song dynasty, like Rankei Dōryū (1213-1278) or Issan Ichinei
(1244-1317), given with the Japanese pronunciation of their names,
were influential cultural leaders of Japan. Many landscape paintings of the
Song and Yuan dynasties were imported as gifts and brought a new vision
of an imaginary landscape. The Chinese vision of landscape is still
profoundly felt in the artistic composition of rocks arranged for garden
waterfalls. For example at Tenryū‐ji and the Golden Pavilion these rock
arrangements probably date to this early period when Chinese priests
were around, and the artistic expression of a steep gorge-like valley
might very well have been brought in by them (Kuitert, 2002).

8
Rocks are arranged to suggest a Chinese style landscape painting in Tenryū-ji (From:
Kuitert, 2002, 78)

The Muromachi Period (1334-1573)

The new ruling class of military men finally replaced the cultural
supremacy of noblemen in Kyoto. Their general, the shogun, would gain
control over most parts of the country.

The influence of Chinese culture on garden art was now backed up with a
growing trade with China on an unprecedented scale, making a taste for
Chinese goods the great fashion. Shogun Yoshimitsu and his palace - of
which at present only the Golden Pavilion remains - naturally formed the

9
center of this Chinese fashion. His court was affected by the Chinese
mood as can be recognized in the architecture of the Pavilion. The garden
is most functional through the pond at which the Pavilion sits. What
makes it different from earlier ponds is that there is a large number of
small islands that with their pine trees and rocks are reminiscent of the
islets off the coast of Japan. This engineering made for a peculiar view
from the Pavilion where important rocks on the islands are in full view;
these were once owned by regional leaders now loyal to Yoshimitsu but
had been donated or confiscated for the garden.

The pond in front of the Golden Pavilion is dotted with islands decorated with
conspicuous rocks (photo by author 10 December 2009).

The Chinese influence in the fourteenth and fifteenth century shows in the
adding of a great variety of pavilions, bridges, roofed corridors, and two‐
or three‐storied buildings to the spacious pond gardens of earlier times.
In gardens like at the Golden Pavilion, or Saihō-ji in Kyoto, most, if not all
buildings have disappeared. But the temple Eihō‐ji in Tajimi
(Gifu‐prefecture) founded at the end of the Kamakura period, is a typical
example where many structures still remain. The garden takes full profit
from the dramatic topography of a sharp bend in a natural valley. A small
gazebo sits on a sharp, craggy outcrop. Though much smaller in scale, it
echoes the continental Daoist love of dramatic rocky landscapes. Garden

10
architecture from these days is adorned with Chinese literary titles, that
rely on classic literature. Later, in the days of shogun Yoshimasa around
1500, the fashionable and gorgeous Chinese taste came to an end.
Growing power and influence of priests and townspeople mingling with
the military rulers led to a vision where much importance was attached to
sociable meetings and manners. As guests were to be received and
entertained, now also by the less wealthy, smaller gardens with a more
subdued and intellectual expression came up. It led to a new scenic
garden style, at present referred to as "dry landscape" (karesansui).
However, in those days it was called kazan, or kasenzui, meaning
"imaginary landscape" (Toyama, 1934; Kuitert, 2002). The style strives
for an abstraction of landscape by careful placing of rocks. In miniature
these can be realistic and suggestive of mountains and waterfalls, while
soil left bare expressed water. Sometimes this was strewn with
decorative sand. The coarse, white gravel seen today is mostly a later
addition. The dry landscape garden is simple in execution and cheap,
making it popular for adorning the main hall of small family temples,
which as a consequence also led to an increasing need for intellectualism
and stories attached to it. This allowed for quite abstract placing of just a
few rocks that still would be called an imaginary landscape. The textbook
examples of the style are now Daisen‐in in the Daitoku‐ji monastery
(Kuitert, 2013) and the garden in front of the main hall of the temple
Ryōan‐ji, although the latter garden was rebuilt in the late eighteenth
century.

11
The imaginary landscape is seen from the room as if it is a Chinese landscape painting
(From: Sekiguchi, 1991, 50)

Among the so‐called "riverside people" (kawaramono) living at the very

bottom of the social ladder, skilled gardeners called "landscaping
riverside people" (senzui‐kawaramono) became a group of professional
gardeners. They become known by name in the records at the end of the
Muromachi period (Kuitert, 2002). Gardeners living in and around the
temple Ninna‐ji have left us a detailed hand‐written manual on gardening
technique (Sansui narabini yakeizu) dating from the 1460s (Egami, 1966,
1967; Slawson 1987).

12
The Momoyama Period (1573-1603)

The Momoyama period is a period of transition and sudden wealth after

the country's unification. Gardens at the expansive mansions of the
powerful military leaders were in gorgeous splendor, often employing the
ostentatious sago palm tree that was the great fashion of the day. One
may visit the garden at the large Reading Hall of the Nishi‐Hongan‐ji
temple in Kyoto, a garden said to have been moved from shogun
Hideyoshi's castle at Fushimi to its present site. Another example is the
sumptuous garden at Sambō‐in of the monastery Daigō‐ji, commissioned
by the same shogun. It is in fact a lavish display of expensive garden
rocks, some of which came from gardens of vassals expected to be loyal
to him. This garden even features a section modelled after the courtly
shindenzukuri style to appease visitors from the court (Imae, 2007).

Quite the opposite was the emergence of a taste for the subdued that
came up among the townspeople. They developed what can be called a
romantic vision of landscape, in which simple grass‐thatched huts took a
central position. Their huts were set in a small garden and used for social
meetings with music, theater, or sharing a cup of tea. In these gardens
one could find simple stepping‐stones, a basin to wash the hands and
some rustic stone lanterns. In later history these were classified as tea
gardens and became subject to all kind of prescribed rules fitting with the
tea etiquette. Professional gardeners known by name appeared as
modern tradesmen (Kuitert, 2002).

13
Sketches from small gardens surrounding the huts where one shared a cup of tea, can
be found in diaries of the times, like this one from the sixteenth century Matsuya family
(From: Horiguchi, 1963, 160)

Gardens of the Edo Period (1603-1867)

Two and a half centuries of nationwide peace and stability characterize

the Edo period. Garden culture was polished and evolved to an extreme
level of contrivance and perfection. In the early Edo Period some fine
examples of garden art came about among wealthy members of the
imperial court, like the gardens at the detached imperial villas in Kyoto
(Mori, 1951, 1955ab, 1966; Itoh, 1981; Kuitert, 2002). In contrast with
the pond gardens of classical days, garden routes were now intentionally

14
laid out along the shores for the purpose of strolling, as seen in the
Katsura Detached Villa, showing scenic techniques taken straight from
the tea gardens of the townsmen, but on a much grander scale. A garden
path of stepping‐stones and designed pavements was aligned with tea
pavilions and tea huts, or other kinds of garden architecture. Garden
mounds, pebble beaches, bridges, stone lanterns, and washing basins
were installed to produce scenery that changed with almost every step.
This tendency to decorate the garden with numerous details became
typical of the later Edo Period garden developed by the daimyo, or
governors of the provinces.

These daimyo were obliged to live in Edo, currently Tokyo, for six months
every year. They had their official residences in the city; some were many
hectares large. The other half of the year they lived in their own home
province where they constructed their gardens in the same manner.
Daimyo challenged each other all over the country, and above all in Edo to
have the finest of all gardens; it meant that the cultural hegemony of
Kyoto gardening came to an end. Daimyo gardens first of all served for
receiving guests with banquets or to enjoy other garden pleasures, but
they also signified the birth of a new garden aesthetic. The scale was
large and evoked a concern for scenery, thus a more bucolic sense is seen
in miniature landscapes reproduced. Some gardens have mini Mount
Fuji's; others have small tea plantations or rice fields which helped in
times of economic scarcity. All over the country daimyo left us with many
good examples. In Tokyo, there are Kōrakuen, Rikugi‐en, Shiba‐Rikyū,
and Hama‐Rikyū. In Okayama one may visit Kōrakuen; Takamatsu has its
Ritsurin‐en, Hiroshima Shukkei‐en, Mitō Kairaku‐en, or Hikone the
Genkyū‐en garden (Shirahata, 1994, 1997; Kuitert, forthcoming).

In the course of time well-to-do citizens also came to possess a garden,

and gardening became more popular. Garden books were published and
widely read, spreading a stylized mannerism that classified "the" garden
in two styles each in three levels of elaboration. The thing to have was for
instance an "elaborate hillock style garden," or an "abbreviated flat
garden" as these were shown in the picture books (Hishikawa, 1680;
Kitamura, 1735; Akisato 1828). Gardeners became professional
specialists, organizing themselves in houses that would pass on the trade

15
for generations. Propagating and breeding of novel garden plants reached
a level matching the modern garden center or even above that when it
came to the varieties of ornamental plants (Ogisu, 1997; Hida, 2009;
Hirano, 2006; Kuitert, forthcoming). Many of the once prized garden
varieties of plants from the Edo period have now become extinct.

Visitors to a gardener's shop inspect the plants for sale (From: Ehon Edo Zakura 1803 in:
Kuitert, 1999, 58)

16
Gardens of the Later Nineteenth and
Twentieth Centuries
After the 1860s "the West" was brought to many facets and aspects of
Japan's society, but this did not readily reach the garden. Several
western‐style gardens were built in Tokyo, often with lawns, winding
paths, and a look‐out on a hill; an extant and successful example is
Shinjuku Gyōen. But in face of Japan's centuries‐old tradition these were
isolated experiments, at least in the beginning (Ozawa, 1890; Kuitert,
forthcoming).

Little by little though, new ideas began to inspire the top end of the
garden trade. Among some captains of industry or powerful politicians
the cramped world of the picture book garden was considered obsolete,
and a new taste was required, giving room for a more liberal naturalism.
Some of these men, like Aritomo Yamagata (1838-1922), had a taste for
gardening, not in the least because they moved their place of residence
often; in a lifetime they developed several estates with different
gardeners in different natural landscapes (Yagasaki, 1996). In the course
of the 1890s great progress was made in Kyoto at Murin‐an, a garden
commissioned by Yamagata and finished by gardener Jihei Ogawa
(1860-1933). The garden had meadows of wild flowers set among a
pastoral landscape of meandering streams, set before a background of
natural hills outside the garden. The meadows and trees and shrubs
reflected Japan's agricultural landscape around Tokyo with its coppice
woods. Murin‐an had many deciduous trees, rather than the eternal pine
trees, but also such novelties as fir (Abies) or Torreya nucifera. Lawns
became en vogue for staging garden parties.

17
Murin-an shows naturalism achieved with artificial water and mostly deciduous planting
(photo by author 17 October 2013)

The experience gained by gardener Ogawa at this job was put into wider
practice in many other and larger gardens in the region around the
temple Nanzen‐ji in Kyoto. These gardens quickly became famous; most
are still extant (Amasaki, 1990, 1992, 2007; Ono, 1987, 2000; Shirahata,
2008). The garden he designed at the Heian Shrine is typical of his work
and shows us how he interpreted tradition in a contemporary way. The
abundant use of flowers, notably Iris, is remarkable, and - as in all
gardens by Ogawa - water features are designed with much attention
paid to details. Besides Ogawa, we find many other able landscape
gardeners. Perhaps Jukki Iida (1890-1977) should be mentioned here, as
one of the men important in carrying the traditions over the Second World
War. Iida invented a naturalistic style that could be produced cheaply and
quickly, relying on a choice of plant material that would be called
18
ecological today. Like Ogawa the feeling for the naturalistic landscape is
central to his aesthetic of mixed deciduous trees (Ga-den raifu, 1977;
Ogata, 1997; Kuitert, forthcoming). In the mean time landscape tradition
had proved to be meaningful in developing urban parks (Maruyama,
1994). Tradition proved effective in large projects like the Meiji Shrine
Park and the urban planning of Tokiwadaira (Kuitert, forthcoming).

A garden artist negating this style was Mirei Shigemori (1898-1978). He

was like a producer, working with gardeners rather than being a gardener
himself. Therefore, as he was freer from tradition, he found a
contemporary new definition of the dry‐landscape style, employing
coarse white gravel and thick, dark green moss (Polytrichum). All over
Japan he left us many of his at the time avant‐garde gardens, some of
them with strong lines and forms expressed in concrete (Tschumi, 2007).
From an ecological point of view his gardens are less successful.

The enormous economic expansion of the later decades of the twentieth

century brought many commissions and big budgets. Landscaping
became a large‐scale operation of companies with nameless designers.
Experiments with expensive materials such as worked natural stone,
often set in concrete, mark this period. Although design was influenced by
American plaza design, the tradition remained meaningful. Ogawa's
discovery of the deciduous tree and the coppice wood became common in
parks, as well as in the private garden. Rock design remained strong, in
some cases adding the strong line of the cutter, as can be seen in the
Japanese Garden at the Expo site in Osaka.

19
References and Bibliography

This bibliography introduces sources in Japanese and some in Western

languages if they rely (more or less) on primary, Japanese sources.
Western sources on Japanese garden art have, throughout history,
always showed interpretations that should be understood in view of the
Western context. Some of these are included, as these are of historic
interest, having in turn influenced views on Japan's garden art by the
Japanese themselves. Some Western sources, as Condor 1893-1912,
contain interesting photos illustrating gardens and garden styles that
have now disappeared.

Any serious researcher should refer to the volumes of Zōen zasshi,

continued as Randosuke‐pu kenkyū, edited by the Nihon Zōen Gakkai
(Tokyo) to find updated research results. Nihon teien gakkaishi, edited by
the Nihon Teien Gakkai has often more detailed reports on individual
gardens. One may also check my bibliography in Themes in the History of
Japanese Garden Art, University of Hawai'i Press, 2002, or my Gardens
and Landscapes in Japan: 1650-1950 University of Pennsylvania Press
(forthcoming).

 Akisato, Ritō, Takehara Shunchōsai. Miyako meisho zue. Tamura

Kyūbei, Naniwa, 1787.
 ---. Miyako rinsen meisho zue. Ogawa Tazaemon, Ōsaka, 1799.
(reprint Dōhōsha Yanagihara Shoten, Kyoto, 1975).
 ---. Tsukiyama teizōden gohen. 1828.
 Amasaki, Hiromasa ed. Ueji no niwa - Ogawa Jihei no sekai. Kyōto,
Tankōsha, 1990.
 ‐‐‐. ed. Ishi to mizu no ishō - Ueji no zōengihō. Tankōsha, Kyōto,
1992.
 ---. ed. Tairyūsansō—Ueji to Shimatō no gi, Tankōsha, Kyoto,
2007.
 Amasaki, Hiromasa & Takei Jirō. Teienshi wo aruku. Shōwadō,
Kyōto, 1998.

20
 Amasaki Hiromasa & Nakamura Makoto. Fūkei wo tsukuru, gendai
no zōen to dentoteki nihon teien. Shōwadō, Tokyo, 2001.
 Asuka Shiryōkan (ed.). Asuka no sekizō butsu. Nara Kokuritsu
Bunkazai Kenkyūjo, 1986.
 Bring, Mitchell & Josse Wayembergh. Japanese Gardens: Design
and Meaning. McGraw‐Hill, New York, 1981.
 Condor, Josiah. Landscape Gardening in Japan, with supplement
with 60 views by Ogawa Kazumasa. Maruzen, Tokyo, 1893-1912.
 DuCane, Ella & Florence DuCane. The Flowers and Gardens of Japan.
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 Egami, Yasushi. Dōji kudensho tsuki sansui narabini yakeizu.
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