MEE 507: MECHANICS OF METAL FORMING 1 (2UNITS)

INTRODUCTION
The process of forming metal/alloy material into shapes and forms may be accomplished
through change of state or without change of state. Processing may be effected from liquid
phase to solid phase or within solid phase. The one of liquid phase to solid phase involves
(fuse) melting the “charge” material to get a molten alloy (liquid phase) and then allowing to
solidify (solid phase) in predetermined configuration. This predetermined configuration may
either be intermediate or final. If it is intermediate it is called the ingot process and if it is
final (end process) is referred to as cast product. The predetermined configuration is called
the ingot mould if it is to get ingot; and just mould if it is to get finish cast product. The ingot
mould is usually of a simple type of square cross section. The finish product mould may be
simple or complicated depending on the shape of materials required. This process that
involves transition from liquid phase to solid phase is called casting and the industry is
known as foundry or founding. The other process which does not involve change of state may
either be a hot working process or cold working process. While the first metal shaping
process is dependent on the ability of metal to flow into recess when molten, the second
process (Hot working and cold working) is dependent on the ability of metallic materials to
undergo plastic deformation under the application of load/pressure. Thus for the second
process the main criteria of choice is that the material must be sufficiently plastic. Hot
working process refers to those metal forming activities that takes place at or above the
recrystallisation temperature of the material. That is; as the material is being deformed there
is recrystallisation (development) of new stress free grains. This operation is usually carried
out when the metal is red-hot and thus less energy is consumed. Some example of the Hot
working processes are rolling, forging, extrusion. Cold working refers to those forming
operation that takes place below the recrystallisation temperature. In such operation the cold
worked material is strain hardened in the process and further processing is only possible after
stress relieve annealing. Some examples are cold rolling, wire drawing, deep drawing,
embossing, coining, stamping, shearing and bindery.
It must however be noted that the choice of a particular “solid state” forming process is
greatly influenced by the plasticity property of the material. That is, ductility malleability,
toughness, e.t.c. For materials that are malleable they can only be formed by processes
requiring compressive forces. E.g. rolling, forging. While ductile and malleable material can
be formed by processes requiring either compressive or tensile forces. Examples of tensile
force requiring forming operation are deep drawing and wire drawing. Thus, in summary, the
principal methods of shaping metals are casting, mechanical working (hot/cold working),
fabrication by joining and machining, and powder metallurgy. Fabrication by joining and
machining is often carried out on shaped articles produced either by casting on mechanical
working. Most shaping processes are indeed complementary; over wide fields, however, their
capabilities overlap allowing alternative decisions and providing a basis for competition with
respect to properties and cost.

DESIGN FOR CASTING

Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold,
which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The
solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mould to
complete the process. See below picture of casting design parts:

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What are types of casting?
We have different types of casting such as:
1. Hot forming processes, such as die casting,
2. Investment casting,
3. Plaster casting, and
4. Sand casting.

Each provides their own unique fabrication benefits. Comparing both the advantages and
disadvantages of the common types of casting processes can help in selecting the method
best-suited for a given production run.

Metal Casting
Molten metal is then poured into the mold, the mold holds this material in shape as it
solidifies. A metal casting is created. Although this seems rather simple, the manufacturing
process of metal casting is both a science and an art.

METAL CASTING
P O U R IN G B A S IN
R IS E R

F L A S K
C O P E
S P R U E

PA R T IN G
L IN E M O U L D
D R A G C A V IT Y

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What materials can be used for casting?
Metals: Metals and alloys such as bronze, brass, aluminum, silver, lead, and iron have been
widely used for casting. Metal casts can be made directly from certain heat resistant
silicone, metal, or sand molds.

HISTORY OF FORGING
Forging is one of the oldest known metalworking processes.[1] Traditionally, forging was
performed by a smith using hammer and anvil, though introducing water power to the
production and working of iron in the 12th century allowed the use of large trip hammers or
power hammers that increased the amount and size of iron that could be produced and forged.
The smithy or forge has evolved over centuries to become a facility with engineered
processes, production equipment, tooling, raw materials and products to meet the demands of
modern industry.
In modern times, industrial forging is done either with presses or with hammers powered by
compressed air, electricity, hydraulics or steam. These hammers may have reciprocating
weights in the thousands of pounds. Smaller power hammers, 500 lb (230 kg) or less
reciprocating weight, and hydraulic presses are common in art smithies as well. Some steam
hammers remain in use, but they became obsolete with the availability of the other, more
convenient, power sources.

DESIGN FOR FORGING

Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using
localized compressive forces. The blows are delivered with a hammer (often a power
hammer) or a die. Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is
performed: cold forging (a type of cold working), warm forging, or hot forging (a type of hot
working). For the latter two, the metal is heated, usually in a forge. Forged parts can range in
weight from less than a kilogram to hundreds of metric tons. [1][2] Forging has been done
by smiths for millennia; the traditional products were kitchenware, hardware, hand
tools, edged weapons, cymbals, and jewellery. Since the Industrial Revolution, forged parts
are widely used in mechanisms and machines wherever a component requires high strength;
such forgings usually require further processing (such as machining) to achieve a finished
part. Today, forging is a major worldwide industry.

The mating surfaces of the two halves of the die define a parting line around the edges of
the forging as they come together. Determining the position of the parting line is a critical
step in the forging design.

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What is draft angle in forging?
Draft angles, to permit removal of forging from dies should be about 7° for the vertical sides
on the outside perimeter and 10° on inside pockets and holes. This is the general rule but
much depends on the experience. Corner radii and fillets should be as large as the design will
permit.

Types of forging
Common forging processes include: roll forging, swaging, cogging, open-die forging,
impression-die forging, press forging, automatic hot forging and upsetting.

DESIGN FOR ROLLING

What is rolling
In metalworking, rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock is passed through
one or more pairs of rolls to reduce the thickness and to make the thickness uniform. The
concept is similar to the rolling of dough. Rolling is classified according to the temperature of
the metal rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature,
then the process is known as hot rolling. If the temperature of the metal is below its
recrystallization temperature, the process is known as cold rolling. In terms of usage, hot
rolling processes more tonnage than any other manufacturing process, and cold rolling
processes the most tonnage out of all cold working processes.[1][2] Roll stands holding pairs of
rolls are grouped together into rolling mills that can quickly process metal, typically steel,
into products such as structural steel (I-beams, angle stock, channel stock), bar stock,

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and rails. Most steel mills have rolling mill divisions that convert the semi-finished casting
products into finished products.

Types of rolling

Rolling can be classified into following ways.

HISTORY OF STAMPING
It is believed that the first coins were struck in what is modern-day Turkey in the seventh
century B.C. by the Lydians. Until 1550 the hammering method of coins remained the
primary method of coin-making when Marx Schwab developed a new process for stamping
in Germany that involved as many as 12 men turning a large wheel to press metal into coins.
Until the 1880s the stamping process remained mostly the same until the stamping process
was further innovated. 
Stamped parts were used for mass-produced bicycles in the 1880s. Stamping replaced die
forging and machining, resulting in greatly reduced cost. Although not as strong as die forged
parts, they were of good enough quality.
Stamped bicycle parts were being imported into the United States from Germany in 1890.
U.S. companies then started to have stamping machines custom built by U.S. machine tool
makers. Through research and development Western Wheel was able to stamp most bicycle
parts.
Several automobile manufacturers adopted stamped parts before Ford Motor
Company. Henry Ford resisted the recommendations of his engineers to use stamped parts,
but when the company could not satisfy the demand with die forged parts, Ford was forced to
use stampings.
Over the history of metal stamping, forging and deep drawing, presses of all types are the
backbone of metals manufacturing. The processes continue to evolve and improve in moving

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more metal in one stroke of a metal stamping press. Press and interconnected automation
devices increase production rates, reduce labor costs and provide higher safety levels for
factory workers. In today's metal stamping environment, controls such as I-PRESS with
Connected Enterprise are able to capture history, send reports or the I-PRESS & Automation
control can be viewed from remote or mobile devices. A new trend in gathering information
on today's production for historical data.

DESIGN FOR STAMPING

Stamping (also known as pressing) is the process of placing flat sheet metal in either blank
or coil form into a stamping press where a tool and die surface forms the metal into a net
shape. Stamping includes a variety of sheet-metal forming manufacturing processes, such
as punching using a machine press or stamping press, blanking, embossing, bending,
flanging, and coining.[1] This could be a single stage operation where every stroke of the press
produces the desired form on the sheet metal part, or could occur through a series of stages.
The process is usually carried out on sheet metal, but can also be used on other materials,
such as polystyrene. Progressive dies are commonly fed from a coil of steel, coil reel for
unwinding of coil to a straightener to level the coil and then into a feeder which advances the
material into the press and die at a predetermined feed length. Depending on part complexity,
the number of stations in the die can be determined.

Sheet Metal Stamping Forming Process

Hot Stamping Machine with

Silver Foil Paper

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OPERATION
 Bending - the material is deformed or bent along a straight line.
 Flanging - the material is bent along a curved line.
 Embossing - the material is stretched into a shallow depression. Used primarily for
adding decorative patterns. See also Repoussé and chasing.
 Blanking - a piece is cut out of a sheet of the material, usually to make a blank for
further processing.
 Coining - a pattern is compressed or squeezed into the material. Traditionally used to
make coins.
 Drawing - the surface area of a blank is stretched into an alternate shape via
controlled material flow. See also deep drawing.
 Stretching - the surface area of a blank is increased by tension, with no inward
movement of the blank edge. Often used to make smooth auto body parts.
 Ironing - the material is squeezed and reduced in thickness along a vertical wall. Used
for beverage cans and ammunition cartridge cases.
 Reducing/Necking - used to gradually reduce the diameter of the open end of a vessel
or tube.
 Curling - deforming material into a tubular profile. Door hinges are a common
example.
 Hemming - folding an edge over onto itself to add thickness. The edges of automobile
doors are usually hemmed.
Piercing and cutting can also be performed in stamping presses. Progressive stamping is a
combination of the above methods done with a set of dies in a row through which a strip of
the material passes one step at a time.

Rolling analysis
Rolling analysis considers the rolling geometry and the forces involved in deforming a metal
by rolling. Fig. 5.9 shows the rolling geometry and the forces.

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 Fig. 5.9 Rolling geometry and the forces.

Consider a strip of initial thickness h1 which enters the rolls with the velocity V0. It is rolled
to a thickness h2 whit an exit velocity V1. Rolling involves the deformation of the strip in
which the thickness is reduced and the length is increased. The final velocity of the strip at
exit is greater than the velocity at the entrance because the strip elongates during the rolling
process. The speed of the strip leaving the rolls exceeds the peripheral speed of the rolls and
it is called forward velocity or forward slip.

It is give by

V 1−V
Vf= =100
V

Where Vf is the forward (slip) or velocity

V1 speed of strip delivery from the rolls
V peripheral speed of the rolls
Backward slip is given by the relation
V −V 0
V B= =100
V

Where VB is the backward slip

V0 is the entry speed of the strip

The neutral point is a point in the arc of contact (AC) between the rolls and the strip where
the peripheral speed of the roll surface is the same as the forward slip of the strip. This point
is also called no-slip point and the shown in Fig. 5.9 by point E.

The strip contacts each of the rolls (see fig. 5.9) along the arc AC. The angle between the
centre line of the rolls and the entrance plane is known as the angle of bite or angle of
contact. The projected length of the arc of contact is equal to L.

L = AC = AB.BD

But BD = 2R where R is the roll radium

Also AB = (h1 – h2)/2

L= √ R ( h1 −h2 ) = √Rh
Angle of contact is given by the

h1−h2
cos α=1−
2R

Where 2r is the roll diameter and draught

h=h1−h2

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Considering Fig. 5.9 the horizontal component of the normal force is F NSin and the
horizontal component of the tangential (friction) force is Tcos.

For a strip to enter into the rolls unaided, the limiting condition is given by.

TCos = FN Sin 

T sin❑
= =tan
F N cos

We also know that T = FNµ

µ = tan

The workpiece enters the rolls when the coefficient of friction is greater than the tangent of
the angle of contact. When tan >µ, the stripe cannot enter the roll. Rolling cannot take place
if µ = 0. However, with increase in µ, the workpiece will be drawn into the roll. The rolling
load P can be determined by

P = Ps WL

Where Ps is the specific roll pressure

W is the width of the strip
L is the projected length of arc of contact

In rolling simple shapes such as strip, sheet and billets of rectangular or square cross-section,
the projected contact area is the product of the width of the workpiece and length of the arc of
contact. The specific roll pressure if the rolling load divided by the contact area. In rolling
complex shapes like angles, channels, beams, rails etc, the contact area between the
workpeice and the rolls is determined graphically or by using approximate formulae. In
rolling of metals, it is assumed that the deformation is one of plane strain and the metal is
incompressible, i.e.

Wh1 V0 = Wh V = Wh2 V1

DESIGN FOR WELDING MACHINING

Welding allows parts to coalesce along their contacting surfaces by applying heat, pressure,
or both, and often adding a filler material. The most common industrial welding methods are
fusion processes in which work pieces are melted at their common surfaces.

Solid-state welding joins parts by applying heat and pressure. The temperature is usually
below the melting point of the materials joined. Hot-press, ultrasonic, diffusion, and
explosive welding are examples of solid-state welding.

Fusion welding methods, chiefly gas, arc, and resistance, are the most widely used and are
less restrictive as to the materials that can be joined. Diffusion welding is employed primarily
to join high-strength materials.

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 Overview of Welding Technology
Oxyfuel gas welding operation

Arc Welding: In arc

welding, an arc
between an electrode and the work piece generates heat. Shielding the molten weld metal
from the atmosphere with gases fed in or generated by the weld reaction is often critical.
Unwanted gases react with the molten metal to cause strength-reducing oxides and inclusions
within the weld. Arc-welding processes vary mainly in the way the weld is shielded and the
methods of applying filler material.

Shielded-Metal Arc Welding (SMAW): This form of welding, also called stick welding, is
usually done manually, with the welder feeding a consumable, coated electrode in the work
area. The flux coating provides arc stabilizers; gases to displace air; metal; and slag to
protect, support, and insulate the weld metal. Many electrode and flux coatings are available
and are matched to type, size, and position of the material welded.

SMAW is suitable for portable applications. Labour and material costs are high, but its
simplicity and versatility make it the most commonly used welding process.

Gas-Metal Arc Welding (GMAW): This process generates an arc between a consumable

electrode wire and the workpiece. Shielding is provided by gas that flows over the weld area
from the welding gun. Combinations of shielding gas, power source, and electrode

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significantly affect metal transfer across the arc. A variety of gases are used, depending on
the metals reactivity and the joint design. For example, argon is used most often, though
carbon dioxide is added when welding ferrous metals. Carbon dioxide is sometimes used
alone to shield steels. GMAW processes are fast, can be automated, and work in all positions.

Flux-Core Arc Welding (FCAW): This process is very similar to gas-metal arc welding.
Weld heat is produced from an arc between the work and a continuously fed filler-metal
electrode. The electrode is hollow with flux in the core. The core may provide shielding
gases, deoxidizers, and slag-forming materials. In some cases, materials may be added to
promote arc stability, enhance weld-metal properties, and improve weld contour. FCAW is
used only on ferrous metals, chiefly mild and low-alloy steels. Some FCAW electrodes are
self-shielding, but others require an external shielding gas, usually carbon dioxide, supplied
through a nozzle. This process works in all positions, producing a fast, clean weld. Both
GMAW and FCAW are sometimes referred to as MIG welding. They require less skill than
SMAW.

Gas-Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW): In GTAW, an arc is generated between a non-

consumable tungsten electrode and the work areas. Wire filler metal is fed in separately.
Work is shielded by helium or argon gas. The process, also called TIG (tungsten inert-gas
welding), is more expensive than GMAW but is used on thinner metals such as aluminium,
magnesium, titanium, and high-alloy steels.

GTAW may use dc or ac. When ac is used with argon shielding, arc cleaning action is
produced at aluminium and magnesium joint surfaces. This removes oxides and is useful in
removing porosity in aluminium. Helium used with dc provides deeper penetration but
requires stringent cleaning of aluminium and magnesium. Ac is preferred for aluminium and
magnesium.

GTAW costs more than SMAW and is much slower than GMAW, but it provides a high-
quality weld in a very wide range of thicknesses, positions, and geometries. The process can
be fully automated.

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW): Heat is produced from an arc between the work and a
continuously fed filler-metal electrode. A blanket of granular fluxing material preplaced on
the work protects the molten weld puddle from the surrounding atmosphere. The process is
limited to flat, or nearly flat, work pieces. Both flux and filler wire can be fed automatically,
and the process is most commonly used in mechanized operations.

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW): Hot ionized gases shield the work area in this process. The
plasma is sometimes supplemented with a separate shielding gas. The welding gun, like that
used with GTAW, has a non-consumable tungsten electrode. Filler material, if used, is fed in
separately. The weld produced is also similar to GTAW, but the process is much faster and
arc control is superior. Plasma arc welding produces a deep, narrow, uniform beam and is
suitable for refractory metals, low-alloy steels, stainless steels, aluminium, and titanium. It is
most frequently used for high-quality welds on high-strength, thin-section material. The
process tolerates great variations in joint alignment and does not generate a high-frequency
arc.

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Resistance Welding: In resistance welding, coalescence is produced by heat generated by
resistance to the flow of electric current through the parts being joined. The assembly heats
up, and pressure is applied by the welding machine through the electrodes. No fluxes or filler
metals are needed.

The process is commonly used as a mass-production technique requiring special fixtures and
automatic handling equipment. Resistance welding can be applied to almost all steels and
aluminium alloys and some dissimilar metal bonds. Heating is localized. Common stock
thickness range is 0.004 to 0.75 in.

The process may be continuous, as when welding pipe seams, or finite, as in spot welding.
There are no limitations on welding position. This process works well with robotics.

Percussive Arc Welding: This technique can be considered a special case of dc resistance

welding. In percussive arc welding, power is usually supplied by a capacitor bank that is
directly short-circuited across the parts to be welded. The charge is concentrated at the point
where the electrode nib contacts with the part. The nib vaporizes, establishing an ionized
area. This provides a localized arc for the remaining capacitor charge that puddles an area on
the surface of both parts.

The weld head moves forward quickly before the materials solidify. This forces the interface
to alloy, producing an excellent low-penetration, low heat-affected-zone weld, usually having
excellent character and grain structure. Percussive arc welding is most commonly used for
stud-welding precision parts.

However, the process is sensitive to humidity. Also, large welds tend to be very noisy, with a
loud percussive repeat which gives the process its name. The process also is relatively slow
because of the time required to recharge the capacitor bank.

Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW): This group of welding processes uses the heat produced by a
gas flame to melt the base metal (and the filler metal, when used). Various fuel-gas
combinations are burned in oxygen to produce the necessary heat. Oxygen and acetylene is
the most commonly used combination. The mixture produces a temperature of around
5,600°F. Oxy-acetylene torches can be used with or without a filler metal.

Propane, butane, natural gas, and hydrogen, in combination with air or oxygen, are used to
weld nonferrous, low-melting-temperature materials in special applications. However, such
hydrocarbon fuel gases are not generally suited to welding ferrous materials, because the
flame atmosphere is oxidizing or the heat output of the flame is too low.

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HEAT TREATMENT

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 DESIGN FOR HEAT TREATING
Heat treating (or heat treatment) is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used
to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common
application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the manufacture of many other
materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to
extreme temperatures, to achieve the desired result such as hardening or softening of a
material. Heat treatment techniques include annealing, case hardening, precipitation
strengthening, tempering, carburizing, normalizing and quenching. Although the term heat
treatment applies only to processes where the heating and cooling are done for the specific
purpose of altering properties intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally
during other manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding.

Physical Processes
Metallic materials consist of a microstructure of small crystals called "grains" or crystallites.
The nature of the grains (i.e. grain size and composition) is one of the most effective factors
that can determine the overall mechanical behaviour of the metal. Heat treatment provides an
efficient way to manipulate the properties of the metal by controlling the rate of diffusion and
the rate of cooling within the microstructure. Heat treating is often used to alter the
mechanical properties of a metallic alloy, manipulating properties such as
the hardness, strength, toughness, ductility, and elasticity.
There are two mechanisms that may change an alloy's properties during heat treatment: the
formation of martensite causes the crystals to deform intrinsically, and the diffusion
mechanism causes changes in the homogeneity of the alloy.
The crystal structure consists of atoms that are grouped in a very specific arrangement, called
a lattice. In most elements, this order will rearrange itself, depending on conditions like
temperature and pressure. This rearrangement, called allotropy or polymorphism, may occur
several times, at many different temperatures for a particular metal. In alloys, this
rearrangement may cause an element that will not normally dissolve into the base metal to
suddenly become soluble, while a reversal of the allotropy will make the elements either
partially or completely insoluble.
When in the soluble state, the process of diffusion causes the atoms of the dissolved element
to spread out, attempting to form a homogenous distribution within the crystals of the base
metal. If the alloy is cooled to an insoluble state, the atoms of the dissolved constituents
(solutes) may migrate out of the solution. This type of diffusion, called precipitation, leads
to nucleation, where the migrating atoms group together at the grain-boundaries. This forms a
microstructure generally consisting of two or more distinct phases. For instance, steel that has
been heated above the austenizing temperature (red to orange-hot, or around 1,500 °F
(820 °C) to 1,600 °F (870 °C) depending on carbon content), and then cooled slowly, forms a
laminated structure composed of alternating layers of ferrite and cementite, becoming
soft pearlite. After heating the steel to the austenite phase and then quenching it in water, the
microstructure will be in the martensitic phase. This is due to the fact that the steel will
change from the austenite phase to the martensite phase after quenching. Some pearlite or
ferrite may be present if the quench did not rapidly cool off all the steel.
Unlike iron-based alloys, most heat treatable alloys do not experience a ferrite
transformation. In these alloys, the nucleation at the grain-boundaries often reinforces the

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structure of the crystal matrix. These metals harden by precipitation. Typically a slow
process, depending on temperature, this is often referred to as "age hardening".
Many metals and non-metals exhibit a martensite transformation when cooled quickly (with
external media like oil, polymer, water etc.). When a metal is cooled very quickly, the
insoluble atoms may not be able to migrate out of the solution in time. This is called a
"diffusionless transformation." When the crystal matrix changes to its low temperature
arrangement, the atoms of the solute become trapped within the lattice. The trapped atoms
prevent the crystal matrix from completely changing into its low temperature allotrope,
creating shearing stresses within the lattice. When some alloys are cooled quickly, such as
steel, the martensite transformation hardens the metal, while in others, like aluminium, the
alloy becomes softer.

Specification
Usually the end condition is specified instead of the process used in heat treatment.

Heat Treatment Processes

1. Annealing
2. Normalizing
3. Hardening
4. Tempering
5. Case hardening
Annealing
Annealing consists of heating a metal to required temperature, holding it at that temperature
for sufficient time to allow internal changes and then cooling at a very slow rate. Objectives
of annealing are as follows:
1. To refine the grains and provide structural homogeneity
2. To soften the metal
3. To relieve internal stresses
4. To remove the gases trapped during casting of metal
5. To produce desired microstructure
6. To prepare steel for further treatment
7. To change physical and magnetic properties

Annealing can be broadly classified as:

i. Full Annealing
ii. Process Annealing
iii. Spheroidise Annealing
iv. Diffusion Annealing

i. Full Annealing

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It is high temperature annealing process which removes all structural imperfections by
complete recrystallization. The main objectives are to soften the metal, relieve stresses and
refine the grain structure.

Full annealing consist of heating the steel to a temperature which is 300C to 500C above
higher critical point for hypoeutectoid steel and by same temperature range above the lower
critical point for hypereutectoid steels. After heating to specified temperature metal is hold at
that temperature for sufficient time to allow internal changes in the structure. The metal is
now slowly cooled in the furnace. The rate of cooling varies with composition. With slow
cooling rate austenite decomposes into ferrite and pearlite in hypoeutectoid steel, and into
cementile and pearlite in hypereutectoid steel.

ii. Process Annealing

It is also known as low temperature annealing process and is used to remove the ill effect of
cold working. It softens the metal so that its ductility can be restored for further plastic
deformation.

Process Annealing

In process annealing metal is heated to a temperature slightly below the lower critical point
generally between 5500C and 6500C. After heating it is maintained at the specified
temperature for 2 to 4 hours then cooled in air or furnace to soften the material for further
cold working operations.

Process annealing increases ductility and plasticity, reduces hardness, remove internal stress,
and improve machinablilty. This process is generally used in sheet and wire industry.

iii. Spheroidise Annealing

In this process cementile is produced in form of granules and causes all carbides in the steel
to agglomerate in form of small globules or spheroids. It consists of heating the metal to a
specified temperature slightly above the lower critical point (7300C to 7700C), holding it at
this temperature for sufficient period of time and then cooling in furnace to 6000C, followed
by cooling in still air to room temperature. This process is used for improving the
machinability of high carbon steels, which are difficult to machine.

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 Spheroidise Annealing

iv. Diffusion Annealing

It is also known as homogenizing annealing and removes heterogeneity in the chemical

composition of heavy castings. In this process metal is heated to temperature between 11000C
and 12000C at which diffusion occurs and austenite grains are homogenised. Metal is held at
diffusion temperature for very short period and then cooled in furnace for 6 to 8 hours to
8000C and then further cooled in air. This process is followed by full annealing to provide
fine grain structure.

Normalizing

The objectives of normalizing are:

1. To refine grain structure of steel,

2. To remove internal stresses which are developed during previous operations
3. To improve mechanical and electrical properties.

In this process steel is heated to 450C to 500C above upper critical temperature, held at this
temperature for short period of time (15minutes) and cooled down room temperature in still
air. Austenite is converted into ferrite and pearlite for hypoeutectoid steel, into pearlite for
eutectoid steel, and into pearlite and cementite for hypereutectoid steel.

Features

1. The steel obtained is harder and stronger but less ductile than annealed steel
2. It also improves yield point, impact strength, and ultimate tensile strength of steel.
3. It is applied to castings and forgings.

Hardening
Hardening process consists of heating the steel to a temperature above its critical point,
holding it at that temperature for sufficient time depending upon its thickness and then
quenching in a suitable medium such as water, oil or molten salt bath. Steel is heated 30 0C to

17
500C above upper critical temperature for hypoeutectoid steel and 300C to 500C above lower
critical temperature for hypereutectoid steel.
Hardness imparted by a treatment depends upon number of factors such as rate of cooling,
carbon content and work size. For rapid cooling of

i. Low and medium plain carbon steels water or brine solution is used.
ii. High carbon and alloy steels mineral oils are used.
iii. High speed steel molten salts are used.

Due to rapid cooling, austenite transforms into a very hard and brittle constituent known as
martensite. Steel hardness increases with formation of martensite.

Hardenability

Hardenability indicates the ability of the metal to attain uniform hardness throughout its mass
or varying hardness to some depth. It determines depth and distribution of hardness in metal
due to quenching. Fully hardened articles will have same properties throughout its cross-
section. Some factors which affect hardenability are:

1. Method of quenching and quenching medium

2. Composition of steel
3. Shape and size of job
4. Grain size
5. Quenching rate
6. Surface condition
7. Heating rate and time

Tempering

It is defined as a process in which hardened steel is heated to a temperature below the lower
critical temperature to transform the hard and brittle martensite into ferrite and cementite. In
this process ductility and toughness is achieved at the cost of hardness and strength.
Tempering can be classified as:

Low temperature tempering (1500C to 2500C)

Medium temperature tempering (3500C to 4500C)

High temperature tempering (5000C to 6500C)

Low tempering in the range of 1500C to 2500C relieves the internal stresses. As the
temperature is increased from 2000C to 4500C, ductility and toughness is achieved at the cost
of hardness. Further increase of temperature to 5500C results in complete elimination of
internal stresses and more increase in ductility. Tempering above 5500C is not useful because
hardness is reduced without any remarkable increase in ductility.

18
 Case Hardening

Case hardening produces a hardened case or surface over a tough, shock resistant core. It is
required in gears, ball bearings, camshafts, etc. to provide wear resistant faces to interior part
which is soft and ductile to absorb any shock. Case hardening is done in two stages:

i. Carburising
ii. Hardening

In carburising, carbon is diffused into low carbon steel surface by process of diffusion from
carbon monoxide gas at temperature of 8700C to 9500C. When the hot metal is quenched the
outer surface hardens whereas the core being low carbon steel remains soft and ductile.
Carburising can be done by using three methods:

i. Pack carburising
ii. Liquid carburising
iii. Gas carburising

i. Pack Carburising

Iron parts which are to be carburised are placed in a heat resistant box made of cast iron or
steel. This box contains mixture of carbonaceous materials such as charcoal, wood, tar,
charred leather, etc. Box is properly sealed and gradually heated in furnace between 900 0C to
9500C, slightly above the critical range. The box is held at that temperature for 3 to 15 hours
so that carbon is absorbed in the required depth and outer surface is converted into high
carbon steel. After this metal is cooled slowly in the box and removed. The depth upto which
carbon is enriched depends upon holding time.

The metal piece is again reheated slightly above its critical point (above 915 0C) followed by
quenching in oil, water or brine to refine the structure and make the core soft and tough. The
metal piece is again reheated to about 7500C and quenched to increase the hardens of case.

Pack Carburising

19
 ii. Liquid Carburising
Process of liquid carburising is similar to pack carburising but in this process liquid medium
is used in place of carbonaceous material. The parts which are to carburised are placed in
liquid salt baths of molten salt containing sodium carbonate, sodium chloride and silicon
carbide for sufficient time. Temperature in liquid carburising varies between 840 0C TO
9200C. Component is the removed from bath and quenched in oil, water or brine. Some
advantages of liquid carburising are:

i. Large depth of penetration is possible

ii. Very low deformation of component
iii. Uniform heating of component
iv. Easy to carburise a wide range of parts

iii. Gas Carburising

In gas carburising carbon monoxide reacts with surface of steel and results in direct and rapid
absorption of carbon in surface. In this process, component is suspended in gas furnace from
hooks and heated at about 9000C for 3 to 4 hours in atmosphere of gases rich in hydrocarbons
such as methane, butane, propane, etc. to absorb carbon. After soaking component is directly
quenched without exposing to atmosphere to make the surface of component hard with
excellent surface finish. Advantages of gas carburising are:

i. Very high surface finish is obtained

ii. Fast process as compared to pack carburising
iii. Less space is required
iv. Accuracy of desired case depth

Nitriding
It is defined as a process in which steel surface is saturated with nitrogen by holding it in
atmosphere of ammonia for prolonged periods in the temperature range between 4800C adn
6500C in electric furnace.

2NH3 N2 + 3H2

Nitrogen generated from the ammonia enters the surface of steel and from very hard nitrides
which imparts extreme hardness to the surface.

Advantages

a) It readily responds to heat treatment

b) Scaling or cracking does not occur because quenching is not required
c) Surface can resist corrosive action of water, alkalies, etc
d) Economical for mass production

20
Applications
It is used in case hardening of
i. Automobile engine parts, gears, clutches, etc
ii. Ball and roller bearings
iii. Mandrel, drawing dies, etc

Cyaniding

It is defined as a process in which nitrogen and carbon are added to surface of steel by
immersing it in a molten cyanide bath maintained at 8500C to 9500C.

After soaking for required time the steel is quenched in water or oil to obtain a hard outer
surface. During heating nitrides are formed and during cooling carbides are formed on the
surface. Cyaniding process provide hardness generally upto depth of 0.5mm.

It imparts bright surface finish and increased fatigue limit. It is generally used for low and
medium carbon steel parts such as gears, brake, cam, sleeves, shafts, etc.

Induction Hardening

In this process surface to be hardened is placed between inductor block and a high frequency
low voltage current (2000 cycles per sec) is passed through the block. Inductor block induces
current in the surface of the metal and heats it by induced eddy current. Heated surface is
quenched simultaneously with water by numbers of holds provided in inductor block. To
increase the depth of penetration the hardening temperature is maintained above 7680C. It is
used for hardening the surfaces of camshafts, crankshafts, gears, axies, brake drums, etc.

Block Diagram of Induction Hardening

21
 Flame Hardening

This hardening is used to harden the particular portion of job. The portion to be hardened is
heated with oxyacetylene flame above its critical temperature followed by quenching by
means of spray of water. In flame hardening stresses are not developed due to localized
heating and chances of cracking and distortion are reduced. It is used for hardening gears,
wheels, mill rolls, etc. main advantage is low cost of equipment, less time for heating and less
distortion as compared to other process.

Flame Hardening

Quenching

Quenching is an operation of rapid cooling of a hot piece by immersing it in oil, water, brine,
air etc. This rapid cooling makes the steel much harder and stronger than it would be if
allowed to cool slowly. Enough care should be taken in selecting a quenching medium for a
particular metal because improper quenching medium may lead to warping or cracking of the
piece. Various quenching mediums are air, oil, solution of water and sulphuric acid, water
and brine. Air has the lowest and brine has the highest cooling rate. For effective quenching
parts should be small and thin in cross-section.

Summary

 Heat treatment is an operation of heating and cooling of metals or alloys in its solid
state in order to obtain specific properties.
 Micro constituents of steel are -ferrite, austenite, cementite, pearlite and martensite.
 Annealing consists of heating a metal to required temperature, holding it at that
temperature and then cooling at a very slow rate.
 Annealing is broadly classified as full annealing, process annealing, spheroidise
annealing and diffusion annealing.

22
  In normalizing steel is heated to temperature 450C to 500C above upper critical
temperature, held at this temperature for short period and cooled down to room
temperature in still air.
 Hardening consists of heating the steel to a temperature above its critical point,
holding it at that temperature and then quenching in suitable medium.
 Hardenability indicates the ability of the metal to attain uniform hardness throughout
its mass or varying hardness to some depth.
 Tempering is done to transform martesite into ferrite and cementite.
 Case hardening produces a case or hardened surface over a tough shock resistance
core.
 Nitriding is a process of saturating steel surface with nitrogen.

Case Hardening
A modern, fully computerised case hardening furnace.
Case hardening is specified by hardness and case depth. The case depth can be specified in
two ways: total case depth or effective case depth. The total case depth is the true depth of the
case. For most alloys, the effective case depth is the depth of the case that has a hardness
equivalent of HRC50; however, some alloys specify a different hardness (40-60 HRC) at
effective case depth; this is checked on a Tukon microhardness tester. This value can be
roughly approximated as 65% of the total case depth; however the chemical composition and
hardenability can affect this approximation. If neither type of case depth is specified the total
case depth is assumed.[30]
For case hardened parts the specification should have a tolerance of at least ±0.005 in
(0.13 mm). If the part is to be ground after heat treatment, the case depth is assumed to be
after grinding.[30]
For cases that are less than 0.015 in (0.38 mm) thick a Rockwell scale cannot reliably be
used, so file hard is specified instead.[30] File hard is approximately equivalent to 58 HRC.[31]
When specifying the hardness either a range should be given or the minimum hardness
specified. If a range is specified at least 5 points should be given.[30]

DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY

Design for assembly (DFA) is a process by which products are designed with ease
of assembly in mind. If a product contains fewer parts it will take less time to assemble,
thereby reducing assembly costs. In addition, if the parts are provided with features which
make it easier to grasp, move, orient and insert them, this will also reduce assembly time and
assembly costs. The reduction of the number of parts in an assembly has the added benefit of
generally reducing the total cost of parts in the assembly. This is usually where the major cost
benefits of the application of design for assembly occur.

23
 Design for
Assembly

Approaches
Design for assembly can take different forms. In the 1960s and 1970s various rules and
recommendations were proposed in order to help designers consider assembly problems
during the design process. Many of these rules and recommendations were presented together
with practical examples showing how assembly difficulty could be improved. However, it
was not until the 1970s that numerical evaluation methods were developed to allow design
for assembly studies to be carried out on existing and proposed designs.
The first evaluation method was developed at Hitachi and was called the Assembly
Evaluation Method (AEM).[1] This method is based on the principle of "one motion for one
part." For more complicated motions, a point-loss standard is used and the ease of assembly
of the whole product is evaluated by subtracting points lost. The method was originally
developed in order to rate assemblies for ease of automatic assembly.
Starting in 1977, Geoff Boothroyd, supported by an NSF grant at the University of
Massachusetts Amherst, developed the Design for Assembly method (DFA), which could be
used to estimate the time for manual assembly of a product and the cost of assembling the
product on an automatic assembly machine.[2] Recognizing that the most important factor in
reducing assembly costs was the minimization of the number of separate parts in a product,
he introduced three simple criteria which could be used to determine theoretically whether
any of the parts in the product could be eliminated or combined with other parts. These
criteria, together with tables relating assembly time to various design factors influencing part
grasping, orientation and insertion, could be used to estimate total assembly time and to rate
the quality of a product design from an assembly viewpoint. For automatic assembly, tables
of factors could be used to estimate the cost of automatic feeding and orienting and automatic
insertion of the parts on an assembly machine.
In the 1980s and 1990s, variations of the AEM and DFA methods have been proposed,
namely: the GE Hitachi method which is based on the AEM and DFA; the Lucas method,
the Westinghouse method and several others which were based on the original DFA method.
All methods are now referred to as design for assembly methods.

24
Implementation

Most products are assembled manually and the original DFA method for manual assembly is
the most widely used method and has had the greatest industrial impact throughout the world.
The DFA method, like the AEM method, was originally made available in the form of a
handbook where the user would enter data on worksheets to obtain a rating for the ease of
assembly of a product. Starting in 1981, Geoffrey Boothroyd and Peter Dewhurst developed a
computerized version of the DFA method which allowed its implementation in a broad range
of companies. For this work they were presented with many awards including the National
Medal of Technology. There are many published examples of significant savings obtained
through the application of DFA. For example, in 1981, Sidney Liebson, manager of
manufacturing engineering for Xerox, estimated that his company would save hundreds of
millions of dollars through the application of DFA. In 1988, Ford Motor Company credited
the software with overall savings approaching $1 billion. In many companies DFA is a
corporate requirement and DFA software is continually being adopted by companies
attempting to obtain greater control over their manufacturing costs. There are many key
principles in design for assembly

Different between Design for Manufacture and Design for Assembly

DFM techniques are focused on individual parts and components with a goal of reducing or
eliminating expensive, complex or unnecessary features which would make them difficult to
manufacture. DFA techniques focus on reduction and standardization of parts, sub-
assemblies and assemblies.

25
 BENEFITS OF PRESTRESSING
The main benefit of prestressing is that the build up of tension under service loads and
possible cracking may be avoided or reduced to a low level. The effective stiffness of the
cross-section is increased, leading to a reduction in deflections. This is particularly important
for long-span structures and results in lower overall depths. Deflected tendons can enhance
the shear capacity of sections, with the vertical component of the prestressing force carrying a
proportion of the load. Prestressing should enhance the fatigue resistance of structures
subjected to repeated loads, such as bridges. Finally, prestressing is beneficial in many forms
of segmental construction; placing the interface between units into compression and
enhancing the load transfer capacity.

Prestressed concrete
Prestressed concrete is a form of concrete used in construction. It is substantially
"prestressed" (compressed) during its fabrication, in a manner that strengthens it against
tensile forces which will exist when in service.[1][2]:3–5[3]
This compression is produced by the tensioning of high-strength "tendons" located within or
adjacent to the concrete and is done to improve the performance of the concrete in service.
[4]
 Tendons may consist of single wires, multi-wire strands or threaded bars that are most
commonly made from high-tensile steels, carbon fiber or aramid fiber.[1]:52–59 The essence of
prestressed concrete is that once the initial compression has been applied, the resulting
material has the characteristics of high-strength concrete when subject to any
subsequent compression forces and of ductile high-strength steel when subject to tension
forces. This can result in improved structural capacity and/or serviceability compared with
conventionally reinforced concrete in many situations.[5][2]:6 In a prestressed concrete member,
the internal stresses are introduced in a planned manner so that the stresses resulting from the
superimposed loads are counteracted to the desired degree.
Prestressed concrete is used in a wide range of building and civil structures where its
improved performance can allow for longer spans, reduced structural thicknesses, and
material savings compared with simple reinforced concrete. Typical applications
include high-rise buildings, residential slabs, foundation
systems, bridge and dam structures, silos and tanks, industrial pavements and nuclear
containment structures.[6]
First used in the late-nineteenth century,[1] prestressed concrete has developed beyond pre-
tensioning to include post-tensioning, which occurs after the concrete is cast. Tensioning
systems may be classed as either monostrand, where each tendon's strand or wire is stressed
individually, or multi-strand, where all strands or wires in a tendon are stressed
simultaneously.[5] Tendons may be located either within the concrete volume (internal
prestressing) or wholly outside of it (external prestressing). While pre-tensioned concrete
uses tendons directly bonded to the concrete, post-tensioned concrete can use either bonded
or unbonded tendons.

26
Thin Concrete Floor Constructed Using Prestressed Concrete

Prestressing System

27
 Advantages and disadvantages of prestressed concrete

Advantages of Prestressed Concrete

1. Contrary to conventional concrete elements, the entire concrete cross-section of

prestressed concrete resists applied load. This is because the concrete in tension zone
does not suffer cracking and hence it would take part in carrying loads.
2. The spans of prestressed beams and girders are longer compared with that of
reinforced concrete.
3. Longer span length increases untroubled floor space and parking facilities.
4. Longer spans results in fewer joints, as a result, less maintenance is needed.
5. Possibility of steel corrosion and subsequent concrete deterioration is declined
because concrete is crack-free.
6. It has long-term durability.
7. Prestressed concrete members are able to bear reversal of stresses, impact, vibration
and shock due to the absence of cracks.
8. Practically, dead loads are neutral in a prestressed concrete beam. Consequently, the
dead load weight of the structure is decreased which results in reduced consumption
of materials.
9. Thinner slabs, that are important for high-rise building as with the same amount of
cost, it can construct more slabs than traditional thicker slabs.
10. The use of curved tendons and the pre-compression of concrete helps to resist shear.
11. The quantity of required steel in prestressed concrete is 1/3 of that required for
reinforced concrete, but the steel for the former should have high tensile strength.
12. The development of prestressed concrete results in the construction of a sizable
liquid-retaining structure that would not otherwise be possible.
13. Large liquid retaining structures constructed from prestressed concrete have low cost
and are preferably safe against cracking and consequent leakage.
14. Prestressed concrete can be used with advantage in all those structures where tension
develops, such as tie and suspender of a bow string girder, railway sleepers, electric
poles, upstream face of gravity dam etc.
15. Prestressed concrete beams have usually low deflection.

Disadvantages of Prestressed Concrete

1. Prestressed concrete requires high-quality dense concrete of high strength. Perfect

quality concrete in production, placement and compaction is required.
2. It requires high tensile steel, which is 2.5 to 3.5 times costlier than mild steel.
3. Prestressing process requires complicated tensioning equipment and anchoring
devices.
4. Construction requires perfect supervision at all stages of construction.
5. Prestressed concrete needs skilled labors.

28
 SELECTION OF MATERIALS
Material selection is a step in the process of designing any physical object. In the context
of product design, the main goal of material selection is to minimize cost while meeting
product performance goals.[1] Systematic selection of the best material for a given application
begins with properties and costs of candidate materials. For example, a thermal blanket must
have poor thermal conductivity in order to minimize heat transfer for a given temperature
difference. It is essential that a designer should have a thorough knowledge of the properties
of the materials and their behavior under working conditions. Some of the important
characteristics of materials are: strength, durability, flexibility, weight, resistance to heat and
corrosion, ability to cast, welded or hardened, machinability, electrical conductivity, etc.
Systematic selection for applications requiring multiple criteria is more complex. For
example, when the material should be both stiff and light, for a rod a combination of
high Young's modulus and low density indicates the best material, whereas for a plate
the cube root of stiffness divided by density  is the best indicator, since a plate's bending
stiffness scales by its thickness cubed. Similarly, again considering both stiffness and
lightness, for a rod that will be pulled in tension the specific modulus, or modulus divided by
density  should be considered, whereas for a beam that will be subject to bending, the
material index is the best indicator.
Reality often presents limitations, and the utilitarian factor must be taken in consideration.
The cost of the ideal material, depending on shape, size and composition, may be prohibitive,
and the demand, the commonality of frequently utilized and known items, its characteristics
and even the region of the market dictate its availability.

Ashby Plots
An Ashby plot, named for Michael Ashby of Cambridge University, is a scatter plot which
displays two or more properties of many materials or classes of materials. These plots are
useful to compare the ratio between different properties. For the example of the stiff/light part
discussed above would have Young's modulus on one axis and density on the other axis, with
one data point on the graph for each candidate material. On such a plot, it is easy to find not
only the material with the highest stiffness or that with the lowest density, but that with the
best ratio. Using a log scale on both axes facilitates selection of the material with the best
plate stiffness
The first plot on the right shows density and Young's modulus, in a linear scale. The second
plot shows the same materials attributes in a log-log scale. Materials families (polymers,
foams, metals, etc.) are identified by colours.

29
Thus as energy prices have increased and technology has improved, automobiles have
substituted increasing amounts of lightweight magnesium and aluminium alloys for steel,
aircraft are substituting carbon fibre reinforced plastic and titanium alloys for aluminium,
and satellites have long been made out of exotic composite materials.
Of course, cost per kg is not the only important factor in material selection. An important
concept is 'cost per unit of function'. For example, if the key design objective was the
stiffness of a plate of the material, as described in the introductory paragraph above, then the
designer would need a material with the optimal combination of density, Young's modulus,
and price. Optimizing complex combinations of technical and price properties is a hard
process to achieve manually, so rational material selection software is an important tool.
General method for using an Ashby chart

Utilizing an "Ashby chart" is a common method for choosing the appropriate material. First,
three different sets of variables are identified:

 Material variables are the inherent properties of a material such as density,

modulus, yield stress, and many others.
 Free variables are quantities that can change during the loading cycle, for example,
applied force.
 Design variables are limits imposed on the design, such as how thick the beam can be
or how much it can deflect
Next, an equation for the performance index is derived. This equation numerically
quantifies how desirable the material will be for a specific situation. By convention, a higher
performance index denotes a better material. Lastly, the performance index is plotted on the
Ashby chart. Visual inspection reveals the most desirable material.

SELECTION OF DIMENSION AND FITS

Dimension selection for feature selection and dimension reduction with principal and
independent component analysis. ... This letter is concerned with the problem of selecting the
best or most informative dimension for dimension reduction and feature extraction in high-
dimensional data.

30
 Engineering Fits

Engineering fits are generally used as part of geometric dimensioning and tolerancing when

a part or assembly is designed. In engineering terms, the "fit" is the clearance between two
mating parts, and the size of this clearance determines whether the parts can move
independently from each other, or are then temporarily or even permanently joined.
Engineering fits are generally described as a "shaft and hole" but are not limited to just round
components. ISO is the internationally accepted standard for defining engineering fits,
but ANSI is often still used in North America.
ISO and ANSI both group fits into three categories: clearance, location or transition, and
interference. Within each category are several codes to define the size limits of the hole or
shaft - the combination of which determines the type of fit. A fit is usually selected at the
design stage according to whether the mating parts need to be accurately located, free to slide
or rotate, separated easily, or resist separation. Cost is also a major factor in selecting a fit, as
more accurate fits will be more expensive to produce, and tighter fits will be more expensive
to assemble.

Types of fit
The three types of fit are:

1. Clearance: The hole is larger than the shaft, enabling the two parts to slide and / or
rotate when assembled.
2. Location / transition: The hole is fractionally smaller than the shaft and mild force is
required to assemble / disassemble
3. Interference: The hole is smaller than the shaft and high force and / or heat is required
to assemble / disassemble
Clearance fits[edit]

Example
Category Description and usage
fit

H11/c11
Loose Larger clearance where accuracy is not essential - e.g. pivots,
running latches,

31
 parts affected by corrosion, heat, or contamination

Large clearance where accuracy is not essential and involves

Free running high running speeds, H9/d9
large temperature variations, or heavy journal pressures

Moderate clearances with minimal requirements for accuracy -

Easy e.g. high running speeds,
H9/e9
running
large temperature variations, high journal pressures, long shafts,
pump or fan bearings

Small clearances with moderate requirements for accuracy - e.g.

Close moderate running speeds H8/f7
running
and journal pressures, shafts, spindles, sliding rods

Minimal clearances for high accuracy requirements, which can

be easily assembled
Sliding H7/g6
and will turn & slide freely - e.g. guiding of shafts, sliding gears,
crankshaft journals

Very close clearances for precise accuracy requirements, which

can be assembled without
Location H7/h6
force and will turn & slide when lubricated - e.g. precise guiding
of shafts

For example, using an H8/f7 close-running fit on a 50 mm diameter:

 H8 (hole) tolerance range = +0.000 mm to +0.039 mm[1]

 f7 (shaft) tolerance range = −0.050 mm to −0.025 mm[2]
 Potential clearance will be between +0.025 mm and +0.089 mm
Transition fits[edit]

Example
Category Description and usage
fit

Negligible clearances which can be assembled or disassembled by

Tight fit hand - e.g. hubs, H7/j6

gears, pulleys, bushings, frequently removed bearings

Similar Negligible clearance or interference fit which can be assembled or H7/k6

fit disassembled with a rubber

32
 mallet - e.g. hubs, gears, pulleys, bushes, bearings

Negligible clearance or small interference fit which can be

Fixed fit assembled or disassembled with light H7/n6
pressing force - e.g. plugs, driven bushes, armatures on shafts

For example, using an H7/k6 similar fit on a 50 mm diameter:

 H7 (hole) tolerance range = +0.000 mm to +0.025 mm

 k6 (shaft) tolerance range = -0.018 mm to +0.002 mm
 Potential clearance / interference will be between +0.043 mm and −0.002 mm
Interference fits[edit]

Example
Category Description and usage
fit

Light interference which can be assembled or disassembled with

Press fit cold pressing - e.g. hubs, H7/p6

bearings, bushings, retainers

Medium interference which can be assembled with hot pressing or

Driving cold pressing with large
H7/s6
fit
forces - e.g. permanent mounting of gears, shafts, bushes (tightest
possible with cast iron)

High interference shrink fit requiring large temperature differential

of parts to assemble,
Forced fit H7/u6
permanent coupling of gears and shafts that cannot be disassembled
without risking destruction

For example, using an H7/p6 press fit on a 50mm diameter:

 H7 (hole) tolerance range = +0.000 mm to +0.025 mm

 p6 (shaft) tolerance range = +0.042 mm to +0.026 mm
 Potential interference will be between −0.001 mm and −0.042 mm.

33
 SELECTION OF JOINTS
A welding joint is a point or edge where two or more pieces of metal or plastic are joined
together. They are formed by welding two or more workpieces (metal or plastic) according to
a particular geometry. There are five types of joints referred to by the
American Welding Society: butt, corner, edge, lap, and tee. A welding joint is a point or
edge where two or more pieces of metal or plastic are joined together. They are formed
by welding two or more workpieces (metal or plastic) according to a particular geometry.
There are five types of joints referred to by the American Welding Society: butt, corner, edge,
lap, and tee. These configurations may have various configurations at the joint where actual
welding can occur.

Five types of welded joints are butt joint, corner joint, lap joint, tee-joint and edge joint.
 Butt joint: In Butt welded type, the parts lie in the same plane and are joined at their
edges.
 Corner joint
 Lap joint
 Tee-joint
 Edge joint

SELECTION OF FASTENERS
Introduction

Choose from our most popular range of fasteners. We have over 9,000 fasteners, fixings,
ironmongery and hardware products online in a variety of materials and with RS Pro quality.

34
Online, you'll also find hose clips, anchors and channel supports, in a variety of materials,
from leading manufacturers plus RS Pro quality.

Sections within this guide

Fastener Materials

Fastener
Types

Head
Types

Drive
Types

Sizing

35
Common Fastener Types and Accessories

Hex Bolts

Hex Set Screws

Wood Screws

Self-drilling and Thread-forming Screws

Machine Screws

Socket Screws

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 Carriage Bolts

Nuts

Washers

PRODUCTION SYSTEM
Production system, any of the methods used in industry to create goods and services from
various resources.

Underlying Principles
All production systems, when viewed at the most abstract level, might be said to be
“transformation processes”—processes that transform resources into useful goods and
services. The transformation process typically uses common resources such as labour, capital
(for machinery and equipment, materials, etc.), and space (land, buildings, etc.) to effect a
change. Economists call these resources the “factors of production” and usually refer to them
as labour, capital, and land. Production managers refer to them as the “five M’s”: men,
machines, methods, materials, and money.

When viewed as a process, a production system may be further characterized by flows

(channels of movement) in the process: both the physical flow of materials, work in the
intermediate stages of manufacture (work in process), and finished goods; and the flow of
information and the inevitable paperwork that carry and accompany the physical flow. The
physical flows are subject to the constraints of the capacity of the production system, which
also limits the system’s ability to meet output expectations. Similarly, the capacity of
the information-handling channel of the production system may also be an important measure
of a system’s output. The management of information flows, or the planning and control of
the system to achieve acceptable outputs, is an important task of the production manager.

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While the capacity of the system is the major factor in determining whether output
expectations can be met, the additional consideration of quality must also be seen as a
limiting factor. The quality of a product, measured against some objective standard, includes
appearance, performance characteristics, durability, serviceability, and other physical
characteristics; timeliness of delivery; cost; appropriateness of documentation and supporting
materials; and so on. It is an important part of the definition of a system.

Types of Production Systems

There are three common types of basic production systems:
1. The batch system,
2. The continuous system, and
3. The project system.

In the batch system, general-purpose equipment and methods are used to produce small
quantities of output (goods or services) with specifications that vary greatly from one batch to
the next. A given quantity of a product is moved as a batch through one or more steps, and
the total volume emerges simultaneously at the end of the production cycle. Examples
include systems for producing specialized machine tools or heavy-duty construction
equipment, specialty chemicals, and processed food products, or, in the service sector, the
system for processing claims in a large insurance company. Batch production systems are
often referred to as job shops.

In the continuous system, items to be processed flow through a series of steps, or operations,

that are common to most other products being processed. Since large volumes of throughput
are expected, specially designed equipment and methods are often used so that lower
production costs can be achieved. Frequently the tasks handled by workers are divided into
relatively small segments that can be quickly mastered and efficiently performed. Examples
include systems for assembling automobile engines and automobiles themselves, as well as
other consumer products such as televisions, washing machines, and personal computers.
Continuous production systems are often referred to as assembly systems or assembly
line systems and, as noted below, are common in mass production operations.
The two types of systems mentioned thus far are often found in combination. In the
production of integrated circuits for electronic equipment, for example, thousands of circuits
are processed as a batch on several large slices of silicon crystal through dozens, or even
hundreds, of processing steps. The tiny circuits, each only a few millimetres on a side, are
then separated and individually assembled with other circuit elements on a continuous line to
produce the final product.

The third type of production system is the project, or “one-shot” system. For a single, one-of-
a-kind product, for example, a building, a ship, or the prototype of a product such as an
airplane or a large computer, resources are brought together only once. Because of the
singular nature of project systems, special methods of management have been developed to
contain the costs of production within reasonable levels.

Important Considerations
Once the general specifications of a production system have been agreed upon, including
precise definitions of needed resources and output expectations, three important decisions
remain. First, industrial engineers, production managers, and other specialists must choose
and design the technology to be used. Their decisions must include the choice of equipment
and tooling, the layout of plant space and facilities, the selection of workers

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and work procedures, and many other aspects of process design. These choices must be
handled carefully; mistakes at this early stage can result in a business losing its
competitiveness or the ability to sustain a profitable position in the market.

Next, given a choice of technology, the capacity of the system must be determined. The
capacity of the system is designed to be a function of the amount of available capital, the
demand forecast for the output of the facility, and many other minor factors. Again, these
decisions must be made wisely. Establishing too much capacity, too soon, can burden a
company with excess costs and inefficient operations. Too little capacity can make it difficult
and expensive to increase output later if the market develops rapidly; this can place a
company at a significant cost disadvantage if other competitors, with larger facilities, produce
a product at a lower cost or with more consistent quality.

Finally, given a basic commitment to capacity, decisions must be made on the adaptability of
the production volume to meet the inevitable changes in market demand that the firm will
experience. Capacity in most production systems is adjusted by hiring or firing workers, by
scheduling overtime or cutting back on work hours, by adding or shutting down machines or
whole departments or areas of the facility, or by changing the rate of production within
reasonable limits. The effectiveness of any one of these adjustment mechanisms depends
largely on the technological constraints of the process itself, the economics of the industry,
and the nature of the competition. In some industries, adjustment of capacity is a very
difficult task. Assembly lines with specialized equipment, for example, are most efficient
when run at one speed and cannot be slowed down or run intermittently without severe
economic losses. In such cases, careful attention to the fundamental design of the production
system is a critical factor in the overall success of the business.

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