Tema 12

General Linguistics
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Index Page

12.0 Phonology 3
12.1 Complementary Distribution 3
12.2 Free variation 5
12.3 Distinctive Features of Phonemes 7
12.4 Contrastive Distribution 7
12.5 Feature Values 8
12.6 Nondistinctive Features
(redundant or predictable) 9
12.7 Phonemic Patterns May Vary across
Languages 9
12.8 Natural Classes of Speech Sounds 10
12.9 Features Specification for American
English Consonants and Vowels 11
12.10 Phonetic Features 17
12.11 Phonological Rules in English
(Rules or processes) 18
Complementary Resources 21
Bibliography 22

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12.0 Phonology
Phonology classifies sounds within the system of a particular language or
languages.There are a lot of definitions which are necessary to know to
understand phonology. Among them, we have Complementary Distribution, free
variation, phonological rules, etc.

12.1 Complementary Distribution

We say that two phones are in complementary distribution, when two
phones are mutually exclusive, i.e. they appear in different environments or
different contexts.

Table 1
Distribution of Aspirated Voiceless Stops .

Source : (Fromkin et al., 2014, 231)

In this chart we can see that the aspirated [ph] and the unaspirated [p] are in
complementary distribution because they work in different environments or in
different contexts.
The aspirated sound [ph] always has an initial position. It is its environment, On
the other hand. The unaspirated sound [p] always goes after the phoneme /s/.
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Both are allophones of the phoneme /p/. When you know the complementary
distribution of these two allophones [ph] and [p] you know the pronunciation of
them. Note that the replacement of one sound for the other will not change the
meaning of the word. Tommy Hilfiger. You can pronounce Tommy /ˈtɒmi/ or
/ˈtɑːmi/ with un aspirated [th] or with an unaspirated [t] Although it might not
sound like a typical English pronunciation with the unaspirated [t] it will be
understood.

Figure 1. What are phonemes and allophones? Source :

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UCeXfLfVQ2I

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https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch
%3Fv
%3D37q8Xi_aHZo&psig=AOvVaw3kIZLoizlAp3R8Mc8SggYa&ust=1628728974905000&
source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAsQjRxqFwoTCKjyhbPep_ICFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD

According to Fromkin et al. ( 2014, 233) where oral vowels occur, nasal
vowels do not occur, and vice versa. It means that the phones complement
each other or they are in complementary distribution.

Table 2
Distribution of Oral and Nasal Vowels in English Syllables.

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.masteryourfrench.com%2Ffrench-pronunciation%2Fnasal-vowels-
liaisons
%2F&psig=AOvVaw2OwH1vyrkB1PQ7iGhtJMYf&ust=1628727402773000&sou
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rce=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAsQjRxqFwoTCOjfxuLYp_ICFQAAAAAdAAAAAB
AD

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.vowelsandconsonants3e.com
%2Fchapter_15.html&psig=AOvVaw2OwH1vyrkB1PQ7iGhtJMYf&ust=1628727
402773000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAsQjRxqFwoTCOjfxuLYp_ICFQA
AAAAdAAAAABBT

Source : (Fromkin et al., 2014, 231)

Remember phones are the phonetic sounds that occur in a language,
and the ways in which they pattern. This pattering determines the inventory of
phonemes. (The abstract basic units that differentiate words). When similar
phones occur in complementary distribution, they are allophones (predictable
phonetic variants) of one phoneme.
Thus the aspirated [ph] and the unaspirated [p] are allophones of the
phoneme /p/ because they occur in different phonetic environments. Some
phones may be allophones of more than one phoneme. There is no one-to-one
correspondence between the phonemes of a language and their allophones. In
English, for example, stressed vowels become unstressed according to regular
rules, and ultimately reduce to schwa [ə], which is an allophone of each English
vowel.

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12.2 Free variation

We can say that two allophones are in free variation, when they can be
freely used in the same position; for example, you can say the word crib /krɪb/
or crib /krɪb/. We can see that we do not have a difference in meaning.

Figure 2. Free Variation.. Source: http://udel.edu/~dlarsen/ling203/Slides/Phonology.pdf

According to Norquist (2020) “In phonetics and phonology, free variation

is an alternative pronunciation of a word (or of a phoneme in a word) that does
not affect the word's meaning.
Free variation is "free" in the sense that a different pronunciation doesn't result
in a different word or meaning. This is possible because some allophones and
phonemes are interchangeable and can be substituted for each other or said to
have overlapping distribution” (https://n9.cl/lwlb7 ).
Likewise, Alan Cruttenden, author of Gimson's Pronunciation of English,
gives a clear definition of free variation by giving an example: "When the same
speaker produces noticeably different pronunciations of the word cat (e.g. by
exploding or not exploding the final /t/), the different realizations of the
phonemes are said to be in free variation," (Cruttenden 2014) (
https://n9.cl/lwlb7 ).

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12.3 Distinctive Features of Phonemes

According to Fromkin et al. (2014, 236) A distinctive feature or a

phonemic feature is the feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.
Hence one word from another. Among the most common features we have
consonantal, sonorant, syllabic, nasal, voiced, continuant, labial, alveolar,
palatal, anterior, velar, coronal, sibilant.
For example, for two phones to contrast meaning there must be some phonetic
difference between them. The minimal pairs sue [suː] and zoo [zuː] show that [s]
and [z] represent two contrasting phonemes in English. They cannot be
allophones of one phoneme because one cannot replace the [s] with the [z]
without changing the meaning of the word. Furthermore, they are not in
complementary distribution as both occur word initially before the vowel [uː].
They are therefore allophones of the two different phonemes /s/ and /z/. We
know that [s] and [z] differ in voicing: [s] is voiceless and [z] is voiced. The
phonetic feature of voicing therefore distinguishes the two words. Voicing also
distinguishes fan and van [f]/[v] and cup and cub [p]/[b]. When a feature
distinguishes one phoneme from another, hence one word from another, it is a
distinctive feature or, equivalently, a phonemic feature ( (Fromkin et al., 2014,
236)

12.4 Contrastive Distribution

Two sounds are in contrastive distribution if replacing one with the other
in the same phonological environment results in a change in meaning. If a
sound is in contrastive distribution, it is considered a phoneme in that language.

For example, in English, the sounds [p] and [b] can both occur word-initially, as
in the words pat and bat (minimal pairs), which are distinct morphemes.
Therefore, [p] and [b] are in contrastive distribution and so are phonemes of
English.
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Note that two sounds that are in contrastive distribution in one language can be
in complementary distribution or free variation in another. These sounds occur
in English, as in the word team [tʰiːm] and steam [stiːm], but their occurrence is
purely dependent upon phonological context. Therefore, in English, [tʰ] and [t]
are not in contrastive distribution but in complementary distribution
(https://n9.cl/on8p).
We provide another example. In English, the sounds [p] and [b] appear at the
beginning of a word, as in pat and bat, bit and pit; bat, pat, blaze, plays, bride,
pride, pub, pup, blade, played, braise, prays, etc( minimal pairs ), which are
different morphemes. Hence, [p] and [b] are in contrasting distribution, as are
the phonemes of the English language (https://n9.cl/q9r8 ).

12.5 Feature Values

Take into account that features have two values: [+feature] and [-feature]
to indicate the presence or absence of that particular feature. For example [m] is
[+voiced], [g] is not [-labial], and [d] is not [-nasal] (https://n9.cl/5xkc4 ).

Figure 3. Feature Values. Source: https://n9.cl/5xkc4

12.6 Nondistinctive Features (redundant or

predictable)
We say that a feature is a nondistinctive (or redundant or predictable) when the
feature is predictable by a rule for a certain class of sounds.
Here we present examples of nondistinctive features:
-Nasalization is a redundant feature for English vowels (Non distinctive ) but it is
distinctive for English consonants. The vast majority of consonants are oral

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consonants. Examples of nasals in English are [n], [ŋ] and [m], in words such as
nose, bring and mouth (https://n9.cl/tjjj1 ).
- However, in Akan and French nasalization is a distinctive feature for vowels.
- Aspiration is a nondistinctive feature for voiceless stops in English. For
Example, like the sounds /p/, /t/, and /k/ (https://n9.cl/5xkc4 ).

12.7 Phonemic Patterns May Vary across

Languages

Take into consideration that the same phones may occur in two
languages but pattern or are formed differently because the phonologies of the
languages are different.
Although aspiration is not distinctive in English, It is distinctive in Thai:

Figure 4. Thai and English Voiceless Unaspirated and Aspirated Examples. Source:
https://n9.cl/5xkc4

12.8 Natural Classes of Speech Sounds

Remember that “Natural classes of sounds tend to behave similarly
because they have features in common. We can distinguish obstruents,
sonorants, glides, and vowels using the major class features, and distinguish in
more detail within these major classes using features for place and manner of
articulation (https://n9.cl/dbygu )”.

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Bear in mind that Phonological rules often apply to these natural classes of
sounds.

Figure 5. Natural Classes of Speech Sounds.Source : https://n9.cl/5xkc4

12.9 Features Specification for American English

Consonants and Vowels
Here we present “feature matrices for vowels and consonants in English. By
selecting all segments marked the same for one or more features, you can
identify natural classes. For example, the natural class of high vowels /i/, /ɪ/,
/u/, /ʊ/ is marked [+high] in the vowel feature chart of Table 6; the natural class
of voiced stops /b, m, d, n, g, ŋ, ʤ/ are the ones marked [+voice] [–continuant]
in the consonant chart of Table 7” (Fromkin et al., 2014, 241).

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Figure 6. Feature Specifications for American English Vowels. Source : https://n9.cl/5xkc4

Figura 7. Classifying Vowels. Source: https://n9.cl/wk5mj

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Table 3
Feature Specifications for American English Consonants.

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Source : https://n9.cl/5xkc4
We will provide again the definitions of the feature specifications to help you
understand more about this table.

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Consonatal
Obstruents sounds, nasal stops and liquids are classified by linguists as
consonantal sounds because there is some degree of restriction to the airflow
in producing these sounds (Fromkin et al., 2014,209).

Sonorant
Sonorants are the sounds which are not obstruents. Examples of obstruents
sounds are vowels, nasal stops /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/, liquids /l/ and /r/ and glides
/j/=/ɪ/ and /w/= /ʊ/ are all sonorants. When we pronounced sonorant sounds
there is much less blockage to the flow of air than obstruents. It permits the air
to resonate. It is worth noting that Nasal stops are sonorants. Although the air is
blocked in the mouth. The air continues to resonate in the nasal cavity. (Fromkin
et al., 2014, 209)

Syllabic
Syllabic Sounds
They are sounds which are the core of a syllable.Vowels are syllabic sounds.

Liquids and nasals may be syllabic too. e.g. the words dazzle [dæzl̩ ], faker

[fekr̩], rhythm [rɪðm̩ ], and wagon [wægn̩]. (The diacritic mark under the [l̩ ], [r̩],

[m̩ ], and [n̩] is the notation for syllabic.) “Placing a schwa [ə] before the syllabic

liquid or nasal also shows that these are separate syllables. The four words

could be written as [dæzəl], [fekər], [rɪðəm], and [wægən]. We will use this

transcription. Similarly, the vowel sound in words like bird and verb are

sometimes written as a syllabic r: [br̩ d] and [vr̩b]. For consistency we shall

transcribe these words using the schwa—[bərd] and [vərb]—the only instances

where a schwa represents a stressed vowel” (Fromkin et al., 2014, 210).

Nasal
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“Nasal, in phonetics, speech sound in which the airstream passes through the
nose as a result of the lowering of the soft palate (velum) at the back of the
mouth. In the case of nasal consonants, such as English m, n, and ng (the final
sound in “sing”), the mouth is occluded at some point by the lips or tongue and
the airstream is expelled entirely through the nose. Sounds in which the
airstream is expelled partly through the nose and partly through the mouth are
classified as nasalized” (https://n9.cl/x4qfy ).
Voiced
“Sounds which are made with the vocal cords vibrating are voiced and sounds
made with no vibration of the vocal cords are voiceless (Avery & Ehrlich, 1992,
24)”

Continuant
Nasal stops are also considered continuants although air flows continuously out
the nose.
The rest of consonants and vowels are continuants. It means that the air flows

continuously out of the mouth.

Labial
Labials [p] [b] [m] [f] [v] [w] [ʍ] Labial sounds are produced with the involvement of
the lips. They include the class of bilabial sounds [p], [b], and [m]
Alveolar
Alveolars [t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [l] [r]
These seven sounds are called alveolar because the tip of the tongue is raised

in different ways to the alveolar ridge i.e. the roof of your mouth just behind your

upper teeth. (Fromkin et al., 2014, 197) (Avery & Ehrlich, 1992, 14). The

phonetic symbols for the alveolar sounds are the same as the English letters.

Velars [k] [g] [ŋ] Back of the tongue and soft palate (velar)

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These sounds are produced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate

or velum.

The sounds of these words are velar sounds.

[k] cat, coat, card, cub, cry, climb, comb, cute, cool, car, come, came, cottage,

etc.

[g] GOD, goat, goal, get, got, goose, gorilla, gopher, dog, gum, gut, bug, bag,

gang, gun, etc.

[ŋ] strongly, strong, brings, paintings, things, length, something, thing, young,

long, morning, building, feeling, working, interesting, finger, singer, thin

Palatal

Palatals [ʃ] [ӡ] [ʧ] [ʤ] [j]

For these sounds which occur in:

[ʃ] she, sure, show, she’s, shoulder, should, shield, shower, ship, wish, etc.

[ӡ] television, usually, version, luxury, decisions, usual, conclusion, beige, etc.

[ʧ] church, channel, chop, cherish, children, child, check, cheek, choose, etc.

[ʤ] damage, huge, judge, jug, justice, Joseph, jet, John, joke, joker, Justine, etc

[j] yoyo, your, yours, yield, yellow, yet, yummy, York, yahoo, yacht, etc.

The narrowing occurs by raising the blade of the tongue to the hard palate just

behind the tooth ridge.

Anterior
Anteriors [p] [b] [m] [f] [v] [θ] [ð] [t] [d] [n] [s] [z] Anterior sounds are consonants
articulated in the front part of the mouth, that is, from the alveolar area forward.
They include the labials, the interdentals, and the alveolars.

Velar

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“ A velar consonant is a consonant that is pronounced with the back part of the
tongue against the soft palate, also known as the velum, which is the back part
of the roof of the mouth. Velar consonants in English are [k], [g] and [ŋ]. The
consonant [k] is the most common in all human languages
(https://n9.cl/nde9m )” .
Coronal
Coronal sounds are produced by raising the tongue blade. Coronals consider
the interdentals [θ] and [ð], the alveolars [t], [d], [n], [s], and [z], the palatals [ʃ]
and [ӡ], the affricates [ʧ] and [ʤ], and the liquids [l] and [r].
Sibilant
Sibilants [s] [z] [ʃ] [ӡ] [ʧ] [ʤ] This class of consonantal sounds is characterized
by an acoustic rather than an articulatory property of its members. The friction
created by sibilants produces a hissing sound, which is a mixture of high-
frequency sounds. (Fromkin et al., 2014, 209)
It is worth noting that obstruents and glides are not syllabic sounds because
they are always accompanied by a vowel and the vowel is the core of the
syllable (Fromkin et al., 2014, 210).

12.10 Phonetic Features

According to (Fromkin et al. (2014, 264) “Phonological segments—
phonemes and phones—are composed of phonetic features such as voiced,
nasal, labial, and continuant, whose presence or absence is indicated by + or –
signs. The set of features is universal but languages can differ with respect to
which of the features are distinctive (or phonemic) and which are non-distinctive
(redundant, predictable). Voiced, continuant, and many others are distinctive
features in English—they can contrast phonemes. Other features like aspiration
are non distinctive in English and are predictable from phonetic context. Some
features like nasal may be distinctive for one class of sounds (e.g., English
consonants) but non distinctive for a different class of sounds (e.g., English
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vowels). Phonetic features that are non distinctive in one language may be
distinctive in another. Aspiration is distinctive in Thai and non distinctive in
English” (https://n9.cl/9406t ).

12.11 Phonological Rules in English (Rules or

processes)
In this paper we have always talked about phonological rules. But what are
phonological rules? “Phonological. rules are the rules whether written or
spoken that control how sounds change during. vocal communication.
Phonological rules describe how phonemes are realized as their allophones in
a given environment.
Environment in phonology typically refers to neighboring phonemes (2).
John Golden Smith (1995) defines phonological rules as mappings between
two different levels of sound representation in this case, the abstract or
underlying level and the surface level. Bruce Hayes (2009) describes
them as "generalizations" about the different ways a sound can be
pronounced in different environments. That is to say, phonological rules
describe how a speaker goes from the abstract representation stored in their
brain, to the actual sound they articulate when they speak. In general,
phonological rules start with the underlying representation of a sound (the
phoneme that is stored in the speaker's mind) and yield the final surface form,
or what the speaker actually pronounces. For example, the English plural -s
may be pronounced as[s] (in "books"),[z] (in "bags"), or as [ iz] (in "kisses");
these forms are all stored mentally as the same -s, but the surface
pronunciations which are derived through a phonological rule are different (5).
After reading all these definitions we will adopt that phonological rules
describe how a speaker goes from the abstract representation stored in
their brain, to the actual sound they articulate when they speak
(https://n9.cl/clb1g )”.
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There are several phonological rules however we will emphasize seven. They
are classified by the kind of process they involve.The most important are
assimilation, dissimilation, Insertion, deletion or elision, metathesis,
strengthening, and weakening or lenition.

Let us begin with Assimilation. It is a phonological process in which a

sound changes to resemble a nearby sound and can occur both forward and
backward, within a word or between words. For example. The prefix in- where
sometimes it appears as in– and others as im-. In front of bilabial words, like put
or between, in– is pronounced with an m, “imput” or “im between” , "handbag" is
often pronounced [ˈhambag], and "hot potato" as [ˈhɒppəteɪtoʊ].
According to Fromkin et al. ( 2014, 243) Nasalization is an assimilation rule that
makes neighboring segments more similar by adding the feature [+nasal] to the
vowel.

We proceed with Dissimilation. It is a phonological process in which two close

sounds, similar consonants or vowels, change to become less alike. e.g.
Manner dissimilation in which a stop becomes a fricative when followed by
another stop. The word sixth is pronounced sikst where /sθ/ becomes /st/.
“A frequent example in present-day standard English is the omission of one of
two [r] sounds from words like cate(r)pillar, Cante(r)bury, rese(r)voir,
terrest(r)ial, southe(r)ner, barbitu(r)ate, gove(r)nor, and su(r)prised.
(https://n9.cl/tbb3x) "

After we have Insertion. It is a phonological process in which a sound is added

to a word. For example, Voiceless stop insertion where, between a nasal
consonant and a voiceless fricative, a voiceless stop with the same place of
articulation as the nasal consonant is inserted. In English, many add a /p/ to
hamster and say “hampster”.

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“This also occurs in the English plural rule: when the plural morpheme z is
added to "bus," "bus-z" would be unpronounceable for most English speakers,
so a short vowel (the schwa, [ə]) is inserted between [s] and the [z]
(https://n9.cl/v7zl)”.

We proceed with Deletion or elision. It is a phonological process in which

speech sounds disappear from words.For example; Vowels can be deleted to
make one-syllable words that are easier to pronounce in a fast manner. Police
becomes “plice”, and friendship is said as “frienship”

The next phonological rule is Metathesis. It is a phonological process in which

sounds switch places in the phonemic structure of a word. For example, to
make words easier to pronounce and understand, letters are switched. Two
historical examples include Old English (brid and aks) becoming (bird and ask).

“Some other frequent English pronunciations that display metathesis are:

● nuclear > nucular /ˈnjuːkjʊlər/ (re-analysed as nuke + -cular suffix in
molecular, binocular)
● prescription > perscription /pərˈskrɪpʃən/
● introduce > interduce /ɪntərˈd(j)uːs/
● asterisk > asterix /ˈæstərɪks/
● cavalry > calvary /ˈkælvəri/
● foliage > foilage /ˈfɔɪlɪdʒ/
● pretty > purty /ˈpɜːrti/” (https://n9.cl/8rsz6 )

We proceed with Strengthening or fortition. It is a phonological process

in which a sound is made stronger. For example, aspiration is where voiceless
stops become aspirated when they occur at the beginning of a stressed syllable.
Top is said with an h.
We present a clear example of fortition “Fortition of the cross-linguistically rare
interdental fricatives [θ] and [ð] to the almost universal corresponding stops [t]
and [d] is relatively common. This has occurred in most continental Germanic
languages and several English dialects, several Uralic languages, and a few

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Semitic languages, among others. This has the result of reducing the
markedness of the sounds [θ] and [ð] (https://n9.cl/ls5qy )”.

Last but not least, we have Weakening or lenition. It is a phonological

process in which a sound becomes weaker. For example, flapping is a
phonological process of weakening whereby the voiceless alveolar stop
consonant phoneme /t/ is pronounced as a voiced alveolar flap [ɾ], like in the
word kitty. Other examples could be party, water, better, ladder, city, butter, title,
little, etc. This usually happens before a stressed vowel and before an
unstressed vowel where the sound is pronounced with articulation resembling a
flap.

Complementary Resources
● Video about Phonological Rules

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s2pg0Q77dWE

Bibliography
Avery, P., & Ehrlich, S. (1992). Teaching American English

Pronunciation. Oxford University Press.

Clark, J. W., Yallop, C., & Fletcher, J. (2016, December). An Introduction

to phonetics and Phonology 3rd Edition. An Introduction to phonetics and

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Phonology 3rd Edition. https://www.wiley.com/en-

se/exportProduct/pdf/9781405130837

The Free Dictionary by Farlex. (2021). The Free Dictionary by Farlex.

https://www.freethesaurus.com/deictic+word

Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2014). An Introduction to

Language (Vol. 10th Edition). Wadsworth. https://n9.cl/9406t

Glossary of Linguistic Terms. (2020). Glossary of Linguistic Terms.

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Lingualinks Library. (2003). Glossary of Linguistic Terms. Glossary of

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Nordquist, R. (2020, Aug 27). "Free Variation in Phonetics." ThoughtCo.

https://n9.cl/lwlb7

Obied, I. M. (2015, Dec). Phonological Rules. Research Gate.

https://n9.cl/clb1g

Oxford Reference. (2021). Oxford Reference.

https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095

415248

poreoverthepages.wordpress.com. (2016, May 31). 7 types of

phonological rules in English. Pore Over the Pages. https://n9.cl/6hb4o

Your Dictionary. (2020). Your Dictionary. Your Dictionary.

https://n9.cl/f3wla

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