FEDERATED FACULTY FOR RESEARCH IN RELGION AND CULTURE,

KOTTAYAM
Religion and Secular Ideologies in Nationalist Movements

Concept of State and Nation In Indian Literature , Arthasasthra and In Islam

Submitted to: Rev. Dr. V. S. Varughese Submitted by: Mrs. Cincy M. Thomas

1.Introduction

From the days of Plato and Aristotle, European thought has turned its attention to such
questions as the origin of the state, the ideal form of government, and the basis of law, and
the politics and has long been looked on as a branch of philosophy. Though there was no
systematic literature on the political science composed in the earlier period , in India, usually
called the age of Vedas and the Brahmanas, there are scattered passages in the Vedic
literature, which throw considerable light on the theory and practices of government in the
contemporary times. Systematic literature, on what we may call the Science of Polity does
not go back to a time earlier than 500 B.C.1

2.State in Ancient India

To look into the origin and evolution of the state has been one of the greatest issues in
Political Science, ancient Indian thinkers like Bhisma, Narada, Brihaspati, Kautilya,
Kamandaka also have looked at the problem. On the basis of the writings of these thinkers
four important theories can be detected regarding the origin of the state in ancient India,
namely—

a) Evolutionary Theory

b) Force Theory

c) Mystical Theory

d) Contract Theory

2.1.Theory of Evolutionary Origin

This is the oldest theory of the origin of the state in India and has been mentioned in the
Atharva Veda. According to this theory the state is the result of evolutionary progress and it
didn‘t originate at a fixed time. The tenth hymn of the eighth chapter of the Atharva Veda
gives a picture of the evolutionary origin of the state. On the basis of Atharva Veda several
stages of the evolution of the state can be traced. The hymns of the Atharva Veda state that
the earliest phase of human life was the stage of vairajya or stateless state. It was a state of
complete anarchy. But subsequently, with the emergence of agriculture, stable life became
possible. To fulfil the needs of agricultural society the family emerged and the head of the
family became the first wielder of authority. Further, the need of co-operation in the different
realms of society led to the emergence of sabha and samiti. Sabha was the organisation of
elderly people and samiti was the general assembly of common people.2 With the emergence
of sabha and samiti organised political life began which finally culminated in the emergence
of the state.

1
A.S.Altekar, State and Government in Ancient India,( Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1949)p. 1-15
2
R.Dasgupta, Prasad, Development of the Hindu Polity, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Third
session, (Calcutta, 1939), p. 175.
Some favour the theory of evolutionary origin. Altekar opines that as with other Indo-Aryan
communities, the state also evolved in India in pre-historic times out of the institution of the
joint family. 3 R. Shamasastry also favours the evolutionary theory but in his opinion the
earliest form of family in ancient India was matriarchal which after the invasion of Aryans
became patriarchal.4Some contemporary historians, focuses of family, varna and property in
the evolution of the state, citing examples from Shanti Parva5, Digha Nikaya6, and Ayodhya
Kanda of Ramayana.7 According to them, there was a vital connection between the existence
of these institutions and the rise of the state. The basis of political obligation and the
functions of state show the role of these institutions. What would happen if the state did not
exist? The one recurrent theme in the Shanti Parva, the Ayodhya Kanda and the Vishnu
Dharmottara Purana which contain the long description of arajaka (kingless) state is that
family and property would not be safe in such a state.8 Bhandarkar has quoted five passages
from Shanti Parva which suggest that the kingly office arose to protect the weak against the
strong.9

2.2. Force Theory

Though ancient Indian political thinkers did not propound force theory in a systematic way,
force was considered to be an important factor in the evolution of the state in India.10 Earliest
Aryan clans fought among themselves for pet animals (specially for the cow), pastureland,
settlements and sources of drinking water. Only a strong and able warrior could lead the clan
in such wars. So he was given special status and the members of clan started obeying him.
This tendency continued in the days of peace also and subsequently the leader became king.
Citing examples from the Vedas (Rig Veda and Sama Veda) and the Brahmanas (Aitareya,
Shatapatha) John Spellman also opines that the king in ancient India was primarily a military
leader.11 But it should be clearly mentioned that none of the political commentators give a
systematic and well knitted explanation of the role of force in the emergence of the state in
ancient India.

2.3.Theory of Mystical Origin

This was the most popular theory of origin of the state in ancient India. Kingship was given
divine sanction and the king was considered not to be the representative of God but himself a
God who contained the powers of important Gods like Indra, Varuna and Agni. It appears
first in the epics and the law books of Manu, the king was exalted far above ordinary mortals,
through the magical powers of the great royal sacrifices. The royal consecration (Rājasūya)
which in its full form comprised a series of sacrifices lasting for over a year imbued the king
with divine power. In the course of the ceremonies he was identified with Indra ―because he
is a kshatriya and because he is a sacrificer‖ and even with the high God Prajāpati
himself.12He took three steps on a tiger skin and was thus magically identified with the God
Vishnu whose three paces covered earth and heaven. The king was evidently the fellow of the
God.

2.4.Contract Theory
3
Altekar, State and Government in Ancient India, (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1997)p. 35.
4
R.Shamasastry, Evolution of Indian Polity, Calcutta: Calcutta University , 1920, pp. 1-10.
5
The Shanti Parva is the twelfth of eighteen books of the Indian Epic Mahabharata.
6
This is the Buddhist scripture, the first of the five nikayas, or collections, in the Sutta Pitaka
7
R.S.Sharma., Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India (fourth edition), Delhi, Motilal
Banarsidass, 1996, pp. 49-61.
8
Quoted in Shastri, Jagdish Lal, Political Thought in Puranas, (Lahore: Published by the author, 1944), pp. 120-
121
9
D.R. Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, Calcutta, Calcutta University, 1918, pp. 115-118
10
shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/31776/7/07_chapter%201.pdf, p-29
11
John W.Spellman, Political Theory of Ancient India, (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1964), pp. 21-22
12
A.L.Basham, The Wonder that was India (34th impression), New Delhi, Rupa & co., 1999, p.
Contract theory is the most extensively discussed theory of the origin of the state in ancient
India. The reference to contract theory can be seen in the Buddhist texts like Dīgha Nikāya
and Mahāvastu and brahmanical texts like Shānti Parva and Arthashāstra of Kautilya. Few
accept only the Buddhist sources as the authentic source of contract theory because according
to them the brahmanical texts have a mixture of contract and divine origin whereas Buddhist
sources give a clear cut account of contract theory.13 On the other hand, few citing examples
from the Vedas and Brāhmanas advocate that the contractual origin of the state can be traced
to brahmanical texts as well, along with the Buddhist texts. 14 In the light of so much
importance assigned to contract theory in ancient India, it would be prudent to analyse both
the schools of thought separately. The contractual origin of kingship in the Arthashāstra is not
intended to impose limitations on royal power. On the contrary, the obligation put upon the
people are burdensome and are designed to strengthen royal authority. This point is clearly
brought out towards the close of the passage which describes the contract theory of the origin
of kingship. It is argued that the king, who assures security and well-being to his subjects by
eliminating wrongful acts through coercion and taxes should never be disregarded. Hence
Kautilya‘s contract theory a perpetual and relentless desire and pursuit of power. Due to this
selfish human nature the state of nature is a state of continuous conflict based on the principle
of ―might is right‖. In the state of nature every individual is free to do everything
which means no one is free to do anything in actual practice.

3.Sources of Study of Political Ideas in Ancient India

Though India had no formal political philosophy, the science of statecraft was much
cultivated and a number of important textbooks on this topic have survived. In ancient India
the political science was known by several terms like the Rajadharma, Rajyasastra, Dandniti,
Nitisastra and Arthasastra. Rajadharma ‗Duties of the king‘ and Rajyasastra ‗Science of the
state‘ require no explanation. Monarchy was the normal form of the state and the science of
politics and government was therefore naturally called Rajadharma or Rajyasastra. The term
Dandaniti is also self –explanatory. Many thinkers of the modern Indian writers held like
Manu that the ultimate sanction behind the state is force. If it is not used, the alternative is the
law of the jungle (matsyanyaya). It is Danda (physical force or physical punishment ) which
rules over all the subjects, it is Danda which protects them; when all else are sleeping, Danda
keeps awake; law is nothing but Danda itself. But it should be wielded with discretion. The
term Nitisastra. Niti is derived from the root ni meaning to lead; Niti therefore means proper
guidance or direction. It was held that this would become possible by following ethical
course of conduct and therefore one connotation of the term Nitishastra was the science of
ethics. Thus it can be said that in the early stages of the development of the science of polity,
it was known as Rajadharma; Dandaniti became a more popular term later and Arthasastra
was suggested as an alternative to it. In course of time, however, the word Rajniti- sastra,
abridged into Nitisastra and became most popular. The other important sources, in
chronological order, are the great epics, the Mahabharata, and the Ramayana. The great body
of literature generally called smriti, giving instruction in the sacred law, is very important in
this connection. From the Gupta period and the Middle Ages a number of political texts
survive, the most important of which are the Nitisara (Essence of Politics) of Kamandaka
which was written during the Gupta period, the Nitivakyamrta (Nectar of Aphorisms of
Politics) of Somadeva Suri, a Jaina writer of tenth century, and the Nitisara (Treatise on
Politics) attributed to the ancient sage Shukra, but evidently of later medieval origin. Besides

13
John Spellman, Political Theory of Ancient India,(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964), p -21-22
14
K.P.Jayasawal, Hindu Polity, (Bangalore: Bangalore Printing and Publishing Company Ltd., 1955), p. 28
these sources, there is a tremendous amount of Brahmin, Jaina and Buddhist literature which
deals on occasions with the politics of the time.

4.Stages of State Formation in Ancient India

Six main stages in the history of ancient Indian polity can be identified. The earliest stage
was that of tribal military democracy in which tribal assemblies, which had some place for
women were mainly pre-occupied with war. The age of Rig Veda was primarily a period of
assemblies. The second stage saw the break-up of the tribal polity under the stress of constant
conflicts between the rajanyakshatriya and the ordinary businessman called the vis. The
chiefs were helped by the priesthood called the brahmins. This stage saw the beginning of
taxes and classes or varnas which came to be firmly established in the third stage. The third
stage was marked by the formation of the full-fledged state. There arose large territorial
monarchies of Kosala and Magadha and tribal oligarchies in North-Western India and at the
foot of the Himalayas. For the first time we hear of large standing armies and organised
machinery for the collection of land revenue The fourth or the Maurya phase saw
bureaucratic centralisation based on the expanding economic activities of the state. The state
with the help of its bureaucracy controlled various aspects of the life of its subjects. The fifth
stage was marked by the process of decentralised administration in which towns, feudatories
and military elements came to the forefront in both the Deccan and North India. This was
partly neutralised by the emphasis on the divinity of the king. The last stage, identical with
the Gupta period, may be called the period of proto-feudal polity. Land grants now played an
important part in the formation of the political structure and those made by the Gupta
feudatories conferred fiscal and administrative privileges on priestly beneficiaries.15

5.Arthasastra -
The earliest and most important textbook written around 325 B.C. specifically devoted to
statecraft is the Arthashastra, which is attributed to Kautilya or Chanakya, the famous
minister of Chandragupta Maurya. The term Artha is money or wealth and so the term
Arthasastra connotes the science of wealth or economics, and not the science of government.
Kautilya contends that the term also can denote the territory where the people live together.
Thus for Kautilya , it‘s the science which deals with the acquisition and protection or
governance of territory. Kautilya described well-organized state; Kingship, the qualities of an
ideal ruler; the principles of practical politics; Administration; ethical and moral order of the
society; domestic and inter-state policies; Warfare, Criminology, Intelligence & Espionage;
etc.Besides politics, the other subjects included in Arthashastra are Economics, Ethics,
Sociology, Science of Education, Engineering and others.Few concepts of state and nation
according to Arthasastra.

Three categories of States

Samraajya (State of equal status),

Heenraajya (States of inferior status), and
Balwaan Rajya (States of superior status)
Three Kinds of Strength
Mantra Bal (intellectual strength/the power of deliberation),
Prabhu Bal (sovereign power/possession of prosperous treasury)
Utsaaha Bal (powerful army/physical strength)
The King to Increase his Power, in terms of
• Mantra-Siddhi (achievement of intellectual strength)
• Prabhu Siddhi (achievement of prosperous treasury)

15
State and society in ancient India, shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/31776/7/07_chapter%201.pdf
• Utsaaha Siddhi (achievement of military and material strength) 16

6.Buddhist concept – contract

Buddhist canonical text Digha Nikaya where the story of creation is said that there was a
time when people were perfect, and lived in a state of happiness and tranquility. This perfect
state lasted for ages, but at last the pristine purity declined and there set in rottenness.
Differences of sex manifested themselves, and there appeared distinctions of colour. In a
word, heavenly life degenerated into earthly life. Now shelter, food and drink were required.
People gradually entered into a series of agreements among themselves and set up the
institutions of the family and private property. But this gave rise to a new set of problems, for
there appeared theft and other forms of unsocial conduct. Therefore, people assembled and
agreed to choose as chief a person who was the best favoured, the most attractive and the
most capable. In return they agreed to contribute to him a portion of their paddy. The
individual, who was thus elected, came to hold in serial order three titles:
a) Mahasammata
b) Khattiya and
c) Raja
According to the text the first title means one chosen by the whole people, the second title
means the lord of the fields, the third title means one who charms the people by means of
dharma. The speculation made in the Digha Nikaya is the product of an advanced stage of
social development when tribal society had broken up giving rise to clash of interests
between man and woman, between people of different races and colours and between people
of unequal wealth. This idea was adumbrated in the middle Ganga plains, where paddy was
the basis of the economy of the people. Political compact as developed in the Digha Nikaya
not only lays a different type of emphasis on qualifications for election as king but also
clearly states the obligations of the two parties. The king has been assigned the task to punish
the wicked people. The only definite form of punishment is the banishment of the guilty.
Thus, on the whole, the obligation of the head of the state is negative. He steps in only when
people break the established laws. The khattiya which means the lord of fields, suggests that
the primary duty of the king is to protect the plots of one against being encroached upon by
the other. The interpretation of the title raja imposes on the king the positive obligation of
charming or pleasing the people. In contrast to the several obligations of the king, the people
are assigned only one duty, namely, to pay a part of their paddy as contribution to the king.
The rate of taxation is not prescribed but the contemporary law-book of Baudhayana lays
down that the king should protect the people in return for onesixth of the produce. Originally
the agreement takes place between a single kshatriya on the one hand and the people on the
other, but at later stage it is extended to the kshatriya as a class. Towards the end of the story
of creation in the Digha Nikaya it is stated that thus took place the origin of the social circles
of the nobles, Khattiya Mandala.17

7. Rise of Janapadas , Mahajanapadas -

The sixth century BC was not only a period of socio-economic and religious development but
it also witnessed new political developments. In the later Vedic period, people had started
agriculture, which made them settle down at a particular place. These permanent settlements
led to foundation of janapadas or territorial states under the control of the king. In the sixth
century BC the main area of political activity gradually shifted from Western UP to Eastern
UP and Bihar. This region was not only fertile on account of better rainfall and river systems
but was also closer to iron production centres. The use of better iron tools and weapons
enabled some territorial states to become very large and they came to be called
mahajanapadas. Most of them were situated north of Vindhyas, between Bihar in the east to
the northwest frontier of the subcontinent. The Mahajanpadas Most of these states were
16
Ruchi Tyagi, Theory of State in Kautilya’s Arthashastra ,Department of Political Science Kalindi College.
17
R.S.Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India,( Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1996) pp.
64-65
monarchical in nature but some of them, called ganasangha, had an oligarcharical system of
governance. In this system unlike monarchies, where a hereditary king rules, administration
was run by an elected king with the help of a large council or assemblies comprising heads of
all important clans and families. This system was certainly more democratic than monarchy,
though the common man had no participation in the administration. The most important of
these states was that of Vajjis with their capital at Vaishali, which was ruled by the
Lichchhavis. These oligarchies mainly existed in the foothills of the Himalayas. They were
gradually defeated and conquered by the Magadhan Empire. The political fight among these
mahajanapadas led ultimately to one of them namely Magadh to emerge as the most powerful
state and the centre of a vast empire. He pursued a three-pronged policy, namely, matrimonial
alliances, friendship with strong rulers and conquest of weak neighbours to expand the
empire. Under the policy of matrimonial alliances, he married the sister of Prasenjit, the king
of Kosala. She brought in dowry the territory of Kashi, The control over Kasi and friendship
with Prasenajit allowed Magadh to concentrate on other areas. His other wives were
daughters of the chiefs of other nearby territory.

8.Concept of State in Islam -

A state which is managed and administered in concordance with Islamic law is technically
called Darul Islam (country of peace). If a Darul Islam or an Islamic state is politically or
economically subjugated by a non-Muslim power, it will be transformed into Darul Harb
(country of war) and the Muslims shall be left with only two alternatives: Either to conduct
Jihad (struggle) in order to regain their independent status or to migrate (Hijrat) to some
Muslim countries.Thus, the Muslim concept of patriotism is not solely based on an
attachement with a particular land or territory, but based on attachement to the ideals and
aspirations which have been realized or may be realized through instituions established in
such land or territory.Theoretically , the state in Islam is Allah‘s state and the Muslims
constitute Allah‘s party (Hizbullah). It is based on a two fold concept of happiness.It must
cater for realization of happiness for the Muslim community in this world as well as prepare
it for happiness hereafter. This objective of Islamic state necessitate that the muslim
(Hizbullah) be founded on the principles of equality, solidarity and freedom.18
Origin and Idea of Nation-State in Islamic Studies, Islamicists regard nation-state as an
equivalent of dawlah (country) under the guidance of the concept of ummah (community of
believers of Islam). There are two approaches related to the emergence of dawlah in Islamic
history. The first approach was the post-Hijrah period (the migration or escape from
persecution of the Prophet and his followers from Mecca to Madinah in 622 CE) where
Madinah under the tutelage of the Prophet carried all functions of a state structure and the
institutionalization of political power. The second one claims that the Madinan society is
based not on state structure but on a community structure because the Prophet was merely a
religious leader and not a political one. Hijrah is viewed as a great event in the history of
Islamic civilization because it is the beginning of strengthening a more consolidated
community of believers of one God. It is a stage of the Prophet's political life in which he
displayed outstanding diplomatic skills and prudence that enabled him to unite all tribes,
ethnicities, religious communities (Jews and Christians) in Madinah into a single political
polity through the establishment of a constitution or charter (Al-Kitab or Al-Sahifa), which is
agreed by all parties to provide mutual support especially in times of war (collective
security), equal socio-political recognition, and economic solidarity. Ummah is considered as

18
Javed Iqbal, Concept of State in Islam,
http://iepistemology.net/v1/attachments/318_V1N1%20Spring%2084%20-%20J%20Iqbal%20-
%20The%20Concept%20of%20State%20in%20Islam.pdf (20/06/2016)
the basic unit of analysis. According to Ayubi, the ummah is given an ‗ideological‘ definition
by the jurists: its universal function is the propagation of the divine message (da‘wa). 19

Bibliography

Altekar, State and Government in Ancient India, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1949

Basham, A.L., The Wonder that was India (34th impression). New Delhi: Rupa & co., 1999,

Bhandarkar, D.R., Carmichael Lectures. Calcutta: Calcutta University, 1918.

Dasgupta,R., Prasad, Development of the Hindu Polity, Proceedings of the Indian History
Congress, Third session, Calcutta, 1939.

Javed Iqbal, Concept of State in Islam

Jayasawal, K.P., Hindu Polity. Bangalore: Bangalore Printing and Publishing Company Ltd.,
1955.

Adiong N.M. ―Nation-State in IR and Islam‖ , Journal of Islamic State Practices in

International Law, Volume 9 Number 1 Summer 2013 Published by
Electronicpublications.Org Ltd

Shamasastry, Evolution of Indian Polity, Calcutta: Calcutta University, 1920.

Sharma, R.S., Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India (fourth edition).
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1996.

Shastri, Jagdish Lal, Political Thought in Puranas. Lahore: Published by the author, 1944.

Spellman, John W., Political Theory of Ancient India. Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1964.

Webliography

State and society in ancient India,

shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/31776/7/07_chapter%201.pdf, p-29(20/06/2016)

Javed Iqbal, Concept of State in Islam,

http://iepistemology.net/v1/attachments/318_V1N1%20Spring%2084%20-
%20J%20Iqbal%20-%20The%20Concept%20of%20State%20in%20Islam.pdf (20/06/2016)

19
N M Adiong – Nation-State in IR and Islam , Journal of Islamic State Practices in International Law, Volume 9
Number 1 Summer 2013 Published by Electronicpublications.Org Ltd