Indian Social Thought

Semester V
By @Harshit Sharma

Manu’s View on the Various Aspects of a Political System

Manu on the Origin of State:

According to many scholars, people initially lived in a state of nature prior to the origin of an
organized state. The state of nature was like a state of war as there was no harmony, peace
and goodwill. This period was considered the darkest period in the human history, a situation
that is more or less equal to Hobbesian Leviathan.

In such conditions, it is stated in Manusmriti that people approached Lord Brahma, the
creator, to relieve them from the tortuous life. Thus, the creator gave them a king to maintain
law and order and punish the wicked. Thus, according to Manu, state is not an institution that
evolved gradually, but was a sudden creation.

Apart from the divine origin of the state, Manu opined that the need for the state was not out
of economic needs, but out of evil inten-tions and uncontrollable habits of mankind. In a way,
it upholds the theory of divine origin of the state.

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Manu on Varna System:
According to Manu, the caste system or the Varna was an essential part of the social fabric of
the ancient Hindu society. He believed that the Varna’s would maintain and preserve social
harmony and peace in the society. He strongly argued that the state with a king came into
existence to protect the Varna system and any failure on the part of the ruler makes him
unworthy of ruling.

Manu provided a fourfold categorization of social organization derived from the Vedic hymns.
They are Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vyshyas and Shudras. It was widely believed that these four
Varnas represent four different parts of the body of the God.

To elaborate further, the Brahmanas rise from the head, the Kshatriyas from the arms, the
Vyshyas from the thighs and the Shudras from the feet. Thus, Brahmanas occupy the highest
place and they were conceived as the incarnation of the law. This supe-rior place given to
Brahmanas in the social hierarchy is due to their purity and knowledge.

The Kshatriyas were accorded the next highest position in the social hierarchy. They were
expected to protect the state by their valor, offer sacrifices as well as gifts and protect the
people. Manu believed that a society would be more secure if there is a harmonious rela-tion
between the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas. The Vyshyas were to be involved in trade and
business, whereas the Shudras were confined to an occupation of serving the above three
castes.

They were barred from all social and sacred learning, and Manu gave them a very low profile
in the society. This fourfold classification was called Chaturvarna theory, which was expected
to maintain harmony in the society. According to Manu, the Varna system was not optional
but had to be an integral part of the social and political set-up.

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Manu on Kingship:
According to Manu, it was God, who created an entity called king to save the people of a
region. Thus, kingship is of divine origin and it is this position held by the king that made the
people expresses their obedience to him. Manu stated that though king appears in a human
form, he possesses the qualities of God.

The king, according to Manu, had certain qualities of Hindu Gods like Indra (God of War),
Vaayu (God of Wind), Yama (God of Death), Ravi (God of Sun), Agni (God of Fire), Chandra or
Moon, and Wealth. Thus, the king was described as an embodiment of eight guardians of the
earth. The king, therefore, was a divine creation to promote social harmony, peace and
welfare.
Qualities of a King:
Manu was of the opinion that king is next best to God and he must have complete control over
himself and his senses. A king was expected to control his anger, satisfy the people and govern
the state with their consent rather than the use of force. The king must exhibit those qualities
that naturally make citizens obey him, and he must function through pleasing manners and
intelligence.

He must overcome the six vices or the Arishadwargas, viz.; Kama (Lust), Krodha (Anger), Lobha
(Greed), Moha (Attachment), Mada (Pride) and Mastcharya (Jealousy). If these six evils or vices
are kept under con-trol, the welfare of society, according to Manu, is certain.
Council of Ministers:
Manu was of the opinion that the council of ministers are like the arms, eyes and ears of the
king. He stated that a king without the council of ministers is like driving a chariot without
wheels. He was of the opinion that an ideal number of council of ministers should not be more
than seven to eight who collectively and individually assist and advise the king in the daily

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discharge of his duties. Apart from mere creation, Manu also emphasized that the council of
ministers must have certain qualities.

The ministers were expected to have high learning skills, men from high caste by birth, good
warriors with a sharp understanding of various techniques of warfare and proper
comprehension of the state system and the like. A minister must prove to be an honest broker
between the king and his subjects without causing any displeasure to the king.

Manu was of the opinion that the selection of the ministers must be through heredi-tary
principle, but the skills and qualities of a contender must also be tested. Or the king must seek
the advice of his trusted friends and relatives while appointing ministers or may appoint his
own friends or relatives. However, Manu cautioned that persons of noble character must be
appointed to occupy pivotal positions. Manu made it very clear that Shudras have no place in
the council of ministers.

Social, Political & Economic Landscapes in Kautilya's Arthashastra

The Arthashastra (or Arthaśāstra) is one of the oldest surviving treatises on statecraft. There is
considerable debate about the dating and authorship of the text; it underwent compilation,
recension, and redaction several times over the centuries and is likely to have been a witness
of religious and ideological transformations, political and socio-economic changes. As a śāstra,
it purports to be authoritative and comprehensive and treats its knowledge as eternal,
unchanging, and universally applicable. Many scholars have examined the text as the “science
of politics” whereas others have seen it as the “science of political economy”, “the science of
material gain” etc. Thomas Trautmann described it as the science of running a state, where
kingship is identified with wealth. The text itself explains various meanings of the word 'artha'-
as the source of livelihood, the earth inhabited by human beings, and the means of protection
and acquisition of the earth.

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The Arthashastra as a treatise on statecraft is not an isolated one in the tradition of this expert
knowledge. The author explicitly mentions that his text is a compilation of the works of former
teachers and throughout the text engages with the advice and arguments of these former
experts. Corroborating this with the mention of various arthaśāstras in epics like
Mahabharata, it has been argued that the Arthashastra relied on pre-existing texts but much
cannot be inferred about its relation with these because none of them has survived
independently. Mark McClish argues that the origin of the text was sometime in the late
centuries of the 1st millennium BCE and its final form may have taken shape by the 3rd-4th
century CE.
Later texts draw significantly on the Arthashastra. The author of the Kamandakiya Nitisara
offers salutation to the author of the Arthashastra for compiling the nītiśāstras and relies so
heavily on it that scholars have often described it as a “summary of the Arthashastra”. Some
historians point out that this Nitisara focuses more on foreign policy and warfare and excludes
the parts on administration and law. It is believed that the latter text was meant to be used by
kings who could not manage to read the Arthashastra as they were preoccupied with the
affairs of the state. There is also a Tamil text, Tirukkural, possibly from the 4th-5th century CE,
that owes a lot to the Arthashastra.
Content
We must remember that Kauṭilya's Arthashastra does not provide us with a clear picture of
social constitution, economic elements, or political developments. The primary concern of the
text is the working of a state with the king at the apex. Hence, our reconstruction would be
bound by the depiction of the state and its association with other aspects of society.
The 15 books of the Arthashastra revolve around one central figure - the king. Be it controlling
the production of a wide range of goods, laying down rules for leisure activities, or prescribing
food ration for every individual, Kauṭilya left no stones unturned to bring every possible aspect
of the state and the lives of its subjects under the ambit of the king's control. He warns that
without a king there will be matsyanyāya (Law of the Fish) that is weaker beings are devoured
by stronger ones and hence a state cannot afford to be kingless.
The Arthashastra puts forward the saptanga theory of the state being comprised of seven
constituent elements:
• the king
• ministers
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 • countryside
• fort
• treasury
• army
• ally
The pre-eminence of the king perhaps stemmed from the fact that he has the power to
acquire and protect productive territory and tax the people living in it. Kauṭilya advises the
king to use daṇḍa (punishment) neither too harshly nor too leniently in order to be honoured.
The Arthashastra speaks about a wide range of topics and as if putting together a “textbook
for kings”, it elucidates on almost all possible aspects that one can think of, such as:
• the training of a prince
• recruiting and appointing officials
• resolving public disputes
• pursuing criminals
• maintaining troops and spies
• conquering areas by defeating other kings.
Economy
The economic landscape of the Arthashastra is agriculture-centred. We find not just methods
of agricultural expansion and details of taxation but considerable information about the
granary, the storehouse of forest products, the armoury, and most importantly the treasury of
the state and an overseer appointed to look after each of them. It must be noted that Kauṭilya
showed grave concern about the kośa or treasury (and emphasized upon the means of the
accumulation of wealth throughout the text) as he believed that the wealth determined the
undertakings by the king and in turn the welfare of the state.
The treatise gives us a detailed account of wages of all kinds of people and taxes to be
collected. Regarding the fiscal policy, Kauṭilya describes different sources of revenue for the
state. The state-controlled the production and distribution of various groups but did not
completely restrict private individuals from manufacturing and selling various products. A. L.
Basham argued that the Kauṭilyan state resembled a sort of state socialism. The fact that
Kauṭilya makes it the duty of the state to look after the certain disadvantaged groups has
made several scholars argue that it represented a welfare state.

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Society
Kauṭilya speaks at length about the king and the ministers of the state but several other
working classes are also talked about. Let us look at two groups that find mention in the text
but have hardly ever received limelight in this treatise or other historical accounts. The
Arthaśāstra contains data on women from various backgrounds. Skilled artisans, spies of the
state, female slaves, prostitutes, farmers earned their livelihood and paid taxes to the state.
Prostitution was seen as an occupation and several categories of prostitutes are mentioned in
the text. There were officials appointed to look into the affairs involved in these professions
and the institutions that aided their smooth working. Suvira Jaiswal argues that Megasthenes'
account of female bodyguards protecting the king was confirmed by Kauṭilya as the king's bed
was surrounded by a troop of women archers. With the tendency of the text to control all
aspects of the state and the lives of the subjects, it lays down rules of marriage, divorce and
inheritance of property, punishments and crimes against and by women. Thus, the text may
not tell us the perspective of women but in many ways gives us a glimpse into the variety of
female experiences during that period.

The other group, perhaps quite unrelated to the first, is the forest communities. Separated
from so-called civilized society, they are known as mlechchajāti. Aloka Parasher Sen argues
that since agriculture was the dominant mode of production, settlement of new villages was
seen as crucial in order to expand the areas of cultivation. For this purpose, the states and
guilds cleared forests lands and displaced the āṭavika through the force of arms or direct
negotiations. Not only was the forest seen as an important resource, but even the labour and
knowledge of these groups is also something that the state can use profitably. Kauṭilya thus
also recommends techniques of bringing forest tribes into the class society and hiring them as
army auxiliaries and spies.
Foreign Policy & War
Intricately related to the expansion of the state is Kauṭilya's perception of ancient Indian
warfare. His theory of warfare comprised of a set of rigid principles which could guarantee
success. Kauṭilya is concerned not just by the war between states but also the intra-state wars
or the rise of rebellions. He suggests extra taxation during emergencies but warns against it in
the long run as he perceives internal security depends on the contentment of the subjects.

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Kauṭilya lays down six measures of foreign policy in the 7th book and elucidates in the conduct
of each:
• peace
• war
• staying quiet
• marching
• seeking shelter
• dual policy.
He advises that during decline one must try to make peace and when prospering, one should
make war and provides techniques to deal with weaker, equal and stronger kings. He gives the
theory of the circle of kings and recognizing friendly and unfriendly elements so that the king
may bring regions under his rule and become the sovereign of the “four corners of the earth”.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Social Reform

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a great social reformer. He modernized Indian society in many ways.

His reforms have been discussed below:

Abolition of Sati:

Raja Ram Mohan Roy raised his voice against the Sati system. In the funeral pyre of the
deceased husband, his wife was mercilessly thrown if she did not enter into the flame
voluntarily. She was termed as Sati. The Brahmins and other higher castes in the society
encouraged it.

Ram Mohan protested it vehemently. Even he went to England to give witness before the Privy
Council against this cruel practice where the orthodox Indians had appealed hot to repeal his
system. His efforts bore fruits and this practice was stopped by an Act passed in 1829 during
Lord William Bentinck. Thus, a long prevailing ugly practice of the Hindus was uprooted.

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Voice against idolatry:

Ram Mohan raised his voice against idolatry. In his book Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin’ he
championed the cause of Monotheism. He criticized idol-worship by the Hindus. He also
opposed the principle of Trinitariasm’ (God, Son Jesus and the holy spirit) of the Christianity.
He rejected polytheism, idol-worship and rituals of different religions. He advocated
monotheism or unity among gods. He also advised people to be guided by the conscience. He
inspired men to cultivate rationality. To all he appealed to observe the principle of unity of
God.

In his words—

“I travelled in the remotest parts of the world. And I found the inhabitants there of agreeing
generally in believing in the existence of one being who is the source of creation and the
Governor of it.”

Further, he formed ‘Atmiya Sabha’ to carry on discussions among scholars on religion and
philosophy. When the Christian missionaries criticized him, he silenced them by writing a
pamphlet- ‘An appeal to the Christian public in defence of the precepts of Jesus’.

Champion of Women Liberty:

Raja Ram Mohan Roy advocated the liberty of Women. He was determined to give women her
proper place in the society. Besides abolishing Sati, he advocated in favor of widow
remarriage. He also told that like the sons, daughters have also their right over parental
property. He also influenced the British government to bring necessary modification in the
existing law. He raised voice against child-marriage and polygamy. He was the advocate of
women education. Thus, he advocated women’s liberty out and out and awakened them.

Opposition to Caste System:

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The caste system was a very ugly practice prevailing in Indian society right from the later Vedic
age. Indian society was fragmented by the name of different castes. The higher castes like
Brahmins and Kshatriyas looked down upon the Sudras, Chandalas and other aboriginals. Ram
Mohan opposed this ugly system of the Indian society. To him everybody was a son or
daughter of the God. So, there is no difference among men.

There should not exist hatred and animosity among them. Everybody is equal before God.
Thus, ignoring differences among themselves they should embrace each other ignoring
differences. Then, the true purpose of God will be materialized. By advocating this equality
among men. Ram Mohan became the eyesore of many higher caste Indians.

Advocate of Western Education:

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a great scholar having sharp intellect in the Vedas, Upanishads,
Quran, Bible and several other holy scriptures. He very well realized the importance of English
language. He could visualize the need of a scientific, rational and progressive education for the
Indians.

During his time, when controversy was going on between the orientalists and occident lists, he
sided with the latter and advocated in favour of the introduction of the English system of
education. He liked Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Botany, Philosophy. At the same time he
also desired that the Indian Vedic studies and philosophical systems were to be studied and
analyzed properly.

He supported the move of Lord Macaulay and championed the cause of the English system of
education in India. His motto was to take Indians the path of progress. He established English
school in 1816 and Vedanta College in 1825. He wanted to introduce modem system of
education. Of course, he could not live to see the introduction of English system of education

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in India in 1835. However, his efforts and dreams were materialized into reality even after his
death.

Father of Indian Journalism:

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the ‘Father of Indian Journalism’. He believed in the freedom of
press. He edited a newspaper in Bengali named ‘Sampled Kaumudi’. He was also the editor of
Mirat- ul-Akbar. When restrictions were imposed on the publications of newspapers, he
reacted sharply and criticized the British authorities vehemently.

In his editorials, he reflected important social, political, economic, religious and other
problems with which the Indians were grossly entangled. This brought public consciousness.
His writings were so powerful that people were deeply moved by this. He could express his
view in powerful English.

Admiring his writings Robert Rickards remarked:

“Ram Mohan’s writings are works that will

immortalize the name of Ram Mohan and

leave future generation to wonder that

English writings of so much beauty and

excellence should be the production, not

of a natural born Briton, but of an

enlightened, self taught Indian Brahmin”

Economic Ideas:

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Ram Mohan’s economic ideas were tinged with liberalism. He wanted the state intervention to
protect the property of the individual. His article ‘Essay over the Rights of the Hindus over
Ancestral Property was a pointer in this direction. One’s claim over the ancestral property was
to be maintained.

Further, he advocated that the peasants should be protected by the government from the
tyranny of the landlords. He was well aware of the dangerous consequences of the permanent
settlement of 1793 introduced by Lord Cornwallis. So, he wanted the British authority to
intervene in the affairs of the Zamindars to protect the peasants.

He advocated the right of Hindu women over property. As a liberal economic thinker he was
deeply concerned with the economic strangulation of the poor in the century. That is why he
had resented strongly against the existing revenue system of the country whose first prey
were the landlords.

Champion of Internationalism:

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the champion of internalism. He wanted universal religion, synthesis
of human culture and ideas, end of imperialism and peaceful co-existence of nations. Thus, he
became the harbinger of a modem age. No Indian by that time had seriously thought about it
what Ram Mohan advocated. He really advocated the principle of collaboration of mankind.
This led Rabindranath Tagore to comment—

“Ram Mohan was the only person in his time …. to realize completely the significance of the
modem age. He knew that the ideal of human civilization does not lie in isolation of
independence but in the brotherhood of interdependence of individuals and nations.”

Reforms through Brahmo Samaj:

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Brahmo Sabha which was transferred into Brahmo Samaj in 1930 became the vehicle of Ram
Mohan’s socio religious reforms. It preached monotheism. It condemned idolatry. It saw no
difference between man and man because it accepted the fatherhood of God and
brotherhood of mankind. It condemned ritualistic practices like animal sacrifice, offering of
Prasad and so on. It also fought for the emancipation of women. Thus, many evil practices like
caste system, Sati, Child marriage. Polygamy etc. were the targets of the Brahmo Samaj.

The Brahmo movement gained momentum through Debendranath Tagore and Keshab
Chandra Sen later on. Thus for the creation of a healthy society, Brahmo Samaj was
determined. This definitely created a mile stone in the cultural heritage of India.

Champion of Nationalism:

Raja Ram Mohan Roy believed in the political freedom of man. In 1821 he had written to J.S.
Buckingham, the editor of the ‘Calcutta Journal’ that he believed in the freedom of European
and Asiatic countries. When Charles X abdicated the throne of France due to the July
Revolution in 1830, Ram Mohan became very happy.

He advised Indians to have self-freedom in thought and action. He showed a bright example by
condemning the Jury Act of1826 which had introduced religious discrimination in the law
courts. According to this Act a Hindu or a Mohammedan could be tried either by a European or
a native Christian but not vice versa. Ram Mohan protested against it. He wrote a letter to J.
Crawford, one of his English friends in this way—

“…. a country like India could not possibly

be expected to be suppressed by force as

Ireland had been.”

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Thus, his nationalism was blatant He definitely fought for the legitimate rights of the Indians
and championed the cause of Indian nationalism. Further, Ram Mohan Roy himself proceeded
to London to plead a case on behalf of Akbar n, the Mughal Emperor. This reflected his
nationalism.

The synthesizer of religion and morality:

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a noble soul. He brought a perfect blending between religion and
morality. According to him a man must possess virtues like merry, morality, catholicity,
forgiveness and so on. These qualities will purify his soul. Further, man will be regulated by
these qualities.

By cultivating these noble qualities a man can acquire divine knowledge and devote for the
welfare of the society at large. Further his religious catholicity will further bloom by the
cultivation of these qualities. Thus, Raja Ram Mohan Roy was undoubtedly a synthesizer of
religion and morality which aimed at the welfare of the society at large.

Love for Liberty and Constitutionalism:

Liberty and constitutionalism were the two important aspects upon which Raja Ram Mohan
emphasized. He preferred a constitutional form of Government for every nation. Despotism or
autocracy, he hated from the core of his heart. He told that a constitutional government could
only give guarantee of Individual freedom. When the people of Naples broke the shekels of
Austrian despotism. Ram Mohan was a happy man. He wrote —

“…… Enemies to liberty and friends of

despotism have never been and never will

be ultimately successful.”

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Thus, he advocated individual liberty and constitutionalism. This clearly project that Ram
Mohan was a champion of human liberty.

Estimate:

Thus, Ram Mohan started his crusade against dogmatism and evils that engulfed the then
Indian society. He consistently endeavored to free the Indian society from the clutches of
immorality, untouchability and impurity and to make it healthy in every aspect. Of course Prof
Sumit Sarkar and Rajat Ray do not appreciate much, because, the Raja failed to check the
oppressive middle class.

Further, Ashok Sen criticizes him for rendering helping hand to the British to make India a
colonial power. However, a little lacuna is to be ignored in case of the Raja, because he started
single hand his operation to eradicate evils from the society.

In true sense of the term, Raja Ram Mohan Roy acted as a bridge between the East and West.
He was the Father of Indian Renaissance’. He was an intellectual of a superb order and still
simple and bold. His ideas and ideals inspired nationalism in India. Against the hazards. Ram
Mohan carried on his reforms and set standards for other Indians to follow. Undoubtedly, Raja
Ram Mohan Roy was regarded as the morning star of Indian Renaissance.

Dayanand Saraswati: Social Reform

Dayanand Saraswati loved Eastern culture very much. His contribution to the reforms of
nineteenth century was immense. An analysis of his reforms has been made.

Veda – The mine of knowledge:

Swami Dayanand put emphasis on the Veda. He praised the culture of the Vedas in no
uncertain terms. He gave the slogan— “Go back to the Vedas”. He discerned how the Vedas
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contained the message of equality, parity and several reforms. The Vedas contain scientific
knowledge, several reforms, philosophy and doctrines of morality.

Dayanand emphasized that the Indian society can be reformed and reconstructed by following
the Vedic practices. Thus, he re-established the importance of Veda on a solid foundation. The
Indians and westerns now became attracted more and more towards the Vedas, its study and
interpretation.

Religious Reforms:

Although Dayanand immortalized the Vedas, however, he opposed idol worship. He raised
voice against ritualistic religious practices. Those religious performances would lead to social,
economic, political and religious degeneration of India. He also rejected the ideas contained in
Indian mythology. He denounced polytheism or worship of God in different forms. He
emphasized that this polytheism had brought the division in Hindu society. Putting emphasis
on monotheism and to devote oneself to the formless God, he wrote in the ‘Satyartha
Prakash’ —

” …. there is only one god with all those

attributes generally ascribed to him by

monotheists. He is the creator first of the

Vedas, then of the world, hence the Vedas

are eternal as compared with the world,

but non-internal as compared with God.”

Thus, Dayanand brought uncompromising revolution in the field of religion. He told that inner
purity is essential for spiritual development. Religion, to a great extent, was to regulate the

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body, mind and spirit of a man. So, religion, truth, purity, emancipation, law, moral conduct
were synonymous to him.

Opposition to Caste System and Untouchability:

Dayanand spearheaded his crusade against caste system and untouchability. He reinterpreted
the system of Varna mentioned in the Veda. It was meant for occupational purpose in the
society. As per the doctrines of guna, karma and swabhava, the society was divided into
different varnas like the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras with their respective
occupation like worship, protecting the country, carrying on trade and commerce and to serve
the other three castes. This occupation were interchangeable. He emphasized the political
need of this division of society. In his words, caste is—

“a political institution made by the rulers

for the common good of the society and

not a natural or religious distinction. It is

not a natural distinction, for the four castes

were not created by God as distinct species

of men; but all men are of equal nature, of

the same species, and brothers”.

In a similar vein, Dayanand denounced untouchability and labeled it as inhuman and unsocial.
He cited the Vedas where the practice of untouchability was not at all present.

Sudhi Movement:

Dayanand was deeply moved by the conversion of the Hindus to the Christianity or Islam. He
appeared as a saviour of Hinduism. He took steps to return back the Hindus into the fold of
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Hinduism those who had accepted Christianity or Islam due to adverse circumstances. Thus, he
initiated a movement which was very famous as the ‘Suddhi Movement’. By this he brought
back the converted Hindus from Christianity or Islam to the fold of Hinduism again. For that he
was vehemently opposed by others but he did not care it at all.

This ‘Suddhi Movement’ of Dayanand mainly checked the attitudes of Christian Fathers who
were converting the poorer section of the Hindus to their religion. This made the mind of the
Hindus strings and checked its further deterioration. Thus, Dayanand appeared as a saviour of
Hinduism.

On Status of Women:

Dayanand championed the cause of women. Child marriage and Purdah system were the
orders of the Hindu society. Women education was restricted and widow remarriage was not
allowed. Dayanand protested against all these evils. He cited the high position of women
during Vedic period. So, he argued in favour of the equal rights of women with men. He
explained that an illiterate woman will be a liability to her husband, children and for the whole
family.

He also asserted the right of women over property. He emphasized on women education and
created provisions for them to read in DAV schools and colleges. He opposed child marriage
and argued in favour of legislation to stop this evil practice. He also condemned polygamy and
polyandry. His reforms, gave a moral boost to the women and helped in their upliftment.

Educational Reforms:

Dayanand gave a terrible blow to Lord macaulay’s idea on English education. For the revival of
India’s glory Dayanand put emphasis on the Vedic education which was based on morality.
Equality of treatment in the educational institution was advocated by Dayanand. Emphasis

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was to be laid down on character building of the pupils championing the moral-based
education. Dayanand wrote in the Satyartha Prakash—

“It is the highest duty of parents, tutors and relatives to adorn children with good, sound
education, nobility of character, refinement of manner and amiability of temper….”

He also recruited the good, noble and kind-hearted teachers having mastery over his subject.
Then and then only, he would be able to infuse new vim and vitality into the nerves of his
pupils. Thus, the motto of education, according to Dayanand, was self-control and character-
building.

Dayanand and Nationalism:

Dayanand was an ardent champion of nationalism. He injected a sense of pride and dignity in
every Indian by unfolding the glorious cultural heritage of this land before them. “Indian for
Indians” was his doctrine. He wanted to get rid of European influence.

He stood for national unity. He revealed that mutual feuds, lack of education, untouchability,
impurity in life, negligence in studying the Vedas etc. were certain reasons for the downfall of
the Indians. When these evils will be relegated to distant background, then nationalism will
emerge among the Indians.

He also emphasized that until and unless India broke the shackles of economic and political
slavery of the Europeans, it cannot achieve independence. For the first time, he had uttered
the word “Swaraj” and put emphasis on “Swadeshi” or self-reliance. Thus, Swami Dayanand
was a champion of Indian nationalism.

Believer of Democracy:

Swami Dayanand was a firm believer in the concept of democracy. He vehemently condemned
imperialism and colonialism. He believed in the process of election. An elected body according

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to him, would definitely protect the interest of the common men. A ruler should not be an
autocrat or impose his whims and caprices over the people. He cited Veda and told that
everybody was equal before the law—the king and the subjects. In his words —

“…. the relationship between the ruler and

the ruled should be based on mutual

respect and responsibility. The ruler should

treat their people as their own sons and

daughters, the latter should respect the

former as their father……………………….. ”

Dayanand was well aware of the fact that absolute power tends to corrupt a man. So, he was
against it. He championed liberalism and democracy. He also advocated about the
decentralization of power.

Importance of Village Administration:

The importance of village administration was felt by Swami Dayanand Saraswati. He told that
the villages should be involved with the system of administration. Due to that the all-round
development of villages would be possible. There should be a hierarchy of officers in charge of
several villages.

They would give their best direction for the progress and prosperity of the villages. India,
whose lifeblood is present in the village life, would be glorified by the progress and prosperity
of villages. Much before Mahatma Gandhi, Swami Dayanand Saraswati had thought about the
village administration and economic progress of the villages.

Nation Building through language:

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Swami Dayanand was a nation builder. The necessity of a common language for fostering
national unity was felt by him. He had observed that Hindu was spoken largely by the people
of India. He could discern that it might be a cementing force among the Indians. So, Dayanand
his ‘Satyartha Prakash’ in Hindi. He also write the commentaries on the Vedas in Hindi. This
endeavor of Dayanand facilitated the common men to go through the inner meaning of the
Veda. Thus, Hindi became the Lingua Franca in the country. Its importance was largely felt
during the freedom struggle.

Reforms through Arya Samaj:

Dayanand established ‘Arya Samaj’ in 1875. Through it he carried on several reforms. It

emphasized that —

1. God is omnipotent and the creator of the world.

2. Veda is the mine of knowledge and every Arya must read it.

3. One must prefer truth instead of lie.

4. Through oblation the religious practices should be made.

5. The Samaj shall do stuti, prarthana and upasana.

6. The Arya Samaj will work for the interest of the society.

7. The duty of the Samaj is to serve for the interest of the universe.

8. It is determined to put an end to illiteracy and spread education.

9. One should not believe in the theory of incarnation and idolatry.

10. Man should have faith on the theory of Karma and rebirth.

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Through these principles Swami Dayanand carried an several reforms in social, religious and
philanthropic fronts.

Estimate:

Swami Dayanand Saraswati was condemned variously for his conservatism. He glorified Veda
and Hindu culture even at the cost of Christianity and Islam. Further, he tried to establish
blindly the superiority of the Aryas. In the next turn, he took for granted the Vedic polity as a
perfect one and failed to find fault in it. However, Dayanand never criticized any religious
belief Even, he never directly inspired any Indians to fight against the British authorities.

His ideas of ‘Swadeshi’ and ‘Swaraj’ later on inspired Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai and
Aurobindo Ghosh. His Suddhi Movement established a new milestone in the realm of Hindu
reformative movement. His burning patriotism inspired many Indian leaders. Paying tribute to
him, Subhas Chandra Bose remarked —

“Swami Dayanand Saraswati is certainly one of the most powerful personalities who has
shaped modern Indian and is responsible for its moral regeneration and religious revival.”

Indeed, the reforms of Swami Dayanand Saraswati had inspired the Indians immensely. The
reforms which Dayanand carried on through the Arya Samaj are certainly memorable. Through
various social, religious and other reforms Dayanand established the superiority of the Veda.
The Anglo-Vedic Colleges established by Dayanand Saraswati, later on, played a vital role for
the spread of education in the nook and comer of our country.

Madan Mohan Malviya on Women Education

Glorious was the Nineteenth century for India, the seed time when several great leaders,
visionaries and spiritual luminaries were born to lead Indian renaissance. Among them was
Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, the shining star, popularly known as Mahamana (a name
given to him by Gandhiji) who was an epitome of Indian spiritual heritage. One of the greatest
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leaders who shaped the values and ideals of modern India, Malaviyaji was an interpreter and
mediator between the civilization of the East and the West. A man of many parts, his genius as
an educationist, as a social reformer, as a writer and a legislator has left a deep imprint on our
polity and society. A great patriot and a rare visionary, he enshrined a combination of idealism
and practical wisdom.

An educationist and social reformer par excellence, Malaviyaji fought for the right and better
place for down trodden and backward sections of the society. He ardently favored the idea of
social upliftment of women and opined that they should be properly educated he sincerely
took up the cause of women education and advocated that girls must be well educated as they
will become the true teachers of their children.

Malaviyaji knew that the welfare of household, society and humanity depended largely on
girls, ladies and housewives. He, therefore, set it as a mission to free them from
backwardness. He was in faouvr of adult suffrage for women and the removal of Purdah. He
supported window remarriage and opposed child marriage both for boys and girls. In this
speeches and writings he always talked about the equality of men and women in our society.
He was firm in his belief that liberty and justice “are birth right of every man and woman”.
(The Hindustan Times, Feb. 5, 1932).

He wanted all round development of women in all sectors of life. He was happy to see women
participating in the Swadeshi movement and blessed them. A staunch believer in Swadeshi,
Malaviyaji launched campaigns for the use of Indian goods to help the freedom struggle. His
wife, Kundan Devi, led and presided over the women’s meeting at Allahabad and his daughter-
in-law courted imprisonment. The other ladies of his family also attended public meetings.

Malaviyaji emphasized the role of women in social reconstruction. He was firm in his
conviction that women should receive education like men so that they could play better role in
the day-to-day functioning of their domestic and external lives. He advised them to occupy
themselves, specially spinning; maintain good health in order to participate in activities having
deep linage with Indian nationalism.

The following excerpt from “Twelfth convocation Address in B.H.U. delivered by Malviyaji
explicitly and categorically puts forth his views on the role and functionality of women:

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The education of our women is a matter of even greater importance than the education of our
men. They are the mothers of the future generations of India. They will be the first and the
most influential educators of the future statesmen, scholars, philosophers, captain of
commerce and industry and other leaders of men. Their education will profoundly affect the
education of the future citizen of India. The Mahabharata says:

“There is no teacher like the mother”. We must, therefore, define the goal of their education
and take counsel together and obtain the best advice as to what course will most suit them,
how we shall secure to them a good knowledge of our ancient literature and culture and
combine with it a knowledge of modern literature and science, particularly biological science,
of art and painting, and of music, how we shall secure the physical, intellectual, moral and
spiritual building of the womanhood of the country.

This excerpt coupled with the following statement from the same speech makes it amply clear
that he didn’t want women to run the same way as men; He lamented over the fact that “we
are asking our girls to pursue the same courses which is prescribed for our young men without
defining to ourselves the results which we desire to follow from their education.”

As a true visionary, he wanted to visualize beforehand what will be the role of women in the
act of national reconstruction. Towards this he made a fervent plea in these word: “Do we
want to rear up women of the type of Savtri and Arundhati, Maitreyi and Gargi, Lilavati and
Sulabha of old, or the type of administrators like Ahalyabai or of the type of the brave fighter
Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, or women who will combine the best characteristics of the women of
the past and of the present, but who will be qualified by their education and training to play
their full part in building up the new India of the future? These and similar questions will
demand consideration before a national programme for the education of our women will be
settled. Statesmen and scholars shall have to sit together to discuss and recommend such a
programme”. But, unfortunately, Mahamana’s call for a National Programme for women’s
education has remained an unrealized vision till date owing to the lack of commitment and
vision on the part of policy makers.

To the mothers, the Mahamana was always reverential and worshipful. He always addressed
them as ‘Deviyo’. N.C. Kelkar recounts: “His (Malaviya’s) views on female education and things
of that kind are remarkable broad, and whenever I hear him addressing ladies as ‘Deivs’, I feel
that the means fully all that is conveyed in that beautiful expression.”
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There was purity in Mahamana’s expression and divinity in his look. He would tell the women
of the immortal stores of Arundhati, Draupadi, Maitreyi, Gargi, Savitri and Sita and transport
his listeners to ethereal realms. The women of India, in return, adored Mahamana. V.A.
Sundaram narrates the charismatic appeal of Mahaman in these words:

Who can forget the vast gathering of fifty thousand women, who had gathered on the Bombay
beach to hear his soul-stirring address in 1930, during the Satyagraha days when he came out
of Bombay Arthur Road Jail. He exhorted the women of India to be brave and fearless and to
save their honor in moments of danger and practice methods of self defense. The
Mahamana’s concern of the uplift of our womenfolk:

There was, many years ago, a prize distribution at the Kayastha Pathshala at Allahabad where
he (Malaviya) and I had both gone. It was presided over by and English judge of the Allahabd
High Court, who was accompanied by his unmarried young daughter, who looked the very
picture of health and strength. At the close of the meeting Malayaji tuned to me said: “Did you
notice anything?” I replied that I was myself thinking of that matter. He excel aimed, “when
shall we have such girls in our country?

It is with these objectives in mind that Mahamana was equally keen to set up an institution to
cater to the needs of women exclusively. After Banaras Hindu University became a reality, he
announced the establishment of the women’s college of the University in 1929. This institution
has played a seminal role in the spread of women’s empowerment through education. Its
steady growth and development stands testimony to the spontaneous social revolution that
has been brought about in the wake of Mahamana’s vision. If the present reality allows us to
encounter that dream as actuality, the efforts and vision of that man certainly stand as
backbone.

It is altogether a different matter that education today in our country is standing at a cross-
road. It has not only lost its heart, it seems to have lost its direction and goal, it is a sad
situation, the holistic and pragmatic approach advocated by Mahamana can work as savior.
Education should aim at making healthy minds dwelling in healthy bodies instead of just
making wealthy careers alone. In view of this, Mahamana will always remain a beacon of light
paving us the right path.

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Mahatma Gandhi: Trusteeship
• Trusteeship is a socio-economic philosophy that was propounded by Mahatma Gandhi.
It provides a means by which the wealthy people would be the trustees of trusts that
looked after the welfare of the people in general. This concept was condemned by
socialists as being in favour of the landlords, feudal princes and the capitalists, opposed
to socialist theories.
• Trusteeship essentially means having faith and confidence in a process of taking
responsibility for assets and social values, and administering their rightful and creative
usage for the benefit of others now, and in coming generations.
Trusteeship of Gandhiji:
• In the first instance, everything must be surrendered to God and then out of it one may
use only that which is necessary for the service of God’s creation, according to one’s
strict needs.
• When an individual had more than his respective portion, he became a trustee of that
portion for God’s people.
• Gandhi suggested this doctrine as an answer to the economic inequalities a kind of non-
violent way of resolving all social and economic conflicts.

Gandhian Principle of Trusteeship

• Gandhian Principle of Trusteeship is closely related to the “Social Responsibility of
Business”. According to the Gandhian Concept of Trusteeship “All business firms must
work like a trust”.
• All assets of the firm must be held by a trust and must be used for the welfare of the
social. The firm must keep only a small part of its profits for the honorable livelihood of
its owners. The remaining part of the profit must be distributed equitably to all sections
of society.

Principles of Trusteeship:
Reduce Inequalities

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 • This concept tries to reduce inequalities.
• It tries to reduce gap between the rich and poor.
• It tries to reduce exploitation.
Change of Attitude of Businessmen
• According to Mahatma Gandhi, businessmen should change their attitude.
• They have no moral right to accumulate unlimited wealth while most of their
countrymen live in poverty and misery.
• Each businessman should take enough wealth to live honorably.
• He should distribute the remaining wealth back to the society. Gandhiji advised the rich
businessmen to voluntarily surrender their surplus wealth.
• If not done so, the poor masses may revolt one day and plunder their entire wealth by
force.
Social Pressure
• People must put social pressure on businessmen to follow the principle of trusteeship.
They should boycott the products of those who do not practice trusteeship.
Legal Pressure
• If voluntary measures and social pressure do not work, legal pressure must be put on
the businessmen to follow the principle of trusteeship.
Socialism
• This concept gives more importance to socialism. That is, the society is given much more
importance that an individual. So, the wealth of the society should be distributed
equitably to all its members.
Consider Social Needs
• Businessmen should produce only those goods and services which are useful for all the
members of the society. They should not produce goods and services, which are used
only by few individuals.
Equal distribution of wealth

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 • According to Gandhiji, all the wealth of the society should be distributed equitably.
There should not be concentration of wealth in few hands.
Earn Money by Hardwork
• A person should earn is living by doing hard work. Earning money without hard work is
like stealing.
No right to private Ownership
• This concept does not give the right to private ownership except when it is necessary.
Government Regulation
• The government should regulate trusteeship. No individual should be allowed to use his
wealth for selfish satisfaction or against the interest of society.

Gandhi on Gram Swaraj

Gram Swaraj also called village self-rule, was a pivotal concept in Gandhi’s thinking. According
to Gandhi’s thought, the village was his priority for political and social organization. The village
was his center of attention for this organization.
The governmental jurisdictions below the state level are called local governments in India.
According to the Constitution of the country, India Consists of three spheres of government
including the Central, state, and local governments. It is a federal republic. According to the 73rd
and 74th Constitutional amendments as per the Constitution of the country, there is recognition
and protection given to local governments in the country besides each state having its own local
government legislation.
Gram Swaraj
Origin
According to Gandhi’s thought, Gram Swaraj could be understood as twin beacons of truth and
nonviolence. The concept of Gram Swaraj states that every village should be independent and
should be its only republic. The village should be independent of its neighboring villages and
should not be dependent on them for any of its vital needs and wants. However, the villages can
be dependent on each other for some needs and wants in which dependency is a must. Basically,
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Gandhi wanted that each village should be self-sufficient and self-sustaining as far as basic
necessities of life were concerned which included clean water, sanitation, housing, education,
food, clothing, and so on. It also included self-defense and the government and all other societal
needs which a man wants. For example, this also includes having a movie theatre in the village
for its self-sufficiency. Gandhi wanted that in the country of India, every village should be self-
reliant and should be a republic having full powers of its own. Then, as now, these were
revolutionary ideas.
Development benefits
Gandhiji’s idea of Gram Swaraj has a unique bearing and aptness. Taking into consideration the
social and environmental sustainability of development. Gandhiji believed that ‘there is enough
on earth to satisfy everybody’s need but not for anybody’s greed’. After the 2008 global financial
crisis, the principle of too big to fail is no more considered valid in this world. Even the most
prominent banks went bankrupt during the financial crisis of 2008 because of the US housing
bubble. India, at this stage, needs to take active steps to ensure the protection of its economy
that is facing a recession in the present. Gandhiji’s idea of gram Swaraj can be an Indian version
to help grow the aggregate demand in the economy through income generation. When the
aggregate demand will rise, it will result in more money generation, employment generation,
and various other benefits that would benefit the country. The fundamental reasons for the lack
of required aggregate demand include deprivation of rural masses of productive resources and
the absence of sustainable growth in the economy and problems in earning a daily livelihood by
the citizens of the country. Gandhiji’s idea about Gram Swaraj giving village self-reliance even
at individual levels can result in potential exploitation of small-scale industries and cottage
industries. It will not only provide employment to the rural people and peasants but also help
in the decentralization of production, making rural areas urban and improving the self-
sufficiency of every village.

Gandhi on Non- Violence

Nonviolence was not Gandhi's invention. He is however called the father of nonviolence
because according to Mark Shepard, "He raised nonviolent action to a level never before
achieved." Krishna Kripalani again asserts "Gandhi was the first in Human history to extend the
principle of nonviolence from the individual to social and political plane." While scholars were

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talking about an idea without a name or a movement, Gandhi is the person who came up with
the name and brought together different related ideas under one concept: Satyagraha.

Gandhi's View of Violence / Nonviolence

Gandhi saw violence pejoratively and also identified two forms of violence; Passive and
Physical, as we saw earlier. The practice of passive violence is a daily affair, consciously and
unconsciously. It is again the fuel that ignites the fire of physical violence. Gandhi understands
violence from its Sanskrit root, "himsa", meaning injury. In the midst of hyper violence, Gandhi
teaches that the one who possess nonviolence is blessed. Blessed is the man who can perceive
the law of ahimsa (nonviolence) in the midst of the raging fire of himsa all around him. We
bow in reverence to such a man by his example. The more adverse the circumstances around
him, the intenser grows his longing for deliverance from the bondage of flesh which is a
vehicle of himsa... Gandhi objects to violence because it perpetuates hatred. When it appears
to do 'good', the good is only temporary and cannot do any good in the long run. A true
nonviolence activist accepts violence on himself without inflicting it on another. This is
heroism, and will be discussed in another section. When Gandhi says that in the course of
fighting for human rights, one should accept violence and self-suffering, he does not applaud
cowardice. Cowardice for him is "the greatest violence, certainly, far greater than bloodshed
and the like that generally go under the name of violence."For Gandhi, perpetrators of
violence (whom he referred to as criminals), are products of social disintegration. Gandhi feels
that violence is not a natural tendency of humans. It is a learned experience. There is need for
a perfect weapon to combat violence and this is nonviolence.Gandhi understood nonviolence
from its Sanskrit root "Ahimsa". Ahimsa is just translated to mean nonviolence in English, but it
implies more than just avoidance of physical violence. Ahimsa implies total nonviolence, no
physical violence, and no passive violence. Gandhi translates Ahimsa as love. This is explained
by Arun Gandhi in an interview thus; "He (Gandhi) said ahimsa means love. Because if you
have love towards somebody, and you respect that person, then you are not going to do any
harm to that person. "For Gandhi, nonviolence is the greatest force at the disposal of mankind.
It is mightier than any weapon of mass destruction. It is superior to brute force. It is a living
force of power and no one has been or will ever be able to measure its limits or it's
extend.Gandhi's nonviolence is the search for truth. Truth is the most fundamental aspect in
Gandhi's Philosophy of nonviolence. His whole life has been "experiments of truth". It was in

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this course of his pursuit of truth that Gandhi discovered nonviolence, which he further
explained in his Autobiography thus "Ahimsa is the basis of the search for truth. I am realizing
that this search is vain, unless it is founded on ahimsa as the basis."Truth and nonviolence are
as old as the hills.For nonviolence to be strong and effective, it must begin with the mind,
without which it will be nonviolence of the weak and cowardly. A coward is a person who lacks
courage when facing a dangerous and unpleasant situation and tries to avoid it. A man cannot
practice ahimsa and at the same time be a coward. True nonviolence is dissociated from fear.
Gandhi feels that possession of arms is not only cowardice but also lack of fearlessness or
courage. Gandhi stressed this when he says; "I can imagine a fully armed man to be at heart a
coward. Possession of arms implies an element of fear, if not cowardice but true nonviolence
is impossibility without the possession of unadulterated fearlessness." In the face of violence
and injustice, Gandhi considers violent resistance preferable to cowardly submission. There is
hope that a violent man may someday be nonviolent, but there is no room for a coward to
develop fearlessness.
As the world's pioneer in nonviolent theory and practice, Gandhi unequivocally stated that
nonviolence contained a universal applicability. In his letter to Daniel Oliver in Hammana
Lebanon on the 11th of 1937 Gandhi used these words: " I have no message to give except this
that there is no deliverance for any people on this earth or for all the people of this earth
except through truth and nonviolence in every walk of life without any exceptions." In this
passage, Gandhi promises "deliverance" through nonviolence for oppressed peoples without
exception. Speaking primarily with regards to nonviolence as a libratory philosophy in this
passage, Gandhi emphasizes the power of nonviolence to emancipate spiritually and
physically. It is a science and of its own can lead one to pure democracy.

Satyagraha, the Centre of Gandhi's Contribution to the Philosophy of Nonviolence

It will be good here to examine what Stanley E. Jones calls "the centre of Gandhi's contribution
to the world". All else is marginal compared to it. Satyagraha is the quintessence of Gandhism.
Through it, Gandhi introduced a new spirit to the world. It is the greatest of all Gandhi's
contribution to the world.

What is Satyagraha?

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Satyagraha (pronounced sat-YAH-graha) is a compound of two Sanskrit nouns satya, meaning
truth (from 'sat'- 'being' with a suffix 'ya'), and agraha, meaning, "firm grasping" (a noun made
from the agra, which has its root 'grah'- 'seize', 'grasp', with the verbal prefix 'a' – 'to'
'towards). Thus Satyagraha literally means devotion to truth, remaining firm on the truth and
resisting untruth actively but nonviolently. Since the only way for Gandhi getting to the truth is
by nonviolence (love), it follows that Satyagraha implies an unwavering search for the truth
using nonviolence. Satyagraha according to Michael Nagler literally means 'clinging to truth,'
and that was exactly how Gandhi understood it: "clinging to the truth that we are all one
under the skin, that there is no such thing as a 'win/lose' confrontation because all our
important interests are really the same, that consciously or not every single person wants
unity and peace with every other" Put succinctly, Satyagraha means 'truth force' , 'soul force'
or as Martin Luther Jr would call it 'love in action.' Satyagraha has often been defined as the
philosophy of nonviolent resistance most famously employed by Mahatma Gandhi, in forcing
an end to the British domination. Gene Sharp did not hesitate to define Satyagraha simply as
"Gandhian Nonviolence."

Today as Nagler would say, when we use the word Satyagraha we sometimes mean that
general principle, the fact that love is stronger than hate (and we can learn to use it to
overcome hate), and sometimes we mean more specifically active resistance by a repressed
group; sometimes, even more specifically, we apply the term to a given movement like Salt
Satyagraha etc. It is worthwhile looking at the way Gandhi uses Satyagraha.

Gandhi View of Satyagraha

Satyagraha was not a preconceived plan for Gandhi. Event in his life culminating in his
"Bramacharya vow", prepared him for it. He therefore underlined:
Events were so shaping themselves in Johannesburg as to make this self-purification on my
part a preliminary as it were to Satyagraha. I can now see that all the principal events of my
life, culminating in the vow of Bramacharya were secretly preparing me for it.12
Satyagraha is a moral weapon and the stress is on soul force over physical force. It aims at
winning the enemy through love and patient suffering. It aims at winning over an unjust law,
not at crushing, punishing, or taking revenge against the authority, but to convert and heal it.

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Though it started as a struggle for political rights, Satyagraha became in the long run a struggle
for individual salvation, which could be achieved through love and self-sacrifice. Satyagraha is
meant to overcome all methods of violence. Gandhi explained in a letter to Lord Hunter that
Satyagraha is a movement based entirely upon truth. It replaces every form of violence, direct
and indirect, veiled and unveiled and whether in thought, word or deed.
Satyagraha is for the strong in spirit. A doubter or a timid person cannot do it. Satyagraha
teaches the art of living well as well as dying. It is love and unshakeable firmness that comes
from it. Its training is meant for all, irrespective of age and sex. The most important training is
mental not physical. It has some basic precepts treated below.

The Basic Precepts of Satyagraha

There are three basic precepts essential to Satyagraha: Truth, Nonviolence and self-suffering.
These are called the pillars of Satyagraha. Failure to grasp them is a handicap to the
understanding of Gandhi's non –violence. These three fundamentals correspond to Sanskrit
terms:
Sat/Satya – Truth implying openness, honesty and fairness
Ahimsa/Nonviolence – refusal to inflict injury upon others.
Tapasya – willingness to self-sacrifice.
These fundamental concepts are elaborated below.

1.Satya/Truth:

Satyagraha as stated before literally means truth force. Truth is relative. Man is not capable of
knowing the absolute truth. Satyagraha implies working steadily towards a discovery of the
absolute truth and converting the opponent into a trend in the working process. What a
person sees as truth may just as clearly be untrue for another. Gandhi made his life a
numerous experiments with truth. In holding to the truth, he claims to be making a ceaseless
effort to find it.
Gandhi's conception of truth is deeply rooted in Hinduism. The emphasis of Satya-truth is
paramount in the writings of the Indian philosophers. "Satyannasti Parodharmati (Satyan Nasti
Paro Dharma Ti) – there is no religion or duty greater than truth", holds a prominent place in
Hinduism. Reaching pure and absolute truth is attaining moksha. Gandhi holds that truth is
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God, and maintains that it is an integral part of Satyagraha. He explains it thus:
The world rests upon the bedrock of satya or truth; asatya meaning untruth also means
"nonexistent" and satya or truth, means that which is of untruth does not so much exist. Its
victory is out of the question. And truth being "that which is" can never be destroyed. This is
the doctrine of Satyagraha in a nutshell.

2.Ahimsa:

In Gandhi's Satyagraha, truth is inseparable from Ahimsa. Ahimsa expresses as ancient Hindu,
Jain and Buddhist ethical precept. The negative prefix 'a' plus himsa meaning injury make up
the world normally translated 'nonviolence'. The term Ahimsa appears in Hindu teachings as
early as the Chandoya Upanishad. The Jain Religion constitutes Ahimsa as the first vow. It is a
cardinal virtue in Buddhism. Despite its being rooted in these Religions, the special
contribution of Gandhi was:
To make the concept of Ahimsa meaningful in the social and political spheres by moulding
tools for nonviolent action to use as a positive force in the search for social and political truths.
Gandhi formed Ahimsa into the active social technique, which was to challenge political
authorities and religious orthodoxy.
It is worth noting that this 'active social technique which was to challenge political authorities',
used by Gandhi is none other than Satyagraha. Truly enough, the Indian milieu was already
infused with notions of Ahimsa. Nevertheless, Gandhi acknowledged that it was an essential
part of his experiments with the truth whose technique of action he called Satyagraha.
At the root of Satya and Ahimsa is love. While making discourses on the Bhagavad-Gita, an
author says: Truth, peace, righteousness and nonviolence, Satya, Shanti, Dharma and Ahimsa,
do not exist separately. They are all essentially dependent on love. When love enters the
thoughts it becomes truth. When it manifests itself in the form of action it becomes truth.
When Love manifests itself in the form of action it becomes Dharma or righteousness. When
your feelings become saturated with love you become peace itself. The very meaning of the
word peace is love. When you fill your understanding with love it is Ahimsa. Practicing love is
Dharma, thinking of love is Satya, feeling love is Shanti, and understanding love is Ahimsa. For
all these values it is love which flows as the undercurrent.
3.; Tapasya (Self-Suffering);

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it remains a truism that the classical yogic laws of self-restraint and self-discipline are familiar
elements in Indian culture. Self-suffering in Satyagraha is a test of love. It is detected first of all
towards the much persuasion of one whom is undertaken. Gandhi distinguished self-suffering
from cowardice. Gandhi's choice of self-suffering does not mean that he valued life low. It is
rather a sign of voluntary help and it is noble and morally enriching. He himself says;
It is not because I value life lo I can countenance with joy Thousands voluntary losing their
lives for Satyagraha, but because I know that it results in the long run in the least loss of life,
and what is more, it ennobles those who lose their lives and morally enriches the world for
their sacrifice. Satyagraha is at its best when preached and practiced by those who would use
arms but decided instead to invite suffering upon them.
It is not easy for a western mind or nonoriental philosopher to understand this issue of self-
suffering. In fact, in Satyagraha, the element of self-suffering is perhaps the least acceptable to
a western mind. Yet such sacrifice may well provide the ultimate means of realizing that
characteristic so eminent in Christian religion and western moral philosophy: The dignity of the
individual.
The three elements: Satya, Ahimsa, Tapasya must move together for the success of any
Satyagraha campaign. It follows that Ahimsa – which implies love, leads in turn to social
service. Truth leads to an ethical humanism. Self-suffering not for its own sake, but for the
demonstration of sincerity flowing from refusal to injure the opponent while at the same time
holding to the truth, implies sacrifice and preparation for sacrifice even to death.

Satyagraha in Action

For Satyagraha to be valid, it has to be tested. When the principles are applied to specific
political and social action, the tools of civil disobedience, noncooperation, nonviolent strike,
and constructive action are cherished. South Africa and India were 'laboratories' where Gandhi
tested his new technique. Satyagraha was a necessary weapon for Gandhi to work in South
Africa and India. Louis Fischer attests that: "Gandhi could never have achieved what he did in
South Africa and India but for a weapon peculiarly his own. It was unprecedented indeed; it
was so unique he could not find a name for it until he finally hit upon Satyagraha."
South Africa is the acclaimed birthplace of Satyagraha. Here Satyagraha was employed to fight
for the civil rights of Indians in South Africa. In India, Gandhi applied Satyagraha in his socio-
political milieu and carried out several acts of civil disobedience culminating in the Salt March.
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Another wonderful way of seeing Satyagraha in action is through the fasting of Mahatma
Gandhi. Fasting was part and parcel of his philosophy of truth and nonviolence. Mahatma
Gandhi was an activist – a moral and spiritual activist. And fasting was "one of his strategies of
activism, in many ways his most powerful."

Qualities of a Satyagrahi (Nonviolence Activist)

Gandhi was quite aware that there was need to train people who could carry on with his
Satyagraha campaigns. He trained them in his "Satyagraha Ashrams". Here are some of the
basic qualities of expected of a Satyagrahi.
A Satyagraha should have a living faith in God for he is his only Rock.
One must believe in truth and nonviolence as one's creed and therefore have faith in the
inherent goodness of human nature.
One must live a chaste life and be ready and willing for the sake of one's cause to give up his
life and his possessions.
One must be free from the use any intoxicant, in order that his reason may be undivided and
his mind constant.
One must carry out with a willing heart all the rules of discipline as may be laid down from
time to time. One should carry out the jail rules unless they are especially dense to hurt his
self-respect. A satyagrahi must accept to suffer in order to correct a situation.
In a nutshell, Satyagraha is itself a movement intended to fight social and promote ethical
values. It is a whole philosophy of nonviolence. It is undertaken only after all the other
peaceful means have proven ineffective. At its heart is nonviolence. An attempt is made to
convert, persuade or win over the opponent. It involves applying the forces of both reason and
conscience simultaneously, while holding aloft the indisputable truth of his/her position. The
Satyagrahi also engages in acts of voluntary suffering. Any violence inflicted by the opponent is
accepted without retaliation. The opponent can only become morally bankrupt if violence
continues to be inflicted indefinitely.
Several methods can be applied in a Satyagraha campaign. Stephen Murphy gives primacy to
"noncooperation and fasting". Bertrand Russell has this to say about Gandhi's method:
The essence of this method which he (Gandhi) gradually brought to greater and greater
perfection consisted in refusal to do things, which the authorities wished to have done, while

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abstaining from any positive action of an aggressive sort.... The method always had in Gandhi's
mind a religious aspect... As a rule, this method depended upon moral force for its success.

The Gandhiji’s Concept Regarding Sarvodaya

It was Mahatma Gandhi who first used the word Sarvodaya in modern times. Etymologically
speaking, Sarvodaya means ‘the rise or welfare of all’. Gandhiji borrowed this concept from
John Ruskin’s Unto This Last. The proper rendering of Unto This Last would be Antyodaya
(uplift of the last) rather than Sarvodaya.

Vinobha Bhave rightly says: “Of course the last one’s uplift is included in the uplift of all, but in
emphasizing the last, the object is that work should begin from that end.” For Gandhiji,
Sarvodaya is the true panacea for all types of social or political problems experienced by Indian
society. After the death of Gandhiji, Acharya Vinoba Bhave and Jayaprakash Narayan have
highlighted the essentials of Sarvodaya in their own light.

Vinoba Bhave developed Gandhiji’s concept of Sarvodaya keeping in view changing socio-
economic circumstances. The movement of Bhoodan and Gramdan and his unique method of
spreading his message of compassion through padayatra have attracted worldwide attention.
J. P. Narayan holds the view that Sarvodaya stands for the sublime goals of freedom, equality,
brotherhood and peace. Realization of a rich, total and integrated life is the basic objective of
Sarvodaya philosophy.

According to Kumarappa, Sarvodaya represents the ideal social order according to Gandhiji. Its
basis is all-embracing love. J. P. Chandra opines that by bringing about a countrywide
decentralisation of both political and economic powers, Sarvodaya provides opportunity for
the all-round development of the individual and the society.
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Sarvodaya seeks the happiness of each and all. Hence it is superior to the utilitarian concept
of’ greatest happiness of the greatest number.’ Dada Dharmadhikari highlighted the
distinction between Sarvodaya and western Isms which speaks of three stages in the evolution
of humanist thought; first came Darwin with his advocation of the principle of the survival of
the fittest; next came Huxley with the doctrine ‘live and let live’ and today, ‘Sarvodaya’ going
one step further asserts ‘Live in order to help others live’.

The main tenets of the Sarvodaya philosophy as propounded by Gandhiji and subsequently
explained by the pioneers of this movement are as follows:

1. Sarvodaya reiterates belief in God and, further, it identifies that belief with faith in the
goodness of man and with services, of humanity.

2. It attaches importance to the principle of trusteeship as implying the abolition of private

ownership and the application of the principle of non-possession to public institutions.

3. Sarvodaya envisages a new humanistic socialist society. Man will be the centre of such a
society. Unless man cultivates values like love, sincerity, truth, an abiding sympathy etc., the
emergence of a new society would only remain a pious dream. In this process of change the
State has little role to play. The State, at best, can effect change at the level of the external
behaviour of man. It fails to influence the inner springs of life. This mental transformation is
only possible through appeal and persuasion.

4. Sarvodaya visualises a simple, non-violent and decentralised society. In capitalism and state
socialism the individual becomes alone and isolated. Sarvodaya is opposed to both. In the
scheme of Sarvodaya the people are endowed with real power. Democracy becomes
meaningful and assumes significance only when its structure is reared on the foundation of
village Panchayats.

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The Sarvodaya movement inculcates this democratic awareness among the people especially
among the ruralites. Again in the scheme of Sarvodaya decentralisation of industry takes place
through the organisation of small-scale, cottage and village industries. The reason is not far to
seek.

In a country like India where there is acute shortage of capital and abundance of labour, any
attempt at industrialization through high technology is doomed to failure. Moreover, the
decentralization of production would prevent bureaucratisation of the economic system.

5. Sarvodaya idea contains the content of egalitarianism. It rests on the principle of true
equality and liberty. It stands opposed to exploitation of any kind.

6. The concept of Sarvodaya views work as an offering to the Lord. Further, the principle of
equality of all religions finds better elucidation in some of the thinkers of Sarvodaya
philosophy.

7. In Sarvodaya programme the standard of life is fundamental and not the standard of living.
A rise in the standard of living might even lower the standard of life by reducing man’s
physical, moral, intellectual and spiritual standards and powers.

8. The Sarvodaya philosophy stands opposed to parliamentary democracy and party system. It
is because the party system divides the society into various groups. J. P. Narayan wanted to
replace the existing parliamentary system through political and economic decentralisation of
powers and functions. Sarvodaya stands for establishment of an integrated cooperative
society.

9. Sarvodaya programme gives prime place to planning. According to the scheme of Sarvodaya
planning must proceed with two objects: removal of natural or man-made impediments in the
road to the development of man and provision of means, training and guidance for it.

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Sarvodaya movement entails economic, political, philosophical and ethical implications. They
are as follows:
Economic implications:
Gandhiji’s concept of Sarvodaya aims at welfare of all. It is founded on the philosophy of
limited wants. According to him, “Civilization in the real sense of the term consists not in the
multiplication but in the deliberate and voluntary reduction of wants. This alone promotes real
happiness and contentment and increases capacity for service.” Our economy should be based
on ‘simple living, high thinking’.

He fought for an economy free from exploitation and corruption, limitation of human wants,
equality and basic needs for all. In the words of Prof. V. P. Varma,” If the Bhoodan and
Gramdan are techniques of agrarian revolution based on moral force, Sampattidan is a
significant path in the transformation of capitalism into the Sarvodaya society.”

The essential features of the economic philosophy of Sarvodaya as emphasised by Vinobaji

constitute elimination of poverty, forging bonds of mutual help and fellow-feeling between big
landholders and landless ruralites, revival or furtherance of Indian culture based on yagna,
Dana and tapas, giving an opportunity to all political parties to work unitedly in rooting out
bitterness and self-aggrandisement and helping world peace.
Philosophical and ethical implications:
Sarvodaya aims at the spiritualisation of politics. It seeks to replace party strifes, jealousies and
competition by the sacred law of cooperative mutuality and dominant altruism. According to
the concept of Sarvodaya, man is essentially good. Human character can improve either by
Tapasya (self effort) or by appeals made to him by others through such non-violent techniques
as Satyagraha, non-cooperation and fasting.

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Political implications:
Sarvodaya attaches importance to ‘lokniti’. The concept of lokniti signifies self-restraint, self-
abnegation, selfless service to the people, discipline, faith in God and performance of duties
with benign motive. Sarvodaya condemns the majority rule, elections, political parties and
centralisation of power. Gandhiji wanted a ‘Stateless democracy’ in which even weakest have
the same opportunity as the strongest. The ideal democracy will be a federation of Satyagrahi
village communities based on non-violence.
Criticism:
The concept of Sarvodaya has been the target of criticism from different corners.

1. Sarvodaya philosophy has been branded as ‘Utopia’. It is because Sarvodaya assumes the
human being to be an epitome of virtues only. But in reality jealousy, selfishness,
acquisitiveness etc. are ingrained in human nature. Hence establishing a Sarvodaya society
based on mutual love, co-operation, selfless service etc. is, indeed, an impossible task.

2. Sarvodaya movement views the state as an instrument of coercion. But this is only half-
truth. The state especially a democratic state can also serve as an instrument to promote
material well-being of the people.

3. Gandhian concept of ‘simple living and high thinking’ has been contested on the ground that
sometimes people with simplest of food and practice of austerities nurture all types of sinister
desires and activities. In some quarters, in fact, wealth is believed to be an indispensable
prerequisite of culture and higher values.

4. Critics hold the view that large-scale production and industrialization can raise the standard
of living of the people and release human energy for more creative pursuits. Cottage industries
may generate employment. At the same time it may be a failure due to high cost of production
and low quality of products.

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5. Proposals regarding the trusteeship system and complete decentralisation of all economic
and political set up are nothing more than academic exercises.

6. J. C. Johari rightly observes that the Marxists would scoff at the whole school of Sarvodaya
as one belonging to the world of Owenites and Saint Simonians; the collectivists would not
endorse the suggestion of a very limited government in view of man’s life of minimum wants
and liberals would have every reason to doubt the feasibility of an ideal society as conceived
by the advocates of the sarvodaya philosophy.

In fine, Sarvodaya society ensures a society free from exploitation and offers the opportunity
to each and everyone to prosper and work for the well being of all. It creates a condition not
only for participatory democracy but also for establishing a new form of socialism. It envisages
a new pattern of life based on decentralisation of economic and political power ensuring the
moral freedom of man.

As Erich Fromm says, “The aim of humanistic socialism can be attained only by the
introduction of a maximum of decentralisation compatible with a minimum of centralisation
necessary for the functioning of an industrial society. The function of a centralised state must
be reduced to a minimum, while the voluntary activity of freely cooperating citizens
constitutes the central mechanism of social life.”

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