Transformer Handbook

0. FOREWORD
The objective of this Transformer Handbook is to facilitate the physical understanding, selection,
ordering, operation and maintenance of the whole range of power and distribution transformers.
The target readers are personnel involved in the various stages of a transformer’s service life, from
planning the investment to the disposal of the transformer after use.
This handbook is arranged in sections following the transformer’s life from initial considerations and
planning through ordering, installation, operation, maintenance and scrapping.
Other useful information, including more theoretical topics, is included.
Navigation through the handbook is facilitated by the three level contents list following this
foreword, and the Index Section 20 page 231 at the end. Each section may be read independently
of the other sections. Please note that page numbers contain an introductory chapter number and
the page number after the hyphen.
Some topics or phenomena are deliberately mentioned several places in the text for the purpose
that readers might not read the whole content of this book from the beginning to the end, but only
chapters of particular individual interest.
The first edition, Rev. 01, of this handbook issued at the end of 2003 was limited to distribution
transformers and the “IEC-world”.
Based on feedback from the readers and the fact that ABB has merged all transformer activities
into one Business Unit, Transformers, the second edition, Rev. 02, of the handbook issued in 2004
covered all transformer types fulfilling the requirements of IEC and relevant ANSI/IEEE standards.
The second edition, Rev. 02, was well accepted by customers and ABB employees. It is also
available in the Russian language.
This third edition, Rev. 03, is a general updating and expansion of the handbook, partly initiated by
comments from the readers.
This handbook is based on ABB Ltd. best knowledge and experience, and is meant to be a guide
for readers in handling transformer matters. ABB Ltd and the authors of the handbook cannot
however be rendered responsible for any legal, technical or commercial use of the information
herein. Binding information should be a part of the contract/agreement between the customers and
the different transformer suppliers.
The standards, IEC, CENELEC, and ANSI/IEEE, mentioned in the text, refer to the edition given in
the list of standards. For practical use, only latest editions of the standards should be used.
ABB Power Products Division thanks the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) for
permission to reproduce information from its International Standards. All such extracts are
copyright of IEC, Geneva, Switzerland. All rights reserved. Further information on the IEC is
available from www.iec.ch. The IEC is not responsible for the placement and context in which the
extracts and contents are reproduced by ABB Power Products Division; nor is the IEC in any way
responsible for the other content or accuracy thereof.
Similarly, ABB Power Products Division appreciates the permission of The American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) and The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE) to
reprint excerpts from its standards. All such excerpts are copyright of ANSI/IEEE the year
published. All rights reserved. Further information on the ANSI/IEEE is available from www.ansi.org
and www.ieee.org. The ANSI/IEEE is not responsible for the placement and context in which the
excerpts are reproduced by ABB Power Technologies Division. The ANSI/IEEE disclaims any
responsibility or liability resulting from the placement and use in the described manner.
Extracts from the ABB Switchgear Manual are quoted by kind approval by the issuer.
ABB Ltd. issued in 2006 ABB Service Handbook for Transformers which goes more into detail in
the subjects service and maintenance than the present Transformer Handbook.
UK English has been selected for this document to comply with the language in IEC standards.
Also the use of “.” and “,” in numbers follows the practice used in IEC standards. There are no real
differences between the vocabulary applied in IEC and IEEE/ANSI standards. The only exception
is the use of the words “earth”/”earthed” (according to IEC) and “ground”/”grounded” (according to
IEEE).
Please also read the Note at the end of the handbook.

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Contents
FOREWORD .............................................................................................................................. 2

1. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................1-7
1.1. ABB-GROUP ........................................................................................................................................................ 1-7
1.2. ABB POWER TECHNOLOGIES BUSINESS UNIT TRANSFORMERS ................................................................................ 1-7

2. QUALITY, INTERNAL CONTROL, SUSTAINABILITY ............................................................2-8

2.1. MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS ......................................................................................................................................... 2-8
2.1.1. General ...................................................................................................................................................... 2-8
2.1.2. Quality........................................................................................................................................................ 2-8
2.1.3. Internal control ........................................................................................................................................... 2-8
2.1.4. Environmental system ............................................................................................................................... 2-8
2.1.5. Sustainable development .......................................................................................................................... 2-8
2.1.6. Life cycle assessment (LCA) ..................................................................................................................... 2-9
2.2. CUSTOMER REVIEW OF MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS ....................................................................................................... 2-9
2.3. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS........................................................................................................................................... 2-9

3. PHYSICAL FUNDAMENTALS...............................................................................................3 -11

3.1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................3 -11
3.2. CHOICE OF SYSTEM VOLTAGE ..............................................................................................................................3 -11
3.3. BASIC PHYSICS OF THE TRANSFORMER .................................................................................................................3 -11
3.4. EQUIVALENT DIAGRAM .........................................................................................................................................3 -13
3.5. VOLTAGE RATIO AND VOLTAGE DROP (OR RISE) .....................................................................................................3 -13
3.6. EFFICIENCY ........................................................................................................................................................3 -16
3.7. NO LOAD (MAGNETISING) CURRENT AND NO LOAD LOSSES ......................................................................................3 -16
3.8. LOAD LOSSES .....................................................................................................................................................3 -21
3.9. SHORT-CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE.................................................................................................................................3 -21
3.10. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES ............................................................................................................................3 -24
3.11. TRANSFORMER SOUND ....................................................................................................................................3 -28

4. TRANSFORMER TYPES AND THEIR APPLICATION .........................................................4-32

4.1. POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION ........................................................................................ 4-32
4.2. COMMON TRANSFORMER CHARACTERISTICS.......................................................................................................... 4-32
4.3. DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS ............................................................................................................................ 4-34
4.3.1. Large distribution transformers, LDT ....................................................................................................... 4-34
4.3.2. Medium distribution transformers, MDT................................................................................................... 4-36
4.3.3. Small distribution transformers, SDT ....................................................................................................... 4-37
4.3.4. Dry-type distribution transformers............................................................................................................ 4-39
4.3.5. Other transformer types........................................................................................................................... 4-41
4.4. POWER TRANSFORMERS...................................................................................................................................... 4-44
4.4.1. Generator step up transformers............................................................................................................... 4-46
4.4.2. Step-down transformers .......................................................................................................................... 4-48
4.4.3. System intertie transformers.................................................................................................................... 4-48
4.4.4. Industrial transformers ............................................................................................................................. 4-60
4.4.5. Traction transformers............................................................................................................................... 4-63
4.5. REACTORS ......................................................................................................................................................... 4-65
4.5.1. Shunt reactors.......................................................................................................................................... 4-65
4.5.2. Current limiting reactors........................................................................................................................... 4-70
4.5.3. Neutral earthing reactors ......................................................................................................................... 4-72
4.5.4. Capacitor damping reactors..................................................................................................................... 4-73
4.5.5. Tuning (Filter) reactors ............................................................................................................................ 4-73
4.5.6. Earthing transformers (Neutral couplers)................................................................................................. 4-74
4.5.7. Arc suppression reactors ......................................................................................................................... 4-75
4.5.8. Smoothing reactors.................................................................................................................................. 4-85

5. LOSS CAPITALISATION AND OPTIMUM TRANSFORMER DESIGN.................................5-88

6. INFORMATION REQUIRED WITH ENQUIRY AND ORDER ...............................................6-99

6.1. NORMAL INFORMATION ........................................................................................................................................ 6-99
6.2. SPECIAL INFORMATION ...................................................................................................................................... 6-100
6.3. PARALLEL OPERATIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 6-102

7. TRANSFORMER DESIGN ..................................................................................................7-103

7.1. CORES ............................................................................................................................................................ 7-103
7.2. WINDINGS ........................................................................................................................................................ 7-106
7.3. TANK ............................................................................................................................................................... 7-114

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 7.4. SURFACE TREATMENT ....................................................................................................................................... 7-115
7.5. EARTH QUAKE WITHSTAND CAPABILITY ................................................................................................................ 7-116

8. TRANSFORMER COMPONENTS ......................................................................................8-117

8.1. TERMINALS ...................................................................................................................................................... 8-117
8.1.1. Bushings ................................................................................................................................................ 8-117
8.1.2. Cable connections ................................................................................................................................. 8-120
8.1.3. SF6 connections .................................................................................................................................... 8-121
8.2. COOLERS ......................................................................................................................................................... 8-121
8.2.1. Radiators................................................................................................................................................ 8-122
8.2.2. Corrugated tanks ................................................................................................................................... 8-122
8.2.3. Fans ....................................................................................................................................................... 8-122
8.2.4. Forced oil, forced air heat exchangers .................................................................................................. 8-122
8.2.5. Oil-water coolers .................................................................................................................................... 8-123
8.2.6. Oil pumps............................................................................................................................................... 8-123
8.3. VOLTAGE REGULATION EQUIPMENT ..................................................................................................................... 8-123
8.3.1. Off Circuit tap-changers ......................................................................................................................... 8-124
8.3.2. On load tap changers ............................................................................................................................ 8-125
8.3.3. Automatic voltage regulation ................................................................................................................. 8-128
8.4. ACCESSORIES .................................................................................................................................................. 8-129
8.4.1. Types of accessories ............................................................................................................................. 8-129
8.4.2. Power transformer and oil immersed reactor accessories .................................................................... 8-132
8.4.3. Distribution transformer accessories ..................................................................................................... 8-133

9. INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING............................................................................9-134

9.1. GENERAL ......................................................................................................................................................... 9-134
9.1.1. Responsibilities ...................................................................................................................................... 9-134
9.1.2. Incoterms (Transfer of responsibility) .................................................................................................... 9-134
9.2. INSTALLATION ................................................................................................................................................... 9-134
9.2.1. Power- and large distribution transformers............................................................................................ 9-134
9.2.2. Distribution transformers........................................................................................................................ 9-135
9.3. COMMISSIONING ............................................................................................................................................... 9-138
9.3.1. Energising .............................................................................................................................................. 9-138
9.3.2. Documentation....................................................................................................................................... 9-140

10. OPERATION, MONITORING AND MAINTENANCE ........................................................10-141

10.1. GENERAL PRECAUTIONS .............................................................................................................................. 10-141
10.2. OPERATION ................................................................................................................................................ 10-141
10.2.1. Loading and consumption of lifetime ................................................................................................... 10-141
10.2.2. Parallel operation ................................................................................................................................. 10-148
10.2.3. Frequency ............................................................................................................................................ 10-148
10.2.4. Protection............................................................................................................................................. 10-148
10.3. MONITORING .............................................................................................................................................. 10-149
10.3.1. General ................................................................................................................................................ 10-149
10.3.2. High level monitoring ........................................................................................................................... 10-150
10.3.3. Low level monitoring ............................................................................................................................ 10-150
10.3.4. Inspection in energised condition ........................................................................................................ 10-151
10.3.5. Inspection in de-energised condition ................................................................................................... 10-152
10.4. MAINTENANCE ............................................................................................................................................ 10-152
10.4.1. General ................................................................................................................................................ 10-152
10.4.2. Maintenance in energised condition .................................................................................................... 10-152
10.4.3. Maintenance in de-energised condition ............................................................................................... 10-152
10.4.4. Investigation of transformer disturbances............................................................................................ 10-153
10.4.5. Transformer liquid and insulation......................................................................................................... 10-158
10.4.6. Bushings and joints.............................................................................................................................. 10-158
10.4.7. Off-circuit tap changer ......................................................................................................................... 10-158
10.4.8. On-load tap-changer ............................................................................................................................ 10-159
10.4.9. Motor drive unit .................................................................................................................................... 10-159
10.4.10. Oil filtering unit ................................................................................................................................. 10-159
10.4.11. Coolers............................................................................................................................................. 10-159
10.4.12. Liquid conservator with rubber diaphragm....................................................................................... 10-159
10.4.13. Gaskets............................................................................................................................................ 10-159
10.4.14. Dry-type transformers ...................................................................................................................... 10-160
10.4.15. Surface protection............................................................................................................................ 10-160

11. DISPOSAL AFTER USE....................................................................................................11-161

11.1. LOCAL REGULATIONS .................................................................................................................................. 11-161
11.2. REUSE ....................................................................................................................................................... 11-161
11.3. LANDFILL ................................................................................................................................................... 11-161
11.4. PCB-CONTAMINATED OIL ............................................................................................................................ 11-161

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12. THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS.........................................................12-162

13. TRANSFORMER MATERIALS..........................................................................................13-164

13.1. CORE MATERIALS ........................................................................................................................................ 13-164
13.2. CONDUCTOR MATERIALS ............................................................................................................................. 13-164
13.3. INSULATION MATERIALS ............................................................................................................................... 13-165
13.3.1. Solid insulation materials ..................................................................................................................... 13-165
13.3.2. Fluids ................................................................................................................................................... 13-166
13.3.3. Other fluids........................................................................................................................................... 13-166

14. TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS ......................................................................................14-168

14.1. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS............................................................................................................................ 14-168
14.2. ROUTINE TESTS .......................................................................................................................................... 14-168
14.3. TYPE TESTS ............................................................................................................................................... 14-168
14.4. SPECIAL TESTS ........................................................................................................................................... 14-168

15. OVERVOLTAGES AND OVERVOLTAGE LIMITATION ...................................................15-169

15.1. LIMITATION OF TEMPORARY OVERVOLTAGES .................................................................................................. 15-170
15.1.1. Overvoltages due to earth-fault ........................................................................................................... 15-170
15.1.2. Overvoltages due to load rejection ...................................................................................................... 15-171
15.1.3. Overvoltages due to ferroresonance ................................................................................................... 15-172
15.2. LIMITATION OF TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGES.................................................................................................... 15-172
15.2.1. Types of overvoltage protection devices ............................................................................................. 15-172
15.2.2. Selection of metal oxide surge arrester data ....................................................................................... 15-173
15.2.3. Internal overvoltages caused by high frequency oscillations............................................................... 15-181
15.2.4. Transferred overvoltages in transformers............................................................................................ 15-187
15.3. SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS FOR DRY-TYPE TRANSFORMERS ................................................................................. 15-188

16. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ...................................................16-189

16.1. LOADS WITH HIGH CONTENT OF HARMONICS .................................................................................................. 16-189
16.2. TRANSFORMERS WITH MOTOR LOAD ............................................................................................................. 16-189
16.3. HOT SPOT TEMPERATURES .......................................................................................................................... 16-189

17. MISCELLANEOUS ............................................................................................................17-190

17.1. CERTIFICATION/APPROVAL/LABELLING ........................................................................................................... 17-190
17.2. DECLARATION OF CONFORMITY.................................................................................................................... 17-190
17.3. IP-CLASSIFICATION ..................................................................................................................................... 17-191
17.3.1. General ................................................................................................................................................ 17-191
17.3.2. Degrees of protection against solid objects ......................................................................................... 17-191
17.3.3. Degrees of protection against water .................................................................................................... 17-192
17.3.4. Comparison to NEMA ratings .............................................................................................................. 17-192
17.4. TERMINAL DESIGNATION, IDENTIFYING TERMINALS ...................................................................... 17-193
17.4.1. Single phase transformer..................................................................................................................... 17-193
17.4.2. Three phase transformer ..................................................................................................................... 17-194
17.5. RATING PLATE ............................................................................................................................................ 17-194
17.6. ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY (EMC) .................................................................................................. 17-196
17.6.1. Definitions ............................................................................................................................................ 17-196
17.6.2. Electromagnetic disturbances on transformers ................................................................................... 17-197
17.6.3. Electromagnetic field in the vicinity of transformers ............................................................................ 17-198
17.6.4. Effect of electromagnetic fields on humans ......................................................................................... 17-199
17.7. UNITS AND CONVERSION TABLES ..................................................................................................... 17-199
17.7.1. Basic Sl units ....................................................................................................................................... 17-199
17.7.2. Multiples and sub-multiples of units..................................................................................................... 17-200
17.7.3. Electrical and magnetic quantities ....................................................................................................... 17-200
17.7.4. General electrotechnical symbols........................................................................................................ 17-201
17.8. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS....................................................................................... 17-202
17.9. CONTRIBUTORS .......................................................................................................................................... 17-204
17.10. FEEDBACK ................................................................................................................................................. 17-204
17.11. OBTAINING COPIES OF THE HANDBOOK .......................................................................................................... 17-204

18. BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................18-205

18.1. TRANSFORMER-RELEVANT STANDARDS.......................................................................................... 18-205
18.1.1. IEC standards ...................................................................................................................................... 18-205
18.1.2. CENELEC standards ........................................................................................................................... 18-206
18.1.3. IEEE standards .................................................................................................................................... 18-206
18.1.4. Comparison between ANSI/IEEE standards and IEC standards ........................................................ 18-207
18.1.5. List of IEC Standards ........................................................................................................................... 18-210
18.1.6. List of CENELEC Standards................................................................................................................ 18-214
18.1.7. List of ANSI/IEEE Standards ............................................................................................................... 18-216

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 18.1.8. Other relevant STANDARDS and litterature........................................................................................ 18-221

19. Extracts from IEC 61936-1 (2002-10) Power installations=exceeding 1 kV a.c. – Part 1:
Common rules ..........................................................................................................................19-222
RE. 4 FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS .................................................................................................................... 19-222
Re. 4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................ 19-222
RE. 5 INSULATION ................................................................................................................................................ 19-222
RE. 6 EQUIPMENT ................................................................................................................................................ 19-223
Re. 6.1 General requirements ...................................................................................................................... 19-223
RE. 7 INSTALLATIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 19-223
Re. 7.1 General requirements ...................................................................................................................... 19-223
RE. 8 SAFETY MEASURES ..................................................................................................................................... 19-223
Re. 8. 6 Protection against fire ...................................................................................................................... 19-224
RE. 9 PROTECTION, CONTROL AND AUXILIARY SYSTEMS .......................................................................................... 19-229
Re. 9.1 Monitoring and control systems ....................................................................................................... 19-229
RE. 10 EARTHING SYSTEMS .................................................................................................................................... 19-229
Re. 10.1 General ............................................................................................................................................ 19-229
Re. 10.2 Fundamental requirements.............................................................................................................. 19-229

20. INDEX..................................................................................................................................... 231