IHS Chemical

Process Economics
Program
Report 29H
Ethylene via Ethane Steam Cracking

By Anthony Pavone

December 2014 ihs.com/chemical

IHS Chemical Process Economics Program | Report 29H

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PEP Report 29H

Ethylene via Ethane Steam Cracking

By Anthony Pavone

December 2014

Abstract
The widespread commercialization of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) combined with horizontal drilling in
hydrocarbon containing shale formations has resulted in an enormous increase in natural gas and natural
gas liquids (ethane, propane, butane) production, as well as the production of petroleum condensate (light
crude oil). Although these processes have been initially commercialized in the US and Canada, other
regions of the world will soon (as of 2014) receive the same low cost hydrocarbon economic benefits,
either through the importation of natural gas liquids from the US, or hydrocarbon production from their
own domestic shale formation reservoirs.

Globally, nearly half of ethylene production is based on light naphtha steam cracking (liquids cracking),
where the light naphtha is priced at nearly parity with crude oil ($US 100/bbl in 2014). Natural gas liquids
produced via fracking are sold in 2014 at 4–8 $US/MM-Btu , equivalent to an oil price of $US 22-44/bbl,
providing an enormous feedstock cost advantage for producing ethylene via steam cracking. The
downside is that natural gas liquids steam cracking (gas cracking) produces a smaller amount of the
heavier by-products (butadiene, isobutylene, n-butenes, pyrolysis gasoline) used in derivative
petrochemicals production.

Where fracking is widespread (in 2014 predominantly in the US and Canada), chemical operating
companies have announced significant grass roots projects to build world-scale ethylene steam crackers
(gas crackers) that are designed to feed these low cost shale derived feedstocks, in order to capture the
cost advantage of natural gas liquids production from shale reservoirs. This report presents current
commercial process technology, and the corresponding production economics, for a) producing ethylene
via 100% ethane steam cracking, b) producing ethylene via 50:50 ethane:propane steam cracking, and c)
producing ethylene via 100% n-butane steam cracking.

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Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 1
Process safety considerations .................................................................................................................... 2
Historical background ............................................................................................................................... 2

2. Summary ................................................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 4
Process design cases .................................................................................................................................. 4
Process safety consideration...................................................................................................................... 5
Ethylene industry status ............................................................................................................................ 5
Chemistry and process technology for commercial ethylene production.................................................. 8
Production economics ............................................................................................................................. 14

3. Industry status ......................................................................................................................................... 15

Steam cracking feedstock ........................................................................................................................ 15
Light olefins business status as of 2014 .................................................................................................. 15
Ethylene and propylene product specifications ....................................................................................... 17
Uses for ethylene ..................................................................................................................................... 20
Uses for propylene .................................................................................................................................. 22
Uses for butylene..................................................................................................................................... 23
Uses for C5 olefins................................................................................................................................... 24
Uses for pyrolysis gasoline ..................................................................................................................... 24
Global demand for ethylene .................................................................................................................... 24
Global demand for propylene .................................................................................................................. 25
Ethylene global production capacity ....................................................................................................... 27
Propylene global production capacity ..................................................................................................... 29
Ethylene and propylene global capacity utilization................................................................................. 31
Ethylene producers .................................................................................................................................. 32
Product pricing ........................................................................................................................................ 43

4. Chemistry and technology for producing ethylene from NGLs .............................................................. 44

Technology trends and process design features ...................................................................................... 45
Business objective trends for steam cracking.......................................................................................... 46
Capacity debottlenecking ........................................................................................................................ 47
Operational excellence ............................................................................................................................ 48
Overview of steam cracking chemical reactions ..................................................................................... 49
Thermal cracking chemistry .................................................................................................................... 50
Steam cracking process technology ........................................................................................................ 50
Nonconventional thermal cracking processes ......................................................................................... 53
Thermal cracking with partial combustion .......................................................................................... 53
The advanced cracking reactor (ACR) process ................................................................................... 53
Ethylene from light crude by Dow’s partial combustion process ........................................................ 54
Fluidized or circulating bed cracking .................................................................................................. 54
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The Lurgi sand cracker ........................................................................................................................ 54

BASF’s fluidized coke/flow cracking ................................................................................................. 55
The KK process ................................................................................................................................... 55
The Ube process .................................................................................................................................. 55
Quick contact reaction system/thermal regenerative cracking ............................................................ 55
Shock wave reactor (SWR) ................................................................................................................. 56
Molecular structure of ethylene and propylene ....................................................................................... 57
Modeling steam cracking reactions ......................................................................................................... 57
Steam cracking reaction initiation ....................................................................................................... 58
Reaction propagation ........................................................................................................................... 59
Termination reactions .......................................................................................................................... 60
Aromatics formation ............................................................................................................................... 61
Over-cracking .......................................................................................................................................... 62
Pseudo component analysis ..................................................................................................................... 62
Steam cracking furnace temperatures...................................................................................................... 63
Steam cracking operating pressures ........................................................................................................ 66
Steam cracking residence time ................................................................................................................ 67
Hydrogenation of di-olefins .................................................................................................................... 69
Preferred steam cracking feedstock components .................................................................................... 71
Dilution steam chemistry ........................................................................................................................ 71
Coke formation chemistry ....................................................................................................................... 72
Green oil chemistry ................................................................................................................................. 75
Red oil chemistry .................................................................................................................................... 76
Acid gas chemistry .................................................................................................................................. 77
Advances in pyrolysis furnace design ..................................................................................................... 77
Firebox design ..................................................................................................................................... 78
Burner arrangement ............................................................................................................................. 79
Low NOx burners ................................................................................................................................ 79
Refractory coating ............................................................................................................................... 80
Modeling applications ......................................................................................................................... 80
Radiant coil design .................................................................................................................................. 81
Tube metallurgy ...................................................................................................................................... 83
Coke reduction ........................................................................................................................................ 84
Mechanisms of coke formation ........................................................................................................... 85
Catalytic coking....................................................................................................................................... 85
Pyrolytic (thermal) coking ...................................................................................................................... 86
Aerosol coking (polyaromatic condensation).......................................................................................... 86
Antifoulant additives ............................................................................................................................... 86
Permanent surface coatings ..................................................................................................................... 88
Other surface treatments.......................................................................................................................... 89
Transfer line exchangers ......................................................................................................................... 90
Non-conventional ethylene production technologies .............................................................................. 91
SUPERFLEX process .......................................................................................................................... 91

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Lurgi Propylur process ............................................................................................................................ 92

Dehydration of bio-based ethanol ........................................................................................................ 93
Siluria oxidative coupling process using methane feedstock .................................................................. 93

5. Steam cracker process design basis ......................................................................................................... 95

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 95
Design conditions .................................................................................................................................... 95
Site location ............................................................................................................................................. 96
Facility site basis ..................................................................................................................................... 96
Cost basis ............................................................................................................................................. 96
Capital investment ............................................................................................................................... 97
Construction capital cost index............................................................................................................ 98
Project construction timing .................................................................................................................. 99
Production costs ................................................................................................................................... 99
Feedstock, product and energy pricing .............................................................................................. 100
Effect of operating level on production costs .................................................................................... 100
Ethylene plant capacity utilization..................................................................................................... 101
Available utilities ............................................................................................................................... 101
Rotating equipment drivers................................................................................................................ 102
Continuous versus batch processing .................................................................................................. 102
Site wide considerations .................................................................................................................... 102
Production capacity ........................................................................................................................... 102
By-product recycle............................................................................................................................. 103
Flexible feedstock furnaces ............................................................................................................... 103
Feedstock specifications .................................................................................................................... 103
Feedstock NGL contaminants requiring removal .............................................................................. 105
Ethane feed specifications ................................................................................................................. 105
Ethane:propane mixed feed specifications ........................................................................................ 106
Propane feed specifications ............................................................................................................... 107
Normal butane feed specifications..................................................................................................... 109
Sulfur addition ................................................................................................................................... 109
Steam to hydrocarbon ratio................................................................................................................ 110
Contaminant removal......................................................................................................................... 110
Overall steam cracking furnace yields ............................................................................................... 110
Feed and product storage ................................................................................................................... 114
Product run down tankage ................................................................................................................. 114
Ethylene and propylene product tankage ........................................................................................... 114
Di-Olefin conversion ......................................................................................................................... 114
Safety considerations ......................................................................................................................... 115
Product physical properties................................................................................................................ 115
Capacity debottlenecking................................................................................................................... 117
Manufacturing excellence .................................................................................................................. 118
Design philosophy ............................................................................................................................. 118

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Design priorities ................................................................................................................................ 119

Process safety .................................................................................................................................... 119
Equipment reliability ......................................................................................................................... 120
Environmental conformance .............................................................................................................. 120
Flexibility for economic optimization ............................................................................................... 121
Ease of operations & maintenance..................................................................................................... 121
Return on investment criteria............................................................................................................. 122
Security and vulnerability analysis .................................................................................................... 122
HAZOP/Safety considerations........................................................................................................... 123
Plant layout for process safety ........................................................................................................... 127
Environmental design standards & facilities ..................................................................................... 133
Noise .................................................................................................................................................. 133
Fuel gas sulfur content ....................................................................................................................... 133
Major project emission sources ......................................................................................................... 134
Incineration ........................................................................................................................................ 135
Atmospheric emissions ...................................................................................................................... 136
Flare gas management strategy .......................................................................................................... 137
Anti-coking additives......................................................................................................................... 139
Continuous anti-coking chemical additives ....................................................................................... 141
Hard coated cracking tubes ................................................................................................................ 142
Cracking furnace design basis ........................................................................................................... 143
Furnace tube metallurgy .................................................................................................................... 143
Principle NGL cracker design features .............................................................................................. 144
Front end de-ethanizer distillation sequence ..................................................................................... 145
4 Stage (rather than 5 Stage) cracked gas compression ..................................................................... 145
Process refrigeration .......................................................................................................................... 145
Gas turbine drivers for the cracked gas compressor .......................................................................... 145
Reactive distillation for di-olefin conversion .................................................................................... 146
Hydrogen purification........................................................................................................................ 147
Vapor recompression for the propylene splitter ................................................................................ 148
Energy recovery via turbo expander .................................................................................................. 148
Raising 120 bar superheated steam pressure in the transfer line exchangers .................................... 148
Ubiquitous on-line gas chromatograph (GC) analyzers..................................................................... 148
Computer control systems incorporating open field bus architectures and on-line economic
optimizer ............................................................................................................................................ 149
Integrated cogeneration ..................................................................................................................... 150
Redundant critical instrument sensors will be employed using 3-way voting logic .......................... 151
Provide rotating machine condition monitoring instrumentation ...................................................... 151
Extensive use of inline particulate filters and emulsion coalescers ................................................... 152
Online cracked gas compressor washing ........................................................................................... 152
Engineering and design standards...................................................................................................... 152
Ethylene and propylene product specifications ................................................................................. 153
By-product specifications .................................................................................................................. 154

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Real estate requirements .................................................................................................................... 156

Regulatory environment and EHS standards ..................................................................................... 156
Construction methodology................................................................................................................. 156
Offsite facilities ................................................................................................................................. 157
Black start capability ......................................................................................................................... 157
Process control philosophy ................................................................................................................ 158

6. Ethylene technology licensor offerings ................................................................................................. 159

KBR SCORE technology .................................................................................................................. 159
KBR SCORE process ........................................................................................................................ 159
KBR pyrolysis furnace technology .................................................................................................... 160
KBR Olefins purification technology ................................................................................................ 164
Chicago Bridge and Iron (CB&I)/Lummus technology .................................................................... 167
Conventional Lummus process.......................................................................................................... 168
Ethane only steam cracking ............................................................................................................... 169
Advanced Lummus steam cracking process ...................................................................................... 169
Lummus conventional olefins recovery technology .......................................................................... 171
Lummus metathesis technology ........................................................................................................ 173
Stone & Webster (acquired by Technip in 2012) .............................................................................. 175
Stone & Webster process description ................................................................................................ 177
Linde AG ethylene process technology ............................................................................................. 182
Linde value cracking.......................................................................................................................... 190
Technip licensed ethylene process..................................................................................................... 190
Technip commercial experience mid-2014........................................................................................ 191
Technip steam cracking process sequence......................................................................................... 191
Technip pyrolysis furnace technology ............................................................................................... 194
Technip radiant oil design options ..................................................................................................... 195
Technip SPYRO process simulation software ................................................................................... 195
Technip olefins recovery technology................................................................................................. 197
Sinopec ethylene process technology ................................................................................................ 197
Feedstock pre-treatment to remove mercury, arsenic, and lead......................................................... 197
Drying cracked pyrolysis furnace gas................................................................................................ 200

7. Ethylene via 100% ethane steam cracking ............................................................................................ 201

Input-output diagram ............................................................................................................................. 201
Block flow diagram ........................................................................................................................... 202
Drawing nomenclature....................................................................................................................... 204
US EPA Greenhouse gas application data ......................................................................................... 204
Design basis table .............................................................................................................................. 212
Process description and flow diagrams ............................................................................................. 213
Section 300 – Cracked gas compression and acid gas removal ......................................................... 218
Section 400 – Cryogenic refrigeration and cold box ......................................................................... 219
Section 500 – Hydrogen purification ................................................................................................. 223

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Section 600 - Cryogenic distillation .................................................................................................. 223

8. Ethylene via 50:50 ethane:propane steam cracking .............................................................................. 233

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 233
Design basis........................................................................................................................................... 233
Process description: Section 700 – Propylene purification................................................................ 234
Stream by stream material balance........................................................................................................ 234
Equipment list with duty specifications ................................................................................................ 236
Total fixed capital cost estimate ............................................................................................................ 240
Variable production cost estimate ......................................................................................................... 242
Total production cost estimate .............................................................................................................. 243

9. Ethylene via normal butane steam cracking .......................................................................................... 246

Design basis........................................................................................................................................... 246
Overall yield pattern .............................................................................................................................. 246
Once through process yields ................................................................................................................. 247
Equipment list with duty specifications ................................................................................................ 249
Total fixed capital cost estimate ............................................................................................................ 253
Variable production cost estimate ......................................................................................................... 255
Total production cost estimate .............................................................................................................. 255

Appendix A: Stream by stream material balances .................................................................................... 258

Appendix B: Patent summary tables ......................................................................................................... 281

Appendix C: References ........................................................................................................................... 306

Tables
Table 2.1: Ethylene physical properties ........................................................................................................ 9
Table 3.1: Historic and forecast GDP rates................................................................................................. 17
Table 3.2: Ethylene product grade specifications ....................................................................................... 18
Table 3.3: Project specifications for ethylene purity .................................................................................. 19
Table 3.4: Project specifications for propylene purity ................................................................................ 20
Table 3.5: 2014 Distribution of global ethylene production by feedstock & technology (kty) .................. 28
Table 3.6: 2014 Distribution of global ethylene capacity by region ........................................................... 29
Table 3.7: 2014 Distribution of global propylene production by source (kty) ........................................... 30
Table 3.8: 2014 Distribution of global propylene capacity by region (kty) ................................................ 31
Table 3.9: 2014 Ethylene producers by country and region (kty)............................................................... 32
Table 3.10: 2014 Ethylene largest producers by aggregate capacity (kty) ................................................. 42
Table 3.11: Recently announced steam cracker projects (kty).................................................................... 42

Table 4.2: Steam cracker feedstock yield pattern (mt/mt) .......................................................................... 44

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Table 4.3: Boiling point of major steam cracker components .................................................................... 44

Table 4.4: Molecular structure of ethylene and propylene ......................................................................... 57
Table 4.5: Relationship between KSF and cracked product distribution .................................................... 69
Table 4.6: Yield pattern for steam cracking normal butane ........................................................................ 71
Table 4.7: Composition of common cracking tube alloys .......................................................................... 84
Table 5.1: Construction Cost Site Location Factors ................................................................................... 96
Table 5.2: Factors used for economic analysis ......................................................................................... 100
Table 5.3: GPA Composition of commercial pipeline natural gas .......................................................... 104
Table 5.4: GPA Contaminant limits for high purity ethane ...................................................................... 106
Table 5.5: GPA Contaminant limits for 50:50 ethane:propane mixtures.................................................. 107
Table 5.6: GPA Contaminant limits for high purity propane.................................................................... 108
Table 5.7: GPA maximum water content in liquid propane ..................................................................... 108
Table 5.8: GPA Contaminant limits for high purity butane ...................................................................... 109
Table 5.9: Cracking dilution steam to hydrocarbon ratio ......................................................................... 110
Table 5.10: Overall steam cracking yield profiles .................................................................................... 110
Table 5.11: Naphtha once through steam cracking yield profiles ............................................................. 113
Table 5.12: Ethylene relevant physical properties .................................................................................... 116
Table 5.13: Propylene relevant physical properties .................................................................................. 117
Table 5.14: Information necessary to conduct a HAZOP review ............................................................. 124
Table 5.15: Primary steam cracker HAZOP concerns .............................................................................. 125
Table 5.16: Documented steam cracker safety incidents .......................................................................... 129
Table 5.17: Preliminary HAZOP concerns and mitigations ..................................................................... 131
Table 5.18: Steam cracker emissions summary ........................................................................................ 137
Table 5.19: Available radial coil cracking tube compositions .................................................................. 144
Table 5.20: Ethylene product specifications ............................................................................................. 153
Table 5.21: Propylene product specifications ........................................................................................... 154
Table 5.22: Hydrogen product specification ............................................................................................. 154
Table 5.23: Mixed C4 fraction product specification ................................................................................ 155
Table 5.24: Pyrolysis gasoline product specification................................................................................ 155
Table 5.25: Fuel oil product specification ................................................................................................ 156
Table 5.26: Major offsite facilities incorporated into project scope ......................................................... 157
Table 7.1: Ethane feed overall yield pattern ............................................................................................. 201
Table 7.2: Feedstock energy density ......................................................................................................... 202
Table 7.3: Process flow diagram equipment labelling nomenclature ....................................................... 204
Table 7.4: EPA ethylene plant greenhouse gas permit applications reviewed by HIS ............................. 205
Table 7.5: Design basis table .................................................................................................................... 212
Table 7.6: Physical properties of ethane ................................................................................................... 214
Table 7.7: Stream by stream material balance .......................................................................................... 259
Table 7.8: Summary of major stream flow rates....................................................................................... 225
Table 7.9: Equipment list with duty specifications ................................................................................... 225
Table 7.10: Total fixed capital cost estimate ............................................................................................ 228
Table 7.11: Variable production cost estimate.......................................................................................... 229
Table 7.12: Total production cost estimate ............................................................................................... 231

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Table 7.13: Total production cost estimate in PEP YEARBOOK format ................................................ 232
Table 8.1: Design basis table .................................................................................................................... 233
Table 8.2: Overall yield pattern ................................................................................................................ 235
Table 8.3: Once through steam cracking yield pattern ............................................................................. 235
Table 8.4: Stream by stream material balance .......................................................................................... 265
Table 8.5: Overall material balance summary .......................................................................................... 236
Table 8.6: Equipment list with duty specifications ................................................................................... 237
Table 8.7: Total fixed capital cost estimate .............................................................................................. 241
Table 8.8: Variable production cost estimate............................................................................................ 243
Table 8.9: Total production cost estimate ................................................................................................. 244
Table 8.10: Total production cost estimate in PEP YEARBOOK format ................................................ 245
Table 9.1: Design basis table for normal butane steam cracking.............................................................. 246
Table 9.2: Overall yield pattern ................................................................................................................ 247
Table 9.3: Once through yield pattern for steam cracking normal butane ................................................ 248
Table 9.4: Stream by stream material balance .......................................................................................... 273
Table 9.5: Material balance summary ....................................................................................................... 249
Table 9.6: Equipment list with duty specifications .................................................................................. 250
Table 9.7: Total fixed capital cost estimate .............................................................................................. 254
Table 9.8: Variable production cost estimate........................................................................................... 255
Table 9.9: Total production cost estimate ................................................................................................ 256
Table 9.10: Total production cost estimate in PEP YEARBOOK format ............................................... 257

Figures
Figure 2.1: Ethylene integrated product chain diagram ................................................................................ 6
Figure 2.2: Global historical annual demand for ethylene ............................................................................ 7
Figure 2.3: Global historical annual demand for propylene ......................................................................... 7
Figure 2.4: US Historic ethylene contract prices .......................................................................................... 8
Figure 2.5: Steam cracking yield on selected feedstock ............................................................................. 10
Figure 2.6: Conventional steam cracking process configuration ................................................................ 11
Figure 2.7: Block flow diagram for 100% ethane steam cracking.............................................................. 12
Figure 2.8: Total fixed capital cost estimates ............................................................................................. 13
Figure 2.9: Unit feedstock consumption to produce ethylene..................................................................... 13
Figure 2.10: Unit production cost estimate ................................................................................................. 14
Figure 3.1: Steam cracking yield on selected feedstock ............................................................................. 16
Figure 3.2: Ethylene integrated product chain diagram .............................................................................. 21
Figure 3.3: Distribution of ethylene uses .................................................................................................... 22
Figure 3.4: Distribution of propylene uses.................................................................................................. 23
Figure 3.5: Global distribution of butylene uses ......................................................................................... 24
Figure 3.6: Global historical annual demand for ethylene .......................................................................... 25
Figure 3.7: 2014 Global geographical distribution of demand for ethylene ............................................... 25
Figure 3.8: Global historical annual demand for propylene ....................................................................... 26
Figure 3.9: 2014 Global geographical distribution of demand for propylene............................................. 26

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Figure 3.10: Global ethylene capacity growth ............................................................................................ 27

Figure 3.11: 2014 Global regional distribution of ethylene capacity.......................................................... 28
Figure 3.12: Global propylene capacity growth.......................................................................................... 29
Figure 3.13: 2014 Global regional distribution of propylene capacity ....................................................... 30
Figure 3.14: Global ethylene capacity utilization factor ............................................................................. 31
Figure 3.15: Global propylene capacity utilization factor .......................................................................... 32
Figure 3.16: US Historic ethylene contract prices ...................................................................................... 43
Figure 4.1: Cracked gas compressor wash injection points ........................................................................ 48
Figure 4.2: Typical radiant coil temperature profile ................................................................................... 64
Figure 4.3: Feed conversion along radiant coil path ................................................................................... 65
Figure 4.4: Olefin yield as a function of steam cracking severity .............................................................. 65
Figure 4.5: Ethylene plus propylene yield as a function of cracking severity ............................................ 66
Figure 4.6: Propane cracking yields as a function of residence time .......................................................... 67
Figure 4.7: Propane cracking yields of ethylene plus propylene as a function of residence time .............. 68
Figure 4.8: Di-olefin yield from naphtha cracking ..................................................................................... 69
Figure 4.9: Coke deposition on coil surfaces over time butane .................................................................. 74
Figure 4.10: Twin radiant cell furnace configuration ................................................................................. 78
Figure 4.11: Linde’s radiant coil design ..................................................................................................... 82
Figure 4.12: Simplified SUPERFLEX process ........................................................................................... 92
Figure 4.13: Siluria process block flow diagram ........................................................................................ 94
Figure 5.1: Historical PEPCOST index for USA........................................................................................ 99
Figure 5.2: US Sourcing of natural gas liquids ......................................................................................... 103
Figure 5.3: Conventional NGL distillation configuration ......................................................................... 104
Figure 5.4: Overall steam cracking yield profiles ..................................................................................... 111
Figure 5.5: Front end hydrogenation configuration .................................................................................. 112
Figure 5.6: Suggested steam cracker layout.............................................................................................. 128
Figure 5.7: Flare discharge root cause ...................................................................................................... 138
Figure 5.8: Coke deposition on radial cracking tubes ............................................................................... 140
Figure 5.9: Reactive distillation configuration.......................................................................................... 147
Figure 6.1: KBR furnace tube configuration options ................................................................................ 160
Figure 6.2: Impact of residence time on KBR furnace yield .................................................................... 161
Figure 6.3: KBR furnace design approach ................................................................................................ 162
Figure 6.4: Layout of KBR furnace .......................................................................................................... 163
Figure 6.5: Distillation train sequence for cracking NGL feedstocks ....................................................... 164
Figure 6.6: KBR liquid feedstock block flow diagram ............................................................................. 165
Figure 6.7: KBR De-ethanizer design with high purity ethylene distillate ............................................... 166
Figure 6.8: KBR De-ethanizer configuration between 3rd and 4th stage compressor ................................ 167
Figure 6.9: Conventional Lummus ethylene block flow diagram............................................................. 168
Figure 6.10: Lummus pyrolysis furnace design ........................................................................................ 170
Figure 6.11: Lummus gas turbine cogeneration design ............................................................................ 171
Figure 6.12: Lummus conventional steam cracker process ...................................................................... 172
Figure 6.13: Lummus reactive distillation configuration for hydrogenation ............................................ 173
Figure 6.14: Lummus C3 metathesis block flow diagram ......................................................................... 175

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Figure 6.15: Equilibrium feedstock conversion as a function of temperature .......................................... 176

Figure 6.16: Stone & Webster use of swaged radiant coils ...................................................................... 176
Figure 6.17: Stone & Webster simplified process flow diagram .............................................................. 177
Figure 6.18: Stone & Webster twin cell furnace design ........................................................................... 179
Figure 6.19: Stone & Webster block flow diagram .................................................................................. 180
Figure 6.20: Stone & Webster ‘Advanced Recovery System (ARS)’ ...................................................... 181
Figure 6.21: Stone & Webster rippled tray distillation column internals ................................................. 182
Figure 6.22: Linde conventional ethylene process configuration ............................................................. 183
Figure 6.23: Linde simplified ethylene plant process flow diagram ......................................................... 184
Figure 6.24: Conventional cracking furnace process schematic ............................................................... 185
Figure 6.25: Linde’s radiant coil designs .................................................................................................. 186
Figure 6.26: Linde’s cracking furnace CAD design ................................................................................. 186
Figure 6.27: Linde’s twin-cell firebox design ........................................................................................... 187
Figure 6.28: Conventional multi-vessel cracked gas drying system ......................................................... 188
Figure 6.29: Linde steam cracking block flow diagram ........................................................................... 189
Figure 6.30: Technip steam cracking diagram with front end de-methanizer .......................................... 192
Figure 6.31: Technip steam cracking diagram with front end de-ethanizer.............................................. 193
Figure 6.32: Technip refrigeration cycles for cryogenic distillation......................................................... 194
Figure 6.33: Technip swirl tube radiant coil design.................................................................................. 195
Figure 6.34: Technip SPYRO furnace modelling configuration .............................................................. 196
Figure 6.35: Technip SPYRO model of coke build-up on radial coil tubes ............................................. 196
Figure 6.36: UOP HgSIV mercury removal process ................................................................................ 198
Figure 6.37: Axens RAM mercury removal process ................................................................................ 199
Figure 7.1: Input/output diagram for 100% ethane steam cracking .......................................................... 202
Figure 7.2: Block flow diagram for 100% ethane steam cracking............................................................ 203
Figure 7.3: ExxonMobil configuration for proposed steam cracker in Texas .......................................... 205
Figure 7.4: Proposed Chevron Phillips ethane cracker process flow diagram .......................................... 207
Figure 7.5: Proposed Occidental ethane cracker process flow diagram ................................................... 208
Figure 7.6: Proposed Equistar cracking section process flow diagram..................................................... 209
Figure 7.7: Proposed Equistar purification section process flow diagram................................................ 210
Figure 7.8: Formosa Plastics ethane cracker process flow diagram ......................................................... 211
Figure 7.9: Dow ethane cracker block flow diagram ................................................................................ 212
Figure 7.10: Ethane vapor pressure curve in mmHg................................................................................. 215
Figure 7.11: Ethane vapor pressure curve in psia ..................................................................................... 216
Figure 7.12: UOP HgSIV mercury removal process ................................................................................ 217
Figure 7.13: Vapor pressure curves for methane, ethylene and propylene ............................................... 219
Figure 7.14: Lummus binary refrigeration configuration (29H16) ........................................................... 221
Figure 7.15: Schematic of Elliott refrigeration compressor ...................................................................... 222
Figure 7.16: UOP PolyBed PSA H2 purification unit .............................................................................. 223

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