Evaluation of eddy current losses in the cover plates

of distribution transformers
S.V. Kulkarni, J.C. Olivares, R. Escarela-Perez, V.K. Lakhiani and J. Turowski

Abstract: The elimination of hot spots and the reduction of eddy current losses in bushing
mounting plates is an important consideration in transformer design. The currently used bushing
mounting plates are either mild steel plates, or mild steel plates with non-magnetic stainless steel
inserts or stainless steel plates. The authors calculate the eddy current losses in bushing mounting
plates using four different methods; (i) an analytical formulation; (ii) a three-dimensional finite
element method (FEM); (iii) from measured values of the initial temperature rise; and (iv) from
measured values of the steady-state temperature rise. There is a close agreement between the loss
values obtained using these four methods. The analysis has resulted in a detailed understanding of
the loss pattern and temperature rise phenomenon in bushing mounting plates. The authors also
analyse tank plates of small pad-mounted distribution transformers. It is shown that judicious use
of non-magnetic stainless steel can result in considerable energy savings for pad-mounted
transformers. FEM simulations are performed to find out cost-effective materials for the tank
plates of the pad-mounted transformers. A T-shaped stainless steel plate is found to significantly
reduce the load loss. The results of the simulations have been verified on a 225 kVA pad-mounted
transformer.

List of principal symbols 1 Introduction

r density, kg/m3 An increase in the transformer ratings, means that the

u kinematic viscosity, m2/s currents in both the low and high voltage sides of a
Pr Prandtl number transformer increase. The calculation of eddy current losses
b coefficient of thermal cubic expansion, 1C
1 in bushing mounting plates and high current terminations is
DT average temperature difference between plate and oil, essential to eliminate possible hot spots and reduce stray
1C losses. Bushing mounting plates are made of magnetic mild
g acceleration due to gravity, m/s2 steel (MS) for low currents and of stainless steel (SS) for
l length of plate in vertical direction, m high currents. For intermediate currents, MS plates with
Ra Rayleigh number non-magnetic inserts are used. This is a cost-effective
Nu Nusselt number alternative for intermediate currents as SS is much costlier
h heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 1C than MS.
c specific heat, J/(kg1C) Little published literature on the analysis of eddy current
A area of the plate, m2 losses in bushing mounting plates exists. Saito et al. [1] have
s electrical conductivity, S/m presented an experimental analysis of the eddy currents
k thermal conductivity, W/m1C present in the structure that surrounds the high current
o frequency, rad/s bushings of a large capacity transformer. A basic model
m permeability, H/m with a conducting current of 20 kA was constructed to
investigate the eddy currents so. An eddy current probe was
used for the direct measurement of the magnitude and
phase of the eddy currents. A two-dimensional formulation
was used to estimate the eddy current patterns. The
r IEE, 2004 formulation was based on a few approximations, and
IEE Proceedings online no. 20040632 experimentally measured data were used in their calcula-
doi:10.1049/ip-smt:20040632 tions. Furman et al. [2] have analysed eddy current losses in
Paper first received 11th March 2004 high current (10 to 20 kA) terminations. Experimental
S.V. Kulkarni is with the Electrical Engineering Department, IIT – Bombay, investigations were performed on actual physical models
Mumbai 400076, India
with different geometric dimensions and types of shielding.
J.C. Olivares is with the Instituto Technologico Superior de Zapopan, Zapopan
45019, Mexico
Various high current terminations on a tank cover that has
R. Escarela-Perez is with the Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana-Azcapot- eddy current shielding and non-magnetic inserts were
zalco, Departamento de Energia, Av. San Pablo 180, Col. Reynosa, C.P. 02200, compared and evaluated using actual prototypes. A brief
Mexico D.F., Mexico mathematical formulation was presented to estimate the
V.K. Lakhiani is with the Design and Technology, Transformer Division, losses in the termination. Turowski [3] and Turowski and
Crompton Greaves Ltd, Mumbai 400042, India
Pelikant [4] have given an analytical method and guidelines
J. Turowski is with the Institute of Electrical Machines and Transformers,
Technical University of Lodz and WSHE-Lodz, Ul. Stefanowskiego 18/22, to determine and prevent hot spots in bushing mounting
Lodz 90-924, Poland plates. The instantaneous field intensity at any point on the

IEE Proc.-Sci. Meas. Technol., Vol. 151, No. 5, September 2004 313
surface of the plate is calculated as the vector sum of the 114 114 114
field intensity due to all the currents flowing through the
three conductors. The analysis of bushing mounting plates 10
with vertical slots between phases has been recently reported R=25
in [5].
Although a few papers have been published on the 270 50 76
subject, the comprehensive verification of eddy losses
occurring in bushing mounting plates by alternative 25
methods has not been reported. We now intent to calculate 99 50
the losses occurring in the bushing mounting plates of
transformers upto a 2 MVA rating using four different
methods; (i) analytical; (ii) a three-dimensional (3-D) finite 590 all the dimesions in millimeters
element method (FEM); (iii) from the measured initial
temperature rise; and (iv) from the measured value of the Fig. 1 The bushing mounting plate (all the dimensions are in
steady-state temperature rise. millimeters)
After reviewing the existing literature on losses in
distribution transformers, it was concluded that work needs
to be performed in the area of estimation and control of
stray losses in the tank walls surrounding the high current 1 SYS
bushings of small distribution transformers, such as pad-
mounted transformers. Studies reported in the literature
analysing losses in high current terminations are predomi-
nantly for power transformers and very few studies have
been reported for distribution transformers.

2 Methods for the calculation of the losses

2.1 Analytical method

In the analytical formulation, the instantaneous field
intensity at any point on the plate surface is calculated as
a vector sum of the field intensity due to all the currents
flowing through the three conductors. Turowski’s equation
[4], which uses empirical correction factors for nonlinearity,
is used to calculate the losses: MARCO3D
Z Z rffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 2x
om Hms Fig. 2 The 3-D FEM model of the bushing mounting plate
P e ¼ ap dxdy ð1Þ
2s 2
s

This is a formula for calculation of eddy losses in a

conducting plate, on the surface of which the field is
incident having a peak value of Hms. The eddy losses per
unit surface area, calculated by using the resultant value of
the field intensity due to currents in the three phases, are
integrated over the entire plate area S. The permeability
inside the plate is a function of the magnetic field intensity
at that location because of the existance of nonlinear
magnetic characteristics. The factor ap is the linearisation
coefficient which has a value of 1.4, and takes into account
variations in the value of the relative permeability inside the
material. For non-magnetic plates ap ¼ 1. A semi-empirical
correction factor of x ¼ 1 is used for non-magnetic metals,
and x ¼ 1.05 to 1.14 for magnetic steel depending upon the
structure of the investigated element, the nature of the field
and the type of the steel. Equation (1) is for a plate whose
thickness is considerably larger than the depth of penetra-
tion; the plate is considered to be penetrated by the field on
both surfaces of the plate. Hence, for a very thick plate, the Fig. 3 The 3-D FEM model of the bushing mounting plate
losses given by (1) will have to be multiplied by a factor of (close-up)
two to get the total losses in the plate. For a plate thickness
that is comparable to the depth of penetration, a suitable
correction factor needs to be applied [3, 6]. phases. The non-magnetic inserts (25 mm wide) can also be
clearly seen in Figs. 1 and 3. The model is solved by using a
2.2 3-D FEM analysis time harmonic solver available within the Ansys FEM
Losses in the bushing mounting plate are also calculated software. Second-order elements were used to obtain better
using 3-D FEM analysis, which gives quite accurate results. results. Four layers of elements are used to define the
The geometric details of the bushing mounting plate are thickness of the plate as can be seen in Fig. 3. It is important
shown in Fig. 1. The finite-element model is shown in to mention that if first-order elements are used at least six
Figs. 2 and 3, which depict line terminations of the three layers of elements are required to properly capture the skin
314 IEE Proc.-Sci. Meas. Technol., Vol. 151, No. 5, September 2004
effect phenomenon. Only four layers were employed in this Fig. 4, showing the magnetic flux density distribution of the
work because second-order elements were used during the rightmost hole of the bushing mounting plate. Figures 4 to
simulation, this enabled us to correctly simulate the skin 6 are an indication of the regions where the eddy current
effect. Figure 4 shows a plot of the distribution of the activity is taking place.
magnitude of the magnetic flux density within the bushing
mounting plate (see Section 3 for the excitation conditions 2.3 Loss estimation from an initial
and material properties). Figures 5 and 6 are close-ups of temperature rise
When experimental verification of the calculated losses is
performed by using a low-voltage (a few volts) high-current
1 ANSYS 5.5.1 source, it is very difficult to measure the losses at such a low
FEB 10 2003
21:43:08 voltage. Hence, the use of measured temperature increments
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=1 is usually used to verify the estimated losses [7]. Losses
SUB =1 occurring in the plate can be estimated either from the initial
FREQ=50
BSUM
RSYS=0
(AVG) temperature rise or the steady-state temperature rise.
POWERGRAPHICS
EFACET=1
The losses in the plate can be calculated from the initial
AVRES=MaT
SMN = .348E−03
temperature rise measured during the first few seconds of
SMX =2. 46 the application of a current. The power P developed in a
.019565
.192515 unit volume inside a thin plate can be expressed in terms of
N .365464
.538414 the temperature y as [8]:
.711364
.884313
 
1.057
@y
1.23 P ¼ cr ð2Þ
1.403 @t t¼0
1.576
1.749 An assumption made when using (2), is that if the plate
1.922
2.095
2.268
temperature is measured sufficiently rapidly at the instant of
MARCO3D
2.46 switching on of the current, the temperature of the plate can
be considered as being uniform. Secondly, it is also assumed
Fig. 4 The magnetic flux density distribution of the bushing that all the heat is stored within the plate for this very short
mounting plate initial time so that there is no dissipation of heat to the
surrounding medium. The term (@y/@t)t ¼ 0 represents the
ANSYS 5.5.1 gradient of the initial part of the heating curve. Thus, one
JAN 30 2004
13 :13:24 can find power losses occurring in structural elements by
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=1 fast (say in the first 30 s) and accurate temperature rise
SUB =1
BSUM (AVG) measurements by using thermocouples.
RSYS=0
PowerGraphics
EFACET=1
AVRES=Mat
2.4 Loss estimation from a steady-state
SMN = .348E−03 temperature rise
SMX =2.46
.019565 When the experimental verification is performed in air the
.173298
.327031 heat transfer coefficient h is calculated using basic thermal
.499981
.653714 theory for a vertical plate in air presented in [9]. Air film
.826663 temperature (average of measured values of plate and air
.980396
1.153
1.307
temperature) is then calculated. Properties of the air film (r,
1.48
1.634
k, v, Pr and b) are found out at this temperature. The
1.807 Rayleigh number is given by:
1.96
2.133
2.287 gbDTl3
2.46 Ra ¼ Pr ð3Þ
v2
Fig. 5 The magnetic flux density distribution around the rightmost The Nusselt number is then calculated as [9, 10]:
hole of the bushing mounting plate
Nu ¼ 0:68
0:67Ra1=4
ANSYS 5.5.1
JAN 30 2004
þ valid for Rao109 ð4Þ
13:16:17 ½1 þ ð0:492=PrÞ9=16 4=9
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=1
SUB =1 whereas the heat transfer coefficient is calculated with:
BSUM (AVG)
RSYS=0 Nu  k
PowerGraphics h¼ ð5Þ
EFACET=1
AVRES=Mat
l
SMN = .348E−03 Finally, losses in the plate are given by:
SMX =2. 46
.019565
.173298 P ¼ h  A  DT ð6Þ
.327031
.499981
.653714
.826663
.980396
1.153
1.307
3 Results
1.48
1.634
1.807 An analysis of a bushing mounting plate made of MS with
1.96
2.133 25 mm wide non-magnetic inserts is now presented. The
2.287
2.46 distance between phases is 114 mm and the plate dimensions
are 270  590  6 mm (refer to Fig. 1). The conductivities
Fig. 6 The magnetic flux density distribution of the bushing for the MS and SS are taken as 4.07  106 S/m and
mounting plate (close-up) 1.15  106 S/m respectively and the relative permeabilities

IEE Proc.-Sci. Meas. Technol., Vol. 151, No. 5, September 2004 315
for the MS and SS are taken as 300 and 1, respectively. The
value of 300 for the relative permeability of the MS
corresponds to the saturation condition. It is appropriate to
take a value of relative permeability corresponding to
saturation since the skin depth of the MS is very small,
giving a high value for the flux density in most parts of the
bushing mounting plate. The value is based on the graph of
permeability against magnetic field intensity, derived by
measurements on a typical grade of MS.
The experimental setup for the temperature rise measure-
ments is shown in Fig. 7. The temperature rise measure-
ments were performed on different types of bushing
mounting plates that are used in transformers with ratings
from 500 kVA upto 2 MVA. For currents upto about
700 A, a plate of magnetic MS material can be used without
generating hot spots. From 700 A upto about 2-2.5 kA,
magnetic plates with non-magnetic inserts made of SS are
generally used as shown in Fig. 1. For still higher currents,
SS plates may have to be used.
Fig. 7 The experimental set-up
The losses calculated for the MS plate (with 25 mm wide
non-magnetic inserts) by the four methods detailed in
Section 2, are given in Table 1. It can be seen from Table 1
that there is considerable agreement between the four
calculation methods. Similar measurements have also been
performed on MS plates at various currents without non-
magnetic inserts and with two inserts, and also on an SS
plate. The analysis and experimental verification has
resulted in an understanding of the pattern of eddy current
losses and of the resulting temperature rise in bushing
mounting plates. The indirect methods of the calculation of
the losses from the steady-state and initial temperature rise
have also been validated. The study has helped to
standardise the type and material of the bushing mounting
plate for various current ratings in transformers rated
between 500 kVA and 2 MVA.
Table 1: The eddy losses in the bushing mounting
calculated using the four different methods
Current, Analytical, 3-D From steady-state From initial
A W FEM, temperature rise, temperature rise,
W W W
2000 56 66 65 58
2250 68 84 74 70
2500 81 103 95 93
2800 98 130 119 116
316
4 Analysis of losses in tank plates of pad-
mounted transforms
Thousands of pad-mounted transformers with ratings
between 112. 5 and 300 kVA are manufactured every year.
If the eddy losses in the tank plates of these transformers
could be cut by a few hundred watts by judicious choice of
the tank plate material, considerable energy savings
could be achieved over the life-span of these transformers.
The possibility of significant energy savings by a cost-
effective solution was the motivating factor for performing
the detailed 3-D FEM analysis and experimental verifica-
tion of the eddy losses in pad-mounted distribution
transformers. The tank plate (made from ASTM A36 steel
material) details of the pad-mounted transformer and the T-
shaped SS plate welded at the low voltage current
terminations are shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8 The tank plate of the pad-mounted transformer
A 3-D finite element simulation of the tank wall of Fig. 8
was performed using the geometry and dimensions shown
in Fig. 9. The circles represent the low and high voltage
phase conductors. The objective of this simulation is two-
fold: (i) to show that a proper insertion of small plates (near
the low-voltage conductors) leads to a reduction in tank
losses; and (ii) to validate experimentally the 3-D finite
136.0
6.5
H1
0.635 36.0
20.0
H3 1.27
1 3
36.0
0 2
H2
122.0
98.0 16.0
78.0 81.0
58.0 61.0
Fig. 9 The plate outline (all the dimensions are in centimetres)
IEE Proc.-Sci. Meas. Technol., Vol. 151, No. 5, September 2004
 0.001 352

0.013 305

0.025 258

0.037 211

0.049 163

0.061 116

0.073 069

0.085 022

0.096 974

0.108 927

0.120 88

0.132 833

0.144 785

0.156 738

Fig. 11 The magnetic flux density distribution with the SS

T-shaped plate

0.025 801

0.257 469

Fig. 10 The 3-D mesh for the tank wall of the pad-mounted 0.489 136
transformer 0.720 803

0.952 471
element model. Full details of the finite element model are
given in [11]. The currents in the low and high voltage 1.184

conductors of the transformer are: 1.416

1.647
Ix1 ¼ 590:49 A
ð7Þ 1.879
IH1 ¼ 5:65 A
2.111

The plate is 6.35 mm thick. Two types of simulations were 2.342

performed: (i) simulations with an SS T-shaped plate; and 2.574
(ii) without the SS plate. Figure 10 shows the finite element
2.806
mesh used during the simulations. A commercial finite
element software (Ansys) was used to perform the 3.037
simulations. It is important to note that several meshes
(with fewer elements) were used to calculate the losses. Our
aim was to find the best mesh that could accurately model
the small skin depth in the conductors. It was found that
coarser meshes lead to erroneous results, whereas the mesh
of Fig. 10 gives results consistent with the experimental
values. The results of the calculations are shown in Table 2 Fig. 12 The magnetic flux density distribution without the SS
and Figs. 11 and 12 show the magnetic flux density T-shaped plate

Table 2: Tank losses with and without the SS T-shaped plate distribution for the tank wall with and without the stainless
steel T-shaped plate respectively.
Simulation Talk wall T-plate Total The measured and calculated values of the difference
losses, W losses, W losses, W between the two load losses that correspond to the cases of
With the stainless steel 0.14 7.9686 8.11
a pad-mounted transformer with and without the SS
T-plate T-shaped plate are presented in Table 3. The relative error
between the calculated and measured reduction in load
Without stainless steel 170.71 - 170.71
T-plate
losses is about 7.5% which is quite acceptable. It has been
reported in [11] that for such transformers, the extra cost of

IEE Proc.-Sci. Meas. Technol., Vol. 151, No. 5, September 2004 317
Table 3: The reduction in the load loss with the SS
T-shaped plate
Measured losses, W Calculated losses, W
175.8 162.6
the SS can be recovered in less than 2 years due to the
appreciable reduction in the annual energy losses.
5 Conclusions
Eddy losses in bushing mounting plates are important
constituents of stray losses in transformers. If the material
and the type of bushing mounting plate are not selected
properly, higher losses and hot spots may result. For small
pad-mounted distribution transformers, manufactured in
large numbers, a judicious use of non-magnetic SS can
result in considerable energy savings.
We have presented four different methods for calculating
the losses in bushing mounting plates of transformers; (i) an
analytical formulation; (ii) a 3-D FEM analysis,; (iii) loss
estimation from the initial temperature rise; and (iv) loss
estimation from the steady-state temperature rise. The losses
calculated by these methods have been found to be in good
agreement. The detailed analysis and experimental verifica-
tion has resulted in a detailed understanding of the loss
pattern and temperature rise in bushing mounting plates.
This has helped in standardising the type and material of
the bushing mounting plate for various current ratings in
transformers rated from 500 kVA upto 2 MVA.
A 3-D FEM simulation was performed to find out cost-
effective materials for the tank plate of a pad-mounted
distribution transformer. A T-shaped SS plate was found to
be effective in appreciably reducing the load loss. The
results of the simulation have been verified on a 225 kVA
318
pad-mounted transformer. The extra cost of the non-
magnetic SS can be recovered in about 2 years due to
energy savings.
6 Acknowledgments
The authors thank the management of Crompton Greaves
Ltd., India, for permitting publication of the paper. The
authors also thank F. de Leon, E. Melgoza and M. A.
Venegas-Vega for their contributions to the analysis of the
pad-mounted transformers.
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