1. Explain the plate tectonics theory.

Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that describes the large-scale motion of seven large plates a
nd the movements of a larger number of smaller lithosphereplates, since between 3.3 and 3.5 b
illion years ago, tectonic processes began on Earth. The concept of continental drift, an idea de
veloped during the first decades of the 20th century,
is the basis of the model. Since seafloor propagation was validated in the late 1950s and early 
1919’s, the geoscientific community embraced plate-tectonic theory (Turcotte & Schubert,
2002). The lithosphere, which is a planet's rigid outermost shell, is divided into tectonic plates.
Seven or eight main plates and several smaller plates form the Earth’s lithosphere

Where the plates meet, the boundary type is determined by their relative motion: 

convergent, divergent, or transform.

2. Explain the role of plate tectonics in the following:

a. climate

Land features has a strong influence on climates. If there's land at one or other pole, ice sheets
are more likely to make. The relative positions of continents modify ocean currents, which
convey heat aloof from the equator, and therefore the size of continents affects the climates of
their interiors, because maritime air loses its moisture because it moves inland. In summer,
pressure falls because the land warms, the wind direction reverses, and warm, moist air flows
across the ocean toward the continent, bringing heavy rain this can be the summer, wet
monsoon. Plate tectonics exerts a awfully long-term influence, of course, and other factors
modify climates within the shorter term, but the distribution of land and sea determines
the sorts of climate the planet is likely to possess (Hambrey & Harland, 1981).

b. earthquakes

The waves of released energy move through the Earth's crust and cause the shaking we feel is
an Earthquake.Earthquakes cause physical structures to be destroyed, which is the direct cause 
of most casualties, and tsunamis are produced by those that occur underneath the sea. These
are shock waves affecting the whole water column.  (Allaby, 1998).
c.  rock cycle

Igneous rocks are the basis of the rock cycle is formed by plate tectonics.
As the sea level falls, rocks produced on the ocean floor may be forced upwards to become dry 
land or
exposed. The principal mechanism by which this happens is now assumed to be tectonic plate 
movements. The crumbling of rocks will raise a mountain chain when two plates clash, as is ha
ppening now between the Indian and Eurasian plates, raising the Himalayan chain. 

(Windley, 1984)

3. Discuss the significance of weathering in the environment.

Weathering is important because it creates unconsolidated material from which the soil is produ
ced. The most significant group is the clay minerals, leading to the formation of secondary mine
rals. The minerals that comprise the rocks are weathered by smaller rocks.

4. Explain at least 3 factors causing weathering.

Mechanical weathering causes rocks to break, also known as physical weathering and separatio
n. 

The molecular structure of rocks and soil is changed by chemical weathering. For instance, in a 
process called carbonation, carbon dioxide from the air or soil often mixes with water. Biological 
weathering is caused by plants and animals. Acid-forming chemicals that cause weathering and 
also lead to the breaking down of rocks and landforms are released by plants and animals
(Gore, 2013).

5. Compare and contrast the early atmosphere and the present atmosphere.

According to Hayes (2020), the original atmosphere of the Earth was rich in methane,
ammonia, water vapor, and neon noble gas, but lacked free oxygen. It is possible that the first
biological generation of oxygen by single-cellular organisms and its subsequent concentration in
the atmosphere were isolated for hundreds of millions of years. After photosynthesizing
organisms multiplied on Earth's surface and in the oceans, much of the carbon dioxide was
replaced with oxygen.

6. Explain why weather and climate vary in the different parts of the Earth.

Due to varying levels of radiation absorbed from the Sun at various areas of the planet at
different times of the year, there are temperature variations across the world. Near the equator,
more heat is obtained from the sun than near the north and south poles, where the angle of
the Sun's rays is lower. It is for this reason that tropical climates are so different from polar
climates.

7. Differentiate glacial, interglacial, and interstadial.

An ice age is a period of time when global temperatures drop so substantially that glaciers adva
nce and affect both laterally and longitudinally about one third of the Earth's surface.
In an ice age, the time when glacial development occurs is a glacial period. Likewise, the warm
er period of time between ice ages where glaciers fall and sea levels rise is an interglacial or int
erglacial period. Glaciers have lasted anywhere from 70,000 to 90,000 years over the last 450,0
00 years, while interglacials last around 10,000 years(Marshak,2008).
Interstadials are regarded as the relatively shortlived periods of thermal improvement during a 
glacial phase, when temperatures did not reach those of the present day and, in lowland mid-
latitude regions, the climax vegetation (Lowe & Walker, 1997).

8. What is the geologic time scale?

The geologic time scale or (GTS) is a system of chronological dating that classifies geological

stratigraphy in time. It's utilized by geologists, paleontologists, and other Earth scientists to
explain the timing and relationships of events in geologic history. The duration was developed
through the study of physical rock layers and relationships in addition because the times when
different organisms appeared, evolved and have become extinct through the study of fossilized
remains and imprints. The table of time spans, presented here, agrees with the nomenclature,
dates and standard color codes set forth by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS).
9. Explain at least 3 dating methods.

Relative dating, Absolute dating, Written markers.

Relative dating

methods are unable to establish an entity or event's absolute age, but may establish the 

probaility of a specific event occurring before or after another event that is well established to b
e the absolute date.

Absolute dating

Methods attempt to ascertain a particular period at which an entity emerged or an occurrence o
ccurred. Although the results of these techniques are widely accepted within the scientific
community, several factors, including sampling errors and geological disturbances, may impede
the discovery of accurate absolute dating (Watchman & Twidale, 2002).

Written Markers

Example of written makers are ‘Epigraphy’ is an analysis of inscriptions through the detection of
graphemes, the clarification of their meanings, the classification of their uses by dates and
cultural contexts, and the drawing of conclusions about the writings and authors. Another is
example is ‘Palaeography’ is the study of ancient literature, including the tradition of historical
texts being deciphered, read and dated.

10. Explain the significance of studying Earth Science.

Earth Science has an effect through almost our daily lives. Earth sciences include the study of
geology, the lithosphere, and also the large-scale structure of the Earth's
interior, additionally because the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Typically, Earth
scientists use tools from geology, chronology, physics, chemistry, geography, biology and
arithmetic to make a quantitative understanding of how the world works and evolves. Natural
science affects our everyday lives. for instance, meteorologists study the weather and wait
for dangerous storms. Hydrologists study water and warn of floods. Seismologists study
earthquakes and check out to grasp where they're going to strike. Geologists study rocks and
help to locate useful minerals. Earth scientists often add the field perhaps climbing mountains,
crawling through caves, or wading in swamps. That’s it is important for humans to have
knowledge and understanding of how our activities are related to the interaction of our planet
earth.

Reference:

Allaby M.,1998. Dangerous Weather. Floods. Facts on File, Inc., New York

Allaby M., 2008. Dictionary of Earth Sciences, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-921194-4

Cox S., Richard S., (2014). "A geologic timescale ontology and service". Earth Science
Informatics. 8: 5–19. doi:10.1007/s12145-014-0170-6. S2CID 42345393

Gore, P. J. W., Weathering Archived 2013-05-10 at the Wayback Machine. Georgia Perimeter

College
Hambrey, M.J. and Harland, W.B. 1981. ‘The evolution of climates’, in Cocks, L.R.M. (ed.) The

Hayes, J.M, Evolution of the atmosphere. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020

Lowe, J.J., and Walker, M.J.C., 1997. Reconstructing Quaternary Environments. London, UK:
Longman, 446pp.

Marshak,S., Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd ed. New York: W.W. Norton, 2008. Part VI, pp. 791
& 797.

Turcotte, D.L.; Schubert, G. (2002). "Plate Tectonics". Geodynamics (2 ed.). Cambridge

University Press. pp. 1–21. ISBN 978-0-521-66186-7

Watchman, A,. Twidale, C,. (2002-07-01). "Relative and 'absolute' dating of land

surfaces". Earth-ScienceReviews. 58 (1):1–49. doi:10.1016/S0012-8252(01)00080-0. ISSN 0012
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Windley, B.F 1984. The Evolving Continents. pp.202-308. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester.