Republic of the Philippines

CENTRAL BICOL STATE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

Impig, Sipocot, Camarines Sur 4408
Website: www.cbsua.edu.ph
Email Address:cbsua_sipocot@cbsua.edu.ph
Trunkline: (054) 881-6681

Unveiling Earth’s Climate Tapestry: A Deeper Dive into Fossils and Meteorites

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in ES104

2nd Semester, 1st Assessment S.Y. 2023-2024

Dineros, Ella Mae C.

Bandagosa, Joyce A.

Zorilla, RIca Pearl R.

Cornejo, Joshua C.

Cosino, Nathaniel C.

Llamado, Clarence F.

Comahig, Milyn D.

Anadilla, Gilmark J.

Balana, Mae Joy C.

Cena, Jaymerson A.

Pondalis, Lovely M.
Introduction

The narrative of Earth’s climate is a complex tapestry woven with threads of change.
Fossils and meteorites provide a great insight into the complex connection between life and the
constantly changing surface of our planet. Fossils serve as natural repositories, safeguarding
proof of past life and the surrounding ecosystem over millions of years. They are valuable
artifacts from the geological past, serving as evidence and remnants of ancient organisms that
have been preserved in the Earth's crust. The said remains of ancient species provide valuable
insights into past climates and environmental conditions, so improving our understanding of
long-term climatic patterns. In contrast, meteorites, are an extraterrestrial objects, which exert a
significant influence on Earth's climate through their ability to trigger and create catastrophic
events that can alter the composition of the atmosphere and the conditions on the Earth's
surface.

Fossils are extensively used by paleontologists as a vital method for gathering

information about past climates and environments. This area of research holds significant
importance in the fields of Earth and environmental sciences, mostly driven by apprehensions
regarding potential climate change in the future. For example, the dispersion of fossils
among various geological layers offers proof of past temperatures, as demonstrated by
the existence of tropical plant fossils in areas currently encased in ice.

Meteorite impacts have significantly influenced the Earth's climate. The

convergence of sizable meteorites with the Earth's surface has the potential to initiate
catastrophic occurrences, resulting in extensive destruction and modifications to
atmospheric conditions.A notable example is the Chicxulub impact, which took place in
the Yucatan Peninsula approximately 66 million years ago. The seismic data collected
at the impact site in Mexico have produced remarkable photographs of the Chicxulub
impact structure, which spans nearly 200 kilometers in width.

The substantial energy emitted by such collisions introduced significant amounts of

particulate matter and debris into the atmosphere, resulting to the prolonged influence of winter
phenomenon that can be attributed to its ability to cause sudden and severe mass extinctions,
as well as its selective effects on various creatures. In addition, the phenomenon of water
vaporization and subsequent release of greenhouse gas emissions during collisions can lead to
long-lasting climate effects, including the occurrence of acid rain and changes in atmospheric
phenomena.
Comprehending the complexity of climate change requires a thorough understanding of
the interaction of fossils and meteorites in Earth's climate system. Delving deeper into their
influence, we unveil a story of resilience, adaptation, and the profound impact of both gradual
and cataclysmic events.

Fossils as an indicator of climate change

Paleo-indicators refer to fossils that offer indirect (proxy) insights into previous
environmental conditions. Certain plant species necessitate precise temperature and moisture
conditions for optimal growth and development. Certain types of aquatic species exhibit
sensitivity to water chemistry, hence limiting their tolerance to specific pH and salinity ranges.
The extinct Ice Age mammals, which ceased to exist upon the conclusion of the Alts glacial, had
distinct environmental demands that diverged from contemporary conditions. The existence of
fossils that accurately portray these species can provide valuable insights on the former habitats,
including the climate conditions and the types of plants and animals that populated the
landscape.

An increase in global warming has been attributed to human activity since the mid-1900s.
It is progressing at an incredible pace that could be compared to the historical rapid changes in
climate that have affected Earth's ecosystems. Ecologists' ability to predict the impact of future
events on ecosystems solely through observation is hampered by the dominant belief that
global warming has the potential to replace current biological systems with alternative ones that
lack comparable analogs. One important benefit of the fossil record is its ability to provide a
long-term succession of environmental changes that scientists may use to forecast how the
ecosystem will react to current changes in the future (Bak, M. et.al 2023). Some fossil remains
used as evidences that there is really climate change happened since then these are, first fossil
plants. It provides details on historical climates' precipitation and temperature. Barclay and Scott
Wing, the museum's paleobotany curator and research geologist, are utilizing some of the 7.2
million plant fossils in the collection to find hints about historical climatic change eras. Wing and
Barclay begin by examining plant leaves in order to gather information about the environment
from the museum's collection of plant fossils. They began observing and contrasting the types
of plant leaves that grow at various temperatures. The physical characteristics of leaves, such
as their size and form, or morphology, can reveal historical climatic conditions. They conclude
that plants in warmer regions exhibit larger leaves with smoother edges in tropical temperatures
to optimize transpiration and photosynthesis, while plants in cooler climates possess smaller
leaves with more jagged edges to minimize water loss.

Thus, discovering fossilized leaves of specific sizes and shapes can provide insight into
the climate of the plant during its life. Furthermore, the presence of certain types of fossil leaves
in a particular location can indicate changes in that area's climate over time. For example, if
fossil leaves from tropical plants are found in a region that is now temperate, it suggests that the
climate of that region has significantly changed. Nevertheless, historical evidence from fossil
plants and their leaves from the PETM demonstrates that ecosystems underwent significant
changes as a result of the sudden increase in global temperature. However, human activity was
not the cause of global warming during the PETM (Leclerc, E. 2021). Paleobiologists can
identify plant species that existed in different locations and time periods by examining fossilized
plant remnants. This information provides valuable insights into the temperature, precipitation
patterns, and atmospheric composition that were prevalent during those periods; the extinction
of dinosaur and the preservation of its fossils.

A study released in June found that approximately 10 million years before the extinction
event caused by an asteroid impact, a significant decrease occurred in the population of
dinosaur species due to a period of global cooling. A broad asteroid strike that struck Mexico's
Yucatán peninsula and triggering nuclear winter caused the extinction of dinosaurs twelve
kilometers back in time, or roughly 66 million years ago. Three carnivores and three herbivores
from six different dinosaur families that endured 40 million years of evolution before the asteroid
struck Earth were the focus of the research team's attention. They analyzed almost 1,600
unique dinosaur fossils from approximately 250 distinct species. Climate change is one
explanation for why dinosaur populations were losing before the extinction event. During the
Cretaceous epoch, which occurred between 145.5 and 65.5 million years ago, there was a
worldwide decrease in temperature by 7-8°C. This global occurrence transpired because to the
asteroid's impact, which propelled dust, debris, and minuscule sulfuric acid aerosol droplets that
obscured sunlight, a vital source of warming for the Earth's surface. Considering the
mesothermic nature of dinosaurs, which necessitated a warm climate to control their body
temperature and metabolism, it may be inferred that the global cooling phase likely exerted a
substantial impact on their survival (Spungin, T. 2021).
1.1 Ice-core samples

One method for assessing historical temperatures involves the examination of ice cores.
The process of snowfall involves the entrapment of atmospheric gas-filled tiny bubbles within
the snow. In certain regions, an excessive amount of snowfall occurs, causing the older layers
to be buried and squeezed into ice. This process effectively traps air bubbles within ice sheets
and glaciers. Through meticulous drilling techniques, it is possible to obtain extensive ice cores
from these geological formations, enabling the examination of numerous layers of ice that
correspond to distinct snowfall events and the entrapment of air bubbles within them. Within
controlled laboratory settings, it is possible to quantify the chemical composition of the confined
air, specifically the quantities of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen gas that were present in
the atmosphere during the period of ice burial. By utilizing these measures, it is possible to
derive historical temperatures by employing empirical data pertaining to the heat retention
capacity of various gases within the contemporary atmosphere. The temperature data obtained
from ice cores originates from glaciers that have endured on landmasses such as Greenland
and Antarctica, spanning hundreds of thousands of years.

1.2 Ocean Floor Sediment

Paleoclimatologists employ glacial samples as a means to investigate historical events,

analogous to their utilization of ocean floor cores. Each day, particulate matter such as dust, dirt,
and organic matter from flora and fauna descend to the oceanic stratum. Deceased plants and
animals deposit their skeletons on the ocean floor, which are subsequently covered by
additional dust, mud, and skeletons. Over a period of time, these oceanic deposits accumulate,
forming a comprehensive account of the flora and fauna that inhabited the region. Examining
these strata provides scientists with insights about the ecological and climatic characteristics of
a geographical area that spans over a period of 170 million years.

1.3 Fossils of Ancient Vegetation

Plant remnants are found in many forms. These comprise fossils, charcoal, pollen, or
chemical residues in the soil. These remnants assist scientists in discerning the specific species
of plants that formerly thrived in a given region, enabling the reconstruction of past habitats and
the identification of climatic shifts. For example, the presence of predominantly tree pollen in the
lower layers of a site, and predominantly grass pollen in the upper layers, can suggest a shift
towards drier climate conditions and the conversion of forest to grassland. Plant pollen are
microscopic but preserve well as they have an almost indestructible outer shell. Pollen have
distinctive shape and surface patterns so they can be used to identify the plants they came from.

Paleoclimatologists use terrestrial fossils as a means to get insights into historical

climatic patterns. Contemporary flora inhabiting a certain climatic region, irrespective of their
global distribution, exhibit surprisingly comparable adaptations to their respective environments.
In habitats characterized by abundant moisture and sunlight, such as rainforest, plants exhibit
the morphology of possessing sizable leaves and slender cuticles. The cuticle of a plant is a
hydrophobic layer located on the outer surface of the leaf, which serves to inhibit water loss.
Vegetation in arid regions, such as tundra or desert, typically exhibits diminutive or absent
leaves and robust cuticles to facilitate water retention.

Paleoclimatologists can gain insights into the past climates of a certain place by
comparing the leaf fossils of ancient flora with the leaves of current plants. The leaf of a non-
existent maple tree bears a striking resemblance to the leaves of a present-day, extant species.
This observation will be utilized by scientists to infer that the extinct maple leaf likely inhabited a
comparable ecological setting to its contemporary counterpart.

1.4 Animal fossils

Numerous animal species have evolved to thrive in specific environments. Fossils of

animals found at a place can thus provide insights about the specific habitats present at that site
and the temporal variations in the environment. Certain species of antelope, such as gazelles
and springboks, exhibit a higher prevalence in grasslands compared to forests. If a site exhibits
a significant presence of gazelle or springbok fossils, it can be inferred that the area in question
was formerly characterized by grassland. Further insights can be derived by the examination of
chemical compositions present in fossilized dental remains. This analysis can ascertain if the
animal consumed grasses or the foliage of arboreal specimens.

1.5 Soil composition

The analysis of prehistoric soil encompasses two key aspects: its texture, which plays a
significant role in determining the suitability of the soil for plant growth, and its chemical makeup.
Trees and woody plants have distinct carbon compositions in contrast to grasses. Carbon
isotopes persist in the soil subsequent to the decomposition of plants and can be identified
through chemical analysis.
Studying fossils to understand past climates has several advantages and disadvantages:

Pros:

1. Historical Insight: Fossils provide direct evidence of past life and environments, offering a
window into Earth's climatic history.

2. Climate Patterns: They help identify long-term climate patterns and changes, such as ice
ages and periods of warming.

3. Evolutionary Context: Fossils give context to the evolution of species in response to climate
change.

4. Proxy Data: They serve as proxy data for temperatures, atmospheric composition, and other
climate variables when direct measurements are unavailable.

Cons:

1. Incomplete Record: The fossil record is incomplete, which can lead to gaps in our
understanding of past climates.

2. Preservation Bias: Certain environments or conditions favor fossilization, potentially skewing

our perception of past biodiversity and climate.

3. Interpretation Challenges: Determining the exact climate conditions from fossils can be
complex and requires careful interpretation.

4. Time and Resources: Researching fossils is time-consuming and resource-intensive, often

requiring multidisciplinary collaboration.

How do fossils affect climate change?

Do fossils have a genuine impact on climate change or do they counteract it?

Fossils don’t directly cause climate change, but they can help us understand past climate
events. By studying the types of plants and animals preserved as fossils, scientist can
reconstruct past environments and temperatures.

Imagine a world where lush rainforest thrived in the Arctic Circle, vast glaciers carved
their paths across continents that now bake under a relentless sun. Fossils, the preserved
remnants of organisms from bygone eras, whisper tales of these dramatic transformations. By
meticulously analyzing the distribution, diversity, and even the very chemistry of these fossilized
treasures, scientists can reconstruct past climates with remarkable detail.

As stated in the National Geographic article titled "Earth's Changing Climate," Earth's
climate has seen several changes over the course of millions of years. Fossils can be utilized to
elucidate the disparities in temperature and climate between Earth and the present day. Fossils
from the Cretaceous period (144 to 65 million years ago) indicate that Earth had significantly
higher temperatures compared to the present day. Fossilized flora and fauna, typically
inhabiting warm habitats, have been observed in significantly higher latitudes than their current
survival range. For instance, the breadfruit trees (Artocarpus altilis), which are currently
distributed across tropical islands, have been shown to thrive in regions as far north as
Greenland.

The preservation of soft and delicate marine animal bodies may have been facilitated by
the rising global temperatures and rapid climate change that occurred approximately 183 million
years ago, as stated in the article titled "Well-Preserved Fossils Could be Consequences of Past
Global Climate Change." These organisms encompass squid-like vampyropods characterized
by the presence of ink sacs, intricate crustacean claws, and fish possessing undamaged gills
and eye tissue. The primary objective of this study was to examine fossils that have been
exceptionally preserved, with the aim of establishing a correlation between historical global
temperature change and the process of fossilization.

“But how do fossils really affect climate change? The answer is, it might be the source but
not necessarily mean they directly affect the alteration of climate patterns.”

Fossils themselves don’t directly affect climate change. It’s the process of burning the
fuels that come from fossils – coal, oil, and natural gas – that has a dramatic impact on Earth’s
climate.

In simple terms, fossil fuels are like buried treasure chests filled with ancient energy.
These treasures come from the decomposed remains of living things that died million of years
ago. Over time, the pressure and heat underground transformed these remains into rich
deposits of carbon-based materials – coal, oil, and natural gas – sources of fuel we can extract
and burn for energy. Unlike magic treasure chest though, these fuels reserve can’t be refilled
once we use them up because they are non-renewable and these fuels take million of years to
form. Currently, fossil fuels are the workhorse of our global energy system, powering about 80%
of everything we do. But they’re not just used for energy – they are also the building blocks for
many everyday products, from plastics and steels to countless other materials (Fossil Fuels and
Climate Change: The Facts, 2024).

Fossil fuels are a practical and efficient energy source, but their utilization incurs certain
expenses. Upon combustion, they emit a substantial quantity of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the
environment. Carbon dioxide functions as a greenhouse gas, effectively capturing heat from the
Sun and enveloping the Earth in a protective layer. The retention of heat leads to an increase in
the average temperature of the world, which is commonly referred to as global warming.

In connection to climate change, the increased temperature from burning fossil fuels
disrupts the Earth’s natural climate balance. This disruption is what we call climate change.
Climate change can manifest in various ways, including:

 Rising sea levels – warmer temperatures cause the oceans to expand and glaciers to
melt, that may lead to rising of sea levels that threaten coastal regions.
 Extreme weather events – changes in climate patterns that may lead to more frequent
and intense heat waves, droughts, floods, and storms.
 Biodiversity loss – rising temperatures and changing climate disrupt ecosystem, putting
a strain on plant and animal life, potentially leading to extinction.

Climate Change Caused by Meteorites

Europe-Studies conducted a study on the impact of meteorites on dinosaur extinction.

The study found that meteorites can exert a substantial influence on climate change by
releasing energy and causing environmental disturbances. If a meteorite, particularly if it is
sufficiently huge, collides with Earth, it has the potential to initiate an ecological catastrophe that
impacts the entire globe.

One of the extensively known hits took place approximately 65 million years ago at the
conclusion of the Cretaceous period, resulting in a significant event of mass extinction. The
meteorite implicated in this occurrence had significant dimensions, possessing a minimum
diameter of 10 kilometers and a mass surpassing one trillion tons. Upon its collision, the object
emitted a substantial quantity of energy, resulting in the formation of a crater measuring
approximately 200 kilometers in diameter and the expulsion of an estimated 100 trillion tons of
dust into the Earth's atmosphere.
The dust and debris thrown into the atmosphere from such a collision can have several
profound effects on Earth's climate:

1. Sunlight Blockage
The vast quantity of material ejected into the atmosphere can block sunlight from
reaching the Earth's surface. This leads to a period of cold and darkness that can last for
several months or even longer. Reduced sunlight can disrupt ecosystems and impact
photosynthesis, affecting plant and animal life.
2. Global Cooling
The blocked sunlight contributes to global cooling, as less solar energy reaches the
surface. This cooling effect can have widespread consequences on weather patterns,
ocean currents, and overall climate stability.
3. Acid Rain
Meteorite impacts can also produce vast quantities of nitric acid, which can be dispersed
globally. This acid rain can have harmful effects on vegetation, water bodies, and soil
quality, further impacting ecosystems and biodiversity.
4. Wildfires and Environmental Disruption
The impact and subsequent events like acid rain can lead to widespread wildfires,
particularly in terrestrial forests and grasslands. These fires can devastate habitats and
contribute to further environmental disruption.

Overall, meteorite impacts represent one of the mechanisms that can cause sudden and
drastic changes in Earth's climate and environment. While these events are rare, their potential
impact on global ecosystems and life forms underscores the importance of understanding and
studying the risks associated with such cosmic events.

2.1 Mass extinction caused by meteorites

Meteors sometimes called “shooting stars”, are those interplanetary fragment item from
space that falls through the atmosphere of the Earth resulting in emitting light due to friction.
This occurrence happens once the piece of rock hits the earth's atmosphere by which it
contains gravity that pulls anything toward the ground. However, most meteors burn up and
disintegrate in the air while the larger ones can only manage to survive the trip until it reaches
the surface of the earth. It is also sometimes called a meteoroid as it travels through space and
becomes a meteor in a few seconds streak in the sky and create glowing trails. Meteorites
plummeting the earth's surface as part of history is the major cause of global climate change
resulting in greater mass extinction. The integrated period and proxy investigations lead off
answering and completing the mystery behind these enlarged transitions of the world, as well as
the climate reaction. Most scientists specifically geologists and biologists suggested that there
are 5 masses of major extinction events, by which 99 % of all living organisms have been
destructed and half of it was totally wiped out, it was discovered through the study of those
remaining fossils found in the earth (Biello, 2024). Gaining insight into the origins and
chronologies of these occurrences is essential for grasping the rapidity and scale of species
extinction occurring in the present day. The presented image illustrates the fluctuating extinction
rate, quantified as the count of extinct families per million years, exhibiting distinct surges during
the aforementioned five occurrences. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that even in
typical time frames, the rates of background extinction were rather modest, often amounting to
less than 5 families per million years.

The aforementioned masses are classified into the Ordovician-Silurian, Late Devonian,
Permian-Triassic, Triassic-Jurassic, and Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction events. These events
have also played a significant role in expediting the evolutionary processes of Earth's creatures.
The development of the crater appears to be unrelated to the meteors. According to certain
scholars, there are several instances where there is insufficient evidence to attribute them to
any specific cause, as the majority of meteors undergo vaporization upon entering the Earth's
atmosphere (Klezman, 2023). Studying the natural occurrence and dynamics of space rock is
challenging due to various factors. The Ordovician-Silurian period witnessed a significant
event known as the "global mass extinction event." This event resulted in the extinction of
numerous species, particularly brachiopods, which were found in broad and shallow seas. The
event occurred globally, primarily in the periphery of the Earth's continents, where a large stone
formation formed over time. The cause of this event was the rapid decline in sea level caused
by meteorites, which released volatile substances such as carbon dioxide and methane.
Additionally, the erosion of silicate rocks contributed to the global cooling phase. Additionally,
the glaciation in some continents was disrupted resulting to changes in ocean current patterns
that made the climates and habitats destructed. The sudden and huge drop in sea level reduces
the epicontinental seas and available habitat for organism to drain.

Figure 1. Brachiopod fossil

On the other hand, a significant effect also happened at the same time, which is the
rising of the sea level owing to global warming, and the withdrawal of the glaciers occurred
during the Silurian Period. Paleologists suggest that a bolide's impact caused this. Rising
carbon dioxide concentrations are rapidly warming and acidifying oceans. Subsequently,
another hypothesized cause for the Ordovician-Sularian extinction is intense volcanic eruptions
resulting in large igneous provinces, oceanic anoxia that devastates marine life, and even the
evolution of land plants. Thus, the wide range of hypothesized causes reflects the various
changes that were occurring at the time in the mantle, hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere,
and biosphere. A global system changes continuously recorded by the Late Devonian era
wherein the expansion of land life and marine extinction was nominated. Perhaps surprisingly,
the severe loss of biodiversity are both the low and high temperatures have been tied on the
general theory of meteors' impact suspected in the past decades which enabled to strengthened
the view of different formations of the crater in different parts of the Earth surfaces. It also
indeed believable as part of the history where life begins as the system of the earth changes,
many of organisms collide, reproduce, increasing and evolved but some are abolished that
sooner become not liveable in the current changes of this planet. Nevertheless, a group of
researchers presented a geobiological process that argues that the crater is not exactly the
same as the origin size of the meteors that landed on the earth but there are phases in which
the crater expands instantaneous nature in process. This means that the evidence of craters is
slightly confusions as the major causes of landscape changes that brought external effects on
physical and chemical changes in nature activities such as in the atmosphere, biosphere,
lithosphere and hydrosphere.
 In the Journal of Earth and Planetary Science
Letters, their study explains the impact of
meteors plummeting based on craters. Over
66 million years ago when meteors crashed
the earth's surface causing the creation of the
Chicxulub crater, tens of miles wide it is
believed that the impact of these meteors
was powerful. In the study theorized by Luis
Alvarez and his son Walter Alvarez in 1980,
Figure 2. Chicxulub crater in Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico
this impactor made a breakthrough with the
global extinction, they found the sedimentary layers particularly the K-Pg boundary contained
iridium concentration that the hypothesis posited came from the large asteroid and comets on
earth. Additionally, the asteroid that caused this wonderful crater was about 10 to 80 km in
diameter with a mass of 100, 000 trillion kilograms (Morgan et al., 2022). The non-uniform
shape and dimensions of the Chicxulub crater suggest that it was formed by an angled collision.
This information is crucial for calculating the velocity and mass of the object as it approached
the Earth's surface. The impact resulted in the ejection of millions of gigatonnes of asteroidal
and target material, forming a rapidly spreading cloud that enveloped the Earth within a few
hours. This cloud contained dust, soot, and sulfate aerosols - particles suspended in the air.

Moreover, the Hoba meteorites which weighing about 60 tons located in Namibia, and
considered to be the largest natural piece iron of the Earth. Generally, airborne particles of
meteorites have been made out of the vast majority effect on the Earth system which last for a
million years. The temporary elevation of the Earth's surface to several hundred degrees
Celsius, resulting from the friction of airborne particles propelled into orbit by a forceful impact
event, has significant and extensive
repercussions. Following the intense heat, a
period of cooling occurred due to reduced
sunlight reaching the Earth's surface, as the
meteors produce airborne debris that is
substantial enough for the considerable of certain
areas of Earth's surfaces from blocking sunlight
Figure 3. Hoba Meteorite in West Namibia
impacting photosynthesis and reducing biomass
and productivity. Furthermore, landslides, tsunamis, and massive earthquakes triggered by
meteorite impacts drastically altered the landscape, causing a change in climate that led to the
extinction of dinosaurs along with many other species. The Journal of Geological Society of
London also reveals that the earth contains meteorites hit over the past 600 million years ago
with potassium feldspar. According to a study conducted by a group of researchers in the same
journal, potassium feldspar is non-toxic but it has powerful ice-nucleating mineral aerosol that
strongly affects the cloud dynamics which makes the solar radiation freely scatter resulting to a
warming effect. The atmosphere is said to be more sensitive to warming from greenhouse
gases emissions, such as large and active volcanoes, and because of that, it have been
proposed of global climate change system and many kill mechanisms (Pankhurst et al., 2021).
When rocks melt, they release gases such as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which
causes the greenhouse effect and leads to global warming. The environmental damage was
worsened by acid rain and flames in the vicinity of the impact site, ultimately leading to the
extinction of multiple species and altering the course of evolution on Earth.

The global temperature changes can be also brought by the smoke from wildfires and
impact ejecta explaining the sudden and severe nature of the mass extinction. Moreover, during
geologic time of Triassic period under Mesozoic era marked the beginning of major events,
particularly in the distribution of the continents, evolutions of life, and geographic distributions of
continents (Logan, 2024). At the end of the era, the supercontinent fragmented into multiple
landmasses due to the continental drift theory, triggered by an asteroid impact on Earth. This
event led to worldwide flooding and the first warm global temperature. This environmental shift
was declared as a result of mass extinction due to the impact of meteors: the Triassic–Jurassic
(T–J; 201 Ma) and the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg; 66 Ma), aside from its effect to the
plankton diversity it also paints an incomplete portrait of turnover in the plankton and the
ecological response to environmental change. Extinction events range in magnitude from
background extinction to mass extinction, with a range of increasing species loss intensities
populating the space between those end members. This encompasses a few significant
extinction that surpass background rates and impact specific populations or ecosystems, yet
remain insignificant in comparison to the devastating, worldwide mass extinction. The process
of extinction frequently occurs across decades or even millennia of years. However, Finnegan
during 1939, points out that even in the best of circumstances, the firsthand observations of
modern species only span a few hundred years (Lowery et al., 2020). A comprehensive study of
the complete history of various groupings, supported by fossils, can help construct the ideas
surrounding this enigma, and facilitate a deeper understanding of the phenomenon.
 Rapid and dramatic climate changes, along with significant alterations in land and ocean
environments, triggered all of these "Big Five" extinction.These changes encompassed factors
such as ocean acidification, acid rain resulting from intense volcanic activity, and other shifts in
environmental composition. By studying these past events, we can gain insights into the speed
and scale of current species extinctions and the importance of addressing the underlying
causes of environmental change. Therefore, meteorite impacts can cause tsunamis,
earthquakes, and massive volcanic eruptions, among other phenomena. For example, if a
meteorite were to strike a volcano, the release of greenhouse gases from the volcanic activity
could lead to significant climate fluctuations, including global warming and ocean acidification,
which can have harmful effects on marine and terrestrial ecosystems. If a large meteorite struck
a volcano, it could cause instant melting upon impact, and potentially trigger catastrophic
consequences. This intense heat would create an impact plume within the Earth’s mantle.,
many species can be affected. The occurrence that happened 66 million years ago was not
really the dinosaurs dying because of directly impact of the meteorites, but because of the
climate change that trigger caused by the meteorites.

2.2 Chicxulub Impactor: Caused by a meteorite or an asteroid

According to the article "New Scientist - Chicxulub: The asteroid that killed the
dinosaurs," approximately 66 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous Period, a city-sized
asteroid with a diameter between 10 and 15 kilometers collided with the Yucatan peninsula in
Mexico. The asteroid impacted the Earth's surface with a velocity of 20 kilometers per second,
approaching at a 60-degree angle above the horizontal. This angle of entry increased the
asteroid's ability to penetrate the atmosphere. This resulted in the emission of sulfur-based
gases and fine dust, as well as the release of large quantities of silicate dust into the
atmosphere, causing the sun to be obscured. The impact also resulted in global wildfires,
releasing soot and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, leading to a prolonged period of "impact
winter" lasting for 15 years.

This asteroid left a crater over 150 kilometers wide, centered ust off the coast of the
Yucatan peninsula in Mexico. This was named after Chicxulub Pueblo, a small town close to this
point. Scientists working for the Mexican state-owned oil company Pemex first discovered it in
the 1960s, but it wasn’t until 1990 that researchers linked it to the Cretaceous-Palaeogene
extinction event.
 During that time, when dinosaurs were the sole inhabitants of Earth, having dominated
for nearly 200 million years, scientists believed that the Chicxulub impactor was the primary
cause of the eventual extinction of dinosaurs, and consequently, the evolution of surviving
dinosaurs into today’s birds.

In the 1970s, Nobel Prize-winning physicist Luis Alvarez and his son Walter Alvarez
proposed the impact hypothesis to explain the Cretaceous-Palaeogene extinction event, but this
explanation did not suffice for everyone to agree, as it appeared too simple. Others argue that
dinosaurs were already heading towards extinction, and the impact only hastened their demise
rather than being the sole cause.

According to "Meteorite Impact – Understanding Global Change" (2022), the Chicxulub

impactor caused diverse effects on the Earth's system. The Earth's surface experienced a
transient increase in temperature, reaching several hundred degrees Celsius, due to the
frictional forces exerted by airborne particles such as soot, ash, dust, pollen, and aerosols.
These particles were propelled going into the orbit by the impact and then descended back to
Earth. The duration of this tremendous heat was probably limited to a few minutes. After the
period of heightened warmth, temperatures subsequently declined for several months. This
decline could be attributed to either inadequate sunlight or restricted sunlight resulting from the
partial obstruction of sunlight by airborne particles. The lack of sunlight for the process of
photosynthesis led to declines in the biomass and productivity of specific species. The impact
also dramatically altered landscapes, triggering landslides and generating tsunamis through
massive earthquakes, reshaping the topography of impacted areas, and causing widespread
destruction. Additionally, the melting of rock at the impact site released carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere, resulting in greenhouse gas emissions and warming. Furthermore, the impact
increased acid rain from the reaction of water with the sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide added
to the atmosphere.

However, this article said that it was a meteorite which caused such events and not an
asteroid as opposed to the preceding article. According to Asteroids and Meteoroids | Some
Meteorite Information | Washington University in St. Louis (n.d), asteroids are small rocky
objects, much smaller than planets, that orbit the sun. It is said that if it is larger than 1 meter or
0.001 kilometers, then it is considered as asteroid and this was larger than the pebble size
object we call meteoroids. Back to the Chicxulub impactor, its size in diameter was 10 – 15
kilometers or 10000 to 15000 meters and it is larger than a meteoroid, hence, we can conclude
that the object that struck the Yucatan peninsula in Mexico is an asteroid and not a meteorite.
2.3 Meteorite minerals provide valuable insights into Earth's extinctions; climate
fluctuations

Over the years, we have believed that the extinction of dinosaurs resulted from the
showering of meteorites millions of years ago. However, scientists, researchers and other
experts provided concrete evidences for more valid and reliable information regarding how
meteorites and climate change be the fuse of extinction of dinosaurs and other organism. There
is a possibility that the extinction of dinosaurs and the alteration of Earth's climate were not
solely caused by a massive asteroid, but might have been the result of other cosmic events as
well. Microscopic minerals derived from several smaller meteorites have the potential to furnish
the geological proof required to demonstrate how the impact of rocks from outer space has
altered the trajectory of life's evolution on Earth on multiple occasions.

Spinels, which are microscopic minerals approximately the size of a grain of sand, have
the ability to endure extreme climatic conditions and chemical alterations on the Earth's surface.
Swedish researchers aim to gather a sufficient number of spinels from various locations
throughout the world in order to establish a correlation between the fragmentation of massive
asteroids in space and specific instances of extinction or climate changes throughout Earth's
history, as stated by Birger Schmitz, a marine geologist at Lund University in Sweden. Schmitz
and his colleagues observed a significant and swift rise in the abundance of spinels inside the
limestone rock layers during the onset of the diversification period. This phenomenon was
observed at various locations in Sweden, western Russia, and central China. It is hypothesized
that the fragmentation of the asteroid caused regular collisions between Earth and kilometer-
sized asteroids, which may have caused the observed changes in the variety of life.

2.4 Reassessing the Connections Between Meteorite Collisions and Early Cenozoic
Worldwide Temperature Increase

In the study conducted by Zorzi et al., (2022), they utilized the Paleocene-Eocene
Thermal Maximum (PETM) and the lower Chron 29n hyperthermia techniques to investigate the
factors that contributed to the formation of the Marquez Dome (Texas, USA; 58.3²±³3.1 Ma) and
Boltysh (Ukraine; 65.39²³³0.14 Ma) craters, respectively. The utilization of physics hydrocode
simulations and radiative computations is employed to measure the anticipated rise in global
temperature resulting from various scales of impacts caused by the emission of CO2 and CH4
from certain rock sources into the atmosphere.
 Between 66 and 52 million years ago (Ma), approximately 25 significant global warming
events occurred, as documented by Barnet et al. (2019), Foster et al. (2018), and Zachos et al.
(2008). These hyperthermal events had similar characteristics, such as rapid warming onsets
lasting from 1 to 100 thousand years, with total durations ranging from 0.1 to 2 million years.
They were also marked by a near-doubling of atmospheric CO2 levels and negative carbon
isotope excursions (CIE) (Foster et al., 2018). Consequently, it is suggested that impactors with
a diameter of less than 2 km, linked to the Marquez Dome and Boltysh craters, were too small
to cause hyperthermal-like temperature changes exceeding 1 K, even if the target rocks were
carbon-rich. While impactors larger than 10 km in diameter may lead to hyperthermal events,
such large impacts are expected to be rare during the Cenozoic era, occurring at a rate of 2–4
objects per generation year.

The relationship of meteorites, fossils, and climate change

Do meteorites affect the extinction which leads to fossils that cause climate change or
meteorites caused climate change that extinct living organisms and turned into fossils and
million years later used by humans as one of the mass sources of energy that leads to climate
change we are experiencing right now?

3.1 Fossils and Climate Change

Fossils offer vital evidence regarding previous climates. A recent study has utilized the
fossil record to obtain knowledge on the specific traits that make animals more vulnerable to
extinction caused by climate change. Through the examination of the fossil record, scientists are
able to identify the species that are currently at the greatest risk of extinction due to human-
caused climate change. Pollen grains and plant remains are specific sorts of fossils that can
serve as indicators of the flora that formerly inhabited a particular place. By studying these
fossils, scientists can gain valuable insights regarding the past climate conditions of that region.
The researchers compiled a dataset of important characteristics that could impact the ability to
survive extinction, including more than 290,000 fossil records from over 9,200 taxa. This
collection included qualities that have not been extensively investigated before, such as
preferred temperature. The characteristic information was combined with climate simulation
data to construct a model that aimed to identify the primary determinants influencing the
vulnerability to extinction in the face of climate change. Fossilized shells and coral reefs can
provide insights into historical ocean temperatures and sea levels.
3.2 Meteorites and Climate Change

The occurrence of a massive meteorite impact 66 million years ago near present-day
Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, is thought to have had substantial effects on Earth's ecosystems,
despite its rarity. This catastrophe is believed to have led to the extinction of several plant and
animal species, including all dinosaurs save for the ancestors of modern winged beings. The
meteorite impact has numerous ramifications for Earth's system. At first, the collision caused a
transient rise in temperature on the Earth's surface to several hundred degrees Celsius. This
was caused by the friction generated by particles expelled into orbit by the impact. The duration
of this intense heat was likely restricted to a few minutes. Following a period of intense heating,
temperatures likely declined for several months due to reduced sunlight caused by the partial
blockage of sunlight by airborne particulates. The interference with the process of
photosynthesis led to a decrease in the amount of organic matter and the rate of production. In
addition, the impact resulted in significant changes to the physical features of the impact site
and its surroundings, including the occurrence of landslides and tsunamis as a result of the
powerful tremors caused by the impact. The rocks at the impact site underwent melting, which
resulted in the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This release of carbon dioxide
contributed to the warming of the greenhouse effect. Furthermore, the collision caused an
increase in acid rain as a consequence of the chemical interaction between water and the
introduction of sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The cumulative effects
resulted in the extinction of innumerable species and altered the evolutionary history of life on
Earth.

3.3 Relationship between fossils, meteorites, and climate change

The fossils provides records that will serve as a proof of previous meteorite strikes and
its probable impacts on climate and ecosystems. For instance, the Chicxulub impact crater in
Mexico, which originated during the termination of the Cretaceous epoch, has been correlated
with the eradication of the dinosaur species. The fossil record indicates an abrupt extinction of
numerous species during this period, which aligns with evidence of a collision event and
subsequent alterations in the climate. Through the examination of fossils, scientists can gain a
more comprehensive understanding of the impact of previous meteorite collisions on both
climate change and biodiversity.
Conclusion

Fossils and meteorites provide crucial evidence of Earth's changing climate over millions
of years. Studying and examining the interconnections of fossils, meteorites, and climate
demonstrates a significant correlation between celestial occurrences and the evolutionary
history of life on our planet. Fossils offer insights and evidence into the historical diversity and
adaptations of animals. There are different types of fossils, but they are not directly affecting the
climate unless humans start manipulating and overusing them. In addition, the geological
evidence resulting from meteorite impacts provides another insight into the environmental
changes that have influenced the planet's history. Through the integration of different lines of
evidence, scientists are able to reconstruct what previous ecosystems looked like and gain
insight into their responses to climatic changes influenced by both terrestrial and extraterrestrial
forces. This information is essential for understanding the current climate crisis facing our world
today. "Fossils And Meteorites: Earth's Changing Climate" is a fascinating and informative
documentary that delves into the history of Earth's climate through the examination of fossils
and meteorites. The different studies expertly combine scientific research with stunning visuals
to create a compelling narrative about the impact of climate change on our planet.

Fossils offer a glimpse into the past, showing us how different species adapted to
changing environmental conditions. They also reveal periods of rapid climate change, such as
mass extinctions caused by asteroid impacts or volcanic eruptions. Meteorites provide
additional clues about Earth's history, offering evidence of catastrophic events that have shaped
our planet's climate. One of the assets of this study is its ability to simplify difficult scientific
concepts for a general audience. The use of animations and graphics helps to illustrate key
points, making it easier for viewers to understand the information presented. Additionally, the
interviews with leading experts in the field provide valuable insights into current research and
theories about Earth's changing climate. However, one criticism of "Fossils And Meteorites" is
that it could have delved deeper into potential solutions to combat climate change. While it
effectively highlights the problem, more emphasis on actionable steps that individuals can take
would have been beneficial. Moreover, studying and analyzing the remnants left by meteorite
strikes will not only reveal certain catastrophic incidents but also emphasize the combined effect
of numerous smaller hits from each other smaller meteorite over a long period of time. These
events are important in determining Earth’s climate and impacting the trajectory of biological
evolution. Knowing the interdependence of fossils, meteorites, and climate enhances our
understanding of the complex relationship between cosmological events and the evolution of life
on Earth. Overall, "Fossils and Meteorites: Earth's Changing Climate" is a thought-provoking
study that sheds light on an important issue facing our planet today. It successfully educates
viewers about the history and impact of climate change while leaving them with a sense of
urgency to take action.
Fossils and meteorites provide crucial evidence of Earth's changing climate over millions
of years. By studying these ancient artifacts, scientists can gain valuable insights into the
planet's past climate patterns and how they have evolved over time. This information is
essential for understanding the current climate crisis facing our world today. Through studying
fossils and meteorites, we can better understand the factors driving climate change and make
informed decisions about how to mitigate its effects. It is crucial that we continue to research
these ancient artifacts to protect our planet for future generations. These insights are essential
for comprehending the history, current state, and future of earth including its future climate, so
we can create more realistic intervention to lessen the effects of climate change, especially
when it comes to the possible cosmic dangers and their impact on the long-term survival of life
on our planet Earth.
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