Virtual Displacement

Dr. Rakesh K Kapania

Aerospace and Ocean Engineering Department
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA

AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures

©2016 Rakesh K. Kapania, Mitchell Professor, Aerospace and Ocean Engineering, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061-0203.
Virtual Displacement

~v T~ (~v)
~v = Unit Normal

u=0
Deformed Structure
With Virtual Displacement
Superimposed

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 2

Virtual Displacement (contd...)

I Virtual displacement is an imaginary infinitesimal displacement

that is superimposed on the already displaced structure.

I Virtual displacement is consistent with the essential or

kinematic (displacement) boundary conditions. They vanish
where essential boundary conditions are specified.

I Applied loads do not change due to the action of these

infinitesimal displacements.

I Virtual displacements can be expressed as the δ operator.

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 3
Virtual Work

I Work done on a structure by all the forces acting on the structure as

the structure is given a virtual displacement.

I As a simple example, consider a simple linear spring with spring

constant k subjected to a load Fs . The deflection x is given by
x = Fs /k. Given a small virtual displacement δx, the work done by
the external load, δWe , in moving through the virtual displacement
δx is given as:
δWe = Fs δx

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 4

Virtual Work (contd...)

I The virtual work done by the internal spring force, kx, is represented
as δWi and can be expressed as:

δWi = kx δx

Since F = kx, the virtual work done by the external force is equal to
the virtual work done by the internal force.

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 5

Principle of Virtual Work

I At equilibrium:
δWe = δWi
This is the Principal of Virtual Work, PVW. This principle is equally
valid for more general, complex structures; linear or nonlinear
response; as well as Conservative or Non-Conservative forces.

I The principle of Virtual Work is used both to derive the governing

equations for a structure and also for developing approximate
methods.

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 6

Principle of Virtual Work (contd...)

I The internal Virtual Work done can also be thought of as the change
in the strain energy, δU, due to a virtual displacement. For example,
for the case of spring, δU = Fs δx = δWi .

Note: Fs = kx for a linear spring

Hence δWe = δU is also a statement of PVW.

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 7

Cantilever Beam Example

Here,

δw (0) = 0 δw 0 (0) = 0
©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 8
Cantilever Beam Example (contd...)

Consider a Cantilever beam, of length L and subjected to a distributed load

q (x ), a tip moment M in the anti-clockwise direction, and point loads F1
and F2 acting at distances x1 and x2 respectively.
An example of valid transverse Virtual displacement δw (x ) for this beam
is: h  πx i
δw (x ) = δA 1 − cos
2L
An Note that both δw (0) and δw 0 (0) vanish, this is as it should be since
at x = 0 both the transverse displacement w (x ) and the slope dw /dx are
specified to be zero in this case.
It is interesting to see what happens at x = L.

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 9

Cantilever Beam Example (contd...)

Since the end at x = L is free to both deflect and rotate, the assumed
virtual displacement and rotation should not be allowed to vanish at the
free end. If any of these vanish, then we are not satisfying the consistency
requirements for virtual displacements.

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 10

Virtual External Work

By distributed load,
Z L h  πx i
= δA q (x ) 1 − cos dx
0 2L
h  πx i
1
By F1 , F2 , respectively are: F1 δA 1 − cos , and
h  πx i 2L
2
F2 δA 1 − cos
2L
And that due to moment M,
d h  πx i
MδA 1 − cos | x =L
dx 2L

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 11

Virtual External Work (contd...)

The virtual work done by external forces is then given as:

Z L h  πx i
δWe = δA q (x ) 1 − cos dx
0 2L
h  πx i h  πx i
1 2
+ F1 δA 1 − cos + F2 δA 1 − cos
2L 2L
d h  πx i
+ M δA 1 − cos 
dx 2L  x =L

For a given set of loads, the external virtual work will become δA times
some known quantity.

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 12

Change in Strain Energy

The change in strain energy can be expressed as,

" Z  2 2 #
1 L d w
δU = δ EI dx
2 0 dx 2
 2   2 
1 L d w d w
Z
= EI .2 δ dx
2 0 dx 2 dx 2

Assuming the deflection profile to be given as:

h  πx i
w (x ) = A 1 − cos
2L
δU becomes:
 π 4 Z L  πx 
δU = AδA EI cos2 dx
2L 0 2L
©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 13
Change in Strain Energy (contd...)

The variation in the strain energy δU, after performing the integral, depends
upon product of A, δA and some known quantity.

By equating δU = δWe , from the previous slide, we can obtain A; leading

to a one-term approximate solution of the problem.

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 14

Example

For x1 = L/3, x2 = 2L/3, F1 = F2 = F , and, M = 2FL

δWe becomes
Z L h  πx i h  π i
= δA q (x ) 1 − cos dx + F δA 1 − cos
0 2L 6
h  π i d h  πx 
i
+F δA 1 − cos + 2FLδA 1 − cos
3 dx 2L x =L

Z L √ #
"
h  πx i 3 3
δWe = δA q (x ) 1 − cos dx + F δA π + −
0 2L 2 2

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 15

Example (contd...)

Similarly after substituting values for x1 , x2 , F1 , F2 , and, M , δU becomes:

 π 4 L
δU = A.δA.EI
2L 2
By equation δWe = δU, δA cancels out and A becomes,
" √ #
RL h  πx i 3 3
0
q (x ) 1 − cos dx + F π + −
2L 2 2
A=  π 4 L
EI
2L 2

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 16

Example (contd...)

F x 
Assuming: q (x ) = . ,
L L
" √ # 
8 − 4π + π 2

3 3
π+ − +
2 2 2π 2
A = F  π 4 L
EI
2L 2
FL3
A = 1.3285
EI
This is a one-term approximation to the deflection of the beam. As will be
seen subsequently, the accuracy of the solution can be increased by adding
more terms to the solution and applying the PVW as many times there are
number of unknown coefficients.
©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 17
Principle of Virtual Work, General Case

For general 3-D case, subjected to body forces Bi and surface forces
(~ν)
Ti , where ~ν represents the unit normal on the surface area S,

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 18

Principle of Virtual Work, General Case (contd...)

The external virtual work, due to virtual displacement δui , can be written
as:
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
(~ν) (~ν)
δWe = Bi δui dV + Ti δui dS + Ti δui dS
V S1 S2

Since δui = 0 on S2
Z Z Z Z Z
(~ν)
δWe = Bi δui dV + Ti δui dS
V S1

The first term represents the virtual work done by the body forces and
requires an integral over the volume V ; the second term represents the
virtual work done by surface traction and requires an area integral over the
surface S.
©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 19
Principle of Virtual Work, General Case (contd...)

Recall: ai bi = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .

If S = S1 ∪ S2 such that u is prescribed on S2 , then δu vanishes on S2 and

the second integral is then performed over only S1 , the surface area over
(~ν)
which traction Ti is specified.
(~ν)
Using Cauchy’s relation, Ti = τij νj , the external virtual work becomes:
Z Z Z Z Z
δWe = Bi δui dV + τij νj δui dS
V S

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 20

Principle of Virtual Work, General Case (contd...)

The surface integral in the above equation can be converted into a volume
integral using Gauss Divergence Theorem.

Z Z Z Z Z Z
δWe = Bi δui dV + (τij δui ),j dV
Z Z ZV V

= [(τij,j + Bi ) δui + τij δui,j ] dV

V

Recall: τij,j + Bi = 0 from equilibrium equations.

Z Z Z
δWe = τij δui,j dV
V

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 21

Principle of Virtual Work, General Case (contd...)

One can write:

1 1
ui,j = [ui,j + uj,i ] + [ui,j − uj,i ]
2 2
ui,j = eij + ωij
This gives:

Z Z Z
δWe = τij δ (eij + ωij ) dV
Z Z ZV
= τij δeij dV Recall : τij ωij = 0
V
δWe = δU = δWi (Internal Virtual Work )

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 22

Principle of Virtual Work, General Case (contd...)

If a structure is in equilibrium and remains in equilibrium while it is subjected

to a virtual distortion, the external virtual work, δWe , done by external forces
acting on the structure is equal to the internal virtual work δWi done by
the internal stresses.

Conversely; If δWe = δWi for an arbitrary virtual distortion then the body
is in equilibrium.

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 23

Principle of Virtual Work, General Case (contd...)

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 24

Principle of Stationary Potential Energy

The internal virtual work done can be written as;

Z Z Z
δWi = τij δeij dV
V
Z Z Z
∂u
= δeij dV
V ∂eij
= δU

Here u is the strain energy density and U is the strain energy of the complete
structure. δU represents the first variation in the strain energy.

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 25

Principle of Minimum Potential Energy (contd...)

Next, we assume that the forces (body or traction) are conservative forces
such that these can be derived from a potential, V . To illustrate the concept
of Potential of a load, consider a load Q acting on a structure and q is the
corresponding displacement. A load is called a conservative load if it can
be derived from a potential V such that:

∂V
Q=−
∂q
Obviously, V = −Qq.

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 26

Principle of Stationary Potential Energy (contd...)

For a general three-dimensional case, we can write V as:

Z Z Z Z Z
(~ν)
V =− Bi ui d (Vol ) − Ti ui dS
Vol S1

When given a virtual displacement, δu, the variation in the potential is given
as:
Z Z Z Z Z
∂ui (~ν) ∂ui
δV = − Bi δuj d (Vol ) − Ti δuj dS
Vol ∂uj S1 ∂uj
Z Z Z Z Z
(~ν)
= − Bi δui d (Vol ) − Ti δui dS
Vol S1
= −δWe
= −δU

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 27

Principle of Stationary Potential Energy (contd...)

This gives:

δ (U + V ) = 0

The sum Π = U + V is called the Total Potential Energy.

At equilibrium δΠ = 0, provided the forces are conservative, the displace-
ments satisfy the essential boundary conditions, and the variation of the dis-
placement that causes variations in the total potential energy vanish where
ever essential boundary conditions are specified.

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 28

Dummy Displacement Method

Principle of Virtual Work (PVW) can be used to calculate unknown forces

if the deformation are known.
Let a structure is in equilibrium under a set of forces Qi (could be a moment
also). Apply a virtual known distortion on the structure such that δqi 6= 0,
but all other q’s are zero. From PVW:
Z Z Z
Qi δqi = τij δeij dV
V

Often δqi = 1. This is the so-called Dummy Displacement Method

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 29

Example

Consider a set of N bars meeting at a point and fixed at the other end.

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 30

Example (contd...)

Let the nth bar has length Ln and makes an angle αn with the x-axis. The
end where all the bars meet is subjected to a force P making an angle β
with the x axis and we neglect body forces.

Let u and v represents the deflections in the x and y directions respectively,

at A.

The nth bar thus, makes an angle αn and is displaced by u and v .

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 31

Example (contd...)

The axial strain, en , and stress σn , assuming u and v are very small, in the
nth bar, can be written as:

   
u v
en = cos αn + sin αn
Ln Ln
   
u v
σn = En cos αn + En sin αn
Ln Ln

Here, we have assumed each axial bar can be made of different material and
En is the Young’s modulus for the material of that bar.

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 32

Example (contd...)

Give the end a virtual displacement δu in the x direction only, i.e. δv = 0.

The external virtual work is given by:

δWe = (P cos β)δu

Virtual strain in the nth bar due to the virtual displacement δu is given as:
 
δu
δen = cos αn
Ln

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 33

Example (contd...)

The internal virtual work for the total system can be obtained by summing
the virtual work done by the internal stress σn in the n th bar as:

n =N        
u v δu
δWi = ∑ En
Ln
cos αn + En
Ln
sin αn An Ln
Ln
cos αn
n =1

Here An is the area of cross-section of the nth bar.

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 34

Example (contd...)

From the PVW, δWe = δWi

! !
n =N n =N
En An En An
P cos β = ∑ Ln
cos2 αn u+ ∑ 2Ln
sin 2αn v (1)
n =1 n =1

Note the above equation represents one equation in two unknowns u

and v . We need one more equation.

To get the second equation, apply a virtual displacement δv in the

y -direction only. The external virtual work now is δWe = P sin βδv .

The PVW will yield:

! !
n =N n =N
En An En An 2
P sin β = ∑ 2Ln
sin 2αn u+ ∑ Ln
sin αn v (2)
n =1 n =1
©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 35
Example (contd...)

Application of Principle of Minimum Potential Energy

V = − P cos β u − P sin β v
Z Z Z Z eij

U = τij d eij dVol
Vol 0

N Z en

= ∑ 0
En e n d e n An Ln
n =1
N
en2
= ∑ En
2
An Ln
n =1

u cosαn v sinαn
en = +
Ln Ln
©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 36
Example (contd...)

N
En An
U= ∑ 2Ln
[u cosαn + v sinαn ]2
n =1

Π = U + V
N
En An
= −P u cos β − P v sinβ + ∑ 2Ln
[u cosαn + v sinαn ]2
n =1

δΠ = 0

∂Π ∂Π
= δu + δv
∂u ∂v

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 37

Example (contd...)

δu and δv are independent of each other

∂Π
= 0
∂u
∂Π
= 0
∂v

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 38

Example (contd...)

N
∂Π En An
= 0 ⇒ −P cos β + ∑ 2 [u cosαn + v sinαn ] cosαn = 0
∂u n=1 2Ln

! !
N N
En An En An
∑ Ln cos 2 αn u+ ∑ Ln sinαn cosαn v = Pcos β
n =1 n =1

! !
N N
∂Π En An En An
∂v
=0⇒ ∑ Ln sinαn cosαn u+ ∑
L n
sin2 αn v = Psinβ
n =1 n =1

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 39

Castigliano’s Theorem

Consider an arbitrary structure subjected to a set of generalized forces, Q1 ,

Q2 , ... Qi ... Qn . Note by generalized forces we mean a linear combination
of physical forces and moments.

Let q1 , q2 , ... qi ... qn be the set of corresponding co-ordinates or displace-

ments.
©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 40
Castigliano’s Theorem (contd...)

Castiglianos’s two theorems state:

∂U
Qi = First Theorem
∂qi
∂U ∗
qi = Second Theorem
∂Qi

Here U and U ∗ represent, respectively, Strain and Complementry Strain

Energy. For linear elastic structure, U = U ∗ .

©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 41

Example

We can also get the two desired equations for the truss bar problem
by applying Castigliano’s first theorem. Recall:
N
En An
U = ∑ 2Ln
[u cos αn + v sin αn ]2
n =1

The force component in the x and y direction as the generalized

forces Q1 = P cos β and Q2 = P sin β. Also, q1 = u, and q2 = v .
N
∂U En An
P cos β = = ∑ [u cos αn + v sin αn ] cos αn
∂u n=1 Ln
N
∂U En An
P sin β = = ∑ [u cos αn + v sin αn ] sin αn
∂v n=1 Ln

All the three methods yield the same set of two equations.
©Rakesh K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 42