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10.1680/jurdp.17.00025
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Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025
Submitted: 10 October 2017
Published online in ‘accepted manuscript’ format: 16 January 2019
Manuscript title: Structural Analysis of the Elements of Lynch’s Image of the City based on
Space Syntax Theory: A Case Study in Bojnourd City
Author: Hamid Gohari
Affiliation: Weihenstephan-Triesdorf University of Applied Sciences, Freising, Germany
Corresponding author: Hamid Gohari, Giggenhauser Str.25 - C/273, 85354 Freising,
Germany. Tel.: +4915731335159.
E-mail: hamid.gohari220@gmail.com

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025
Abstract

Kevin Lynch, in The Image of the City, studied the mental image of citizens as separate elements, namely nodes,

paths, districts, edges, and landmarks, without considering the structural relations among them. Redefining these

elements in the form of a coherent structure using the descriptors of space syntax theory makes a structural

analysis of these elements possible. This study explored the relations between Lynch’s elements and the

descriptors of space syntax theory. Taking a descriptive–analytical approach, a theoretical framework was

proposed following a literature review related to the image of the city and space syntax theory, which was then

used to extract the mental image of the citizens of Bojnourd City (located in the North Khorasan province of

Iran), with the elements redefined by isovists and axial lines from a structural aspect. The findings of this

research demonstrated a close relation between the paths and nodes in the mental image map and the axial lines

map of Bojnourd City. Finally, it was concluded that there was a multi-dimensional relation between Lynchian

elements and descriptors of space syntax, which could have practical applications in urban development plans.

Keywords: Town & city planning; Urban regeneration; Design methods & aids

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 Accepted manuscript doi:
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1. Introduction
Lynch’s theory of the image of the city, provides the most important method used to identify the mental images of citizens.
This theory considers a citizen’s mental image in the form of separate elements including paths, nodes, landmarks, edges,
and districts (Lynch, 1960). In the structure of a city, as presented by Lynch, the elements of the image of the city are
completely separate from each other. On the other hand, space syntax theory emphasizes the relations among spaces and the
use of structural logic in their description (Hillier, 1996). The theory describes a city in terms of indistinguishable elements
that are distinct in their relative situation in the spatial configuration of the city (Dalton & Bafna, 2003). The most important
problem in this research field is the study of the two separate dimensions of the visual and the structural descriptions in both
of the aforementioned theories. Lynch’s theory has resulted in the discovery of fundamental elements in the fields of
navigation and orientation using visual descriptors. However, there are numerous criticisms of Lynch’s essays and ideas in
his studies of urban design because the relations between constructive elements (paths, nodes, landmarks, edges, and
districts) in the urban environment have been ignored (Golledge & Stimson, 1997; O’Neill, 1991).
On the other hand, recent studies have demonstrated that using the methodology of space syntax theory can resolve the
existing constraints of Lynch’s results regarding the relations between spatial elements (Kim & Penn, 2004; Penn, 2003;
Kim, 2001). Therefore, there is a need for further research to determine these relations in the urban structure. The main aim
of the current research was to identify how each element of the mental image map was related to the syntactical map of the
city by considering the existing differences in both theories. In addition, an analysis of the mental maps of citizens, the
identification of spatial integration properties and connectivity in the space syntax map of the city, and the study of isovist
properties of the selected urban spaces were also goals of this study. In this regard, the most important question to ask is
which elements in Hillier’s theory of space syntax can be associated with the elements of Lynch’s theory in the mental maps
of the citizens of Bojnourd City?

2. Concepts, viewpoints, and theoretical foundations

2.1 An introduction to two theories: Lynch’s mental image and Hillier’s space syntax
The main aspects of this research were introduced by Kevin Lynch in the book ‘The Image of the City’ and Bill Hillier and
Julienne Hanson in their book ‘Space is the Machine’. There have been numerous studies conducted to develop the practical
and theoretical aspects of these two theories into a tool for socio-spatial studies of cities and urban spaces. However, few of
these studies have simultaneously connected the practical and theoretical aspects of the aforementioned theories in the same
direction. In the following text, we will review a few important examples of such studies:
 Michael Batty (2001) in a research paper titled ‘Exploring Isovist Fields: Space and Shape in Architectural and
Urban Morphology’, investigated the concepts of space syntax and isovist in urban spaces.
 Alesdair Turner, Alan Penn, and Bill Hillier (2005) in a research paper titled ‘An Algorithmic Definition of the
Axial Map’, studied axial lines and the parameters affecting their logical creation.
 Alan Penn (2003) in a research paper titled ‘Space Syntax and Spatial Cognition’, discussed his findings regarding
the aspects of space as experienced in the mental map and the direct relation with axial lines in space syntax.
 Ruth Conroy Dalton and Sonit Bafna (2003) in a research paper titled ‘The Syntactical Image of the City: a
Reciprocal Definition of Spatial Elements and Spatial Syntaxes’, studied the mental image elements in a person’s
cognitive map in relation to the parameters of the space syntax theory.
 Yixiang Long, Perver Baran, and Robin Moore (2007) in a research paper titled ‘The Role of Space Syntax in
Spatial Cognition: Evidence from Urban China’, studied the existing parameters in a person’s cognitive map and
spatial orders to estimate the relevance of clarity in space syntax theory to legibility in a person’s cognitive map.
 Young Ook Kim and Alan Penn (2004) in a research paper titled ‘Linking the Spatial Syntax of Cognitive Maps to
the Spatial Syntax of the Environment’, studied the effects of the spatial configuration of the environment in a
residents’ spatial cognitions of their built environment by the spatial syntax of sketch maps and spatial syntax of
the environment. Their findings suggested that the spatial syntax of configuration in real environments and the
spatial syntax of cognitive maps in spatial cognition are closely related.

2.2 Legibility and space intelligibility in Lynch’s theory of the mental image and Hillier’s theory of
space syntax
To determine the factors of subjective perception, Lynch initially analyzed the central districts of the three U.S. cities of
Boston, Jersey City, and Los Angeles to finally introduce the five elements – nodes, edges, paths, landmarks, and districts –
as the constructive factors of the mental image of the city (Lynch, 1960). According to Lynch’s definition, legibility is the
quality of a city that allows humans to navigate successfully through complex spaces (Marcus et al., 2016). Lynch considers
the legibility of an environment to be equivalent to a stronger mental image of the city. In Lynch’s opinion, imageability is
the existence of certain physical–spatial qualities in urban elements; such qualities increase the probability of a mental image
being created by an observer. This can also be called legibility.

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On the other hand, Bill Hillier expresses a quality called intelligibility, which is interpreted in relation to our field of view of
space. This feature, i.e., the degree of observability and visibility of space, forms an integrated system. In an intelligible
system, fully connected spaces tend to turn into integrated spaces (having spatial integration). An unintelligible system lacks
this integrity feature and as a result, the relations we observe totally mislead us about the conditions of the space in the
system (Hillier & Hanson, 1984; Hillier, 1996). The methodology and theory of space syntax provide an appropriate tool to
describe and quantify the spatial networks in urban space. Therefore, axial lines and an isovist were defined as the best space
syntax’s descriptors in our case.

Axial lines are the most important and best descriptors of space syntax theory. Based on their definition, axial lines represent
the shortest and longest visible lines passing through each space. These lines are experimentally convenient for urban
context analysis and enable researchers to conduct quantitative calculations (Kuipers, 1996; Kuipers, Tecuci and
Stankiewicz, 2003; Penn, 2003). An isovist is the volume of space directly visible from a vantage point, with respect to a
specific environment (Benedikt, 1979). It is a space which is “often regarded as a viewshed and a measure of how far one
can move or see”. (Carvalho & Batty, 2003).

Axial lines and isovists are one- and two-dimensional representations of space, respectively. Integration and connectivity are
important features of axial lines (Hillier, 1996; Hillier & Hanson, 1984). Integration measures the ease of accessing part of a
particular area and is also considered to be a measure of space syntax accessibility. Connectivity is a syntactic measurement
that takes into account the relations between a space and its immediate neighboring spaces (Long et al., 2007).

2.3 Interpreting the elements of the mental image of the city from Lynch’s viewpoint in space syntax
theory
A positive and strong relation between the spatial configuration in the real world and its representation in spatial cognition
has been reported (Kim & Penn, 2004). This section attempts to analogically describe, as far as possible, the elements of the
image in Lynch’s theory, with regard to the spatial descriptors of space syntax theory based on Dalton’s categorization. In
Dalton’s opinion, the five elements in Lynch’s theory can be divided into two categories: spatial descriptors and visual
descriptors. Spatial descriptors include nodes, paths, and districts. These elements are used as positioning elements, where
the relations between the elements and the observer is topological. The next level is primarily visual descriptors, including
edges and landmarks. The observer’s relation to them has a geometrical and visual order. Accordingly, a hierarchical
difference exists between the spatial and visual elements. In contrast to Lynch’s primary thoughts, it can be considered that
the structural coherence of spatial elements plays a more significant role in the city than a visual distinction. Therefore, the
spatial elements can be referred to as the first order elements, while the visual elements can be referred to as second order
elements (Dalton & Bafna, 2003). In the rest of this section, the main elements of space syntax will be defined.

First order elements:

First order elements are commonly interpreted through an axial map but isovist properties can also be used to describe some
features. This is particularly true for nodes.

Paths:
Lynch describes paths as routs for movement. The channels used by people are typically streets, pedestrian walkways, and
public transportation lines (Lynch, 1960). In the theory of space syntax, paths can be considered from Lynch’s viewpoint to
be analogous to axial lines in terms of spatial structure. According to Penn (2003), lines having a high degree of integration
match important paths in the mental map in Lynch’s theory. Such a matching is a feature of legible and intelligible districts
(Dalton, 2001; Penn, 2003).

Nodes:
Lynch, in the Image of the City, distinguished two types of nodes: the main intersections and those that are dedicated to a
particular activity or subject (Lynch, 1960). A node in the axial map is generally a vertex lying on the intersection of axes
with a high degree of integration. This can be an advantage for the recognition and interpretation of nodes in the structure of
the city. This property also holds for areas of high connectivity (Dalton & Bafna, 2003). Other properties, such as the
relation between isovist areas to the perimeter ratio, mean isovist length (Dalton, 2001), circularity (Benedikt, 1979), or
entropy (Turner et al., 2001) may play a role here.

Districts:
Like nodes, districts also cannot be accurately and fully identified by an axial map (Dalton & Bafna, 2003). Generally, an
axial map, on its own does not provide the structure of spatial hierarchy in the description of cities or buildings (Amorim,
2000, Bafna, 1999; Bafna, 2001). Based on Dalton’s definition, the nature of a territory is determined by studying the
distribution of the values of its axial lines, by measuring the degree of integration at different scales (local and global) and by
considering their arrangements within the larger system of the city (Dalton, 2003).

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Second order elements:

Edges:
According to Lynch, an edge is defined as a linear element that is not considered to be a path or it may be a border between
two kinds of districts. Edges are visually important. They have a constant shape and cannot be penetrated. Edges tend to
partition the environment and often also function as paths (Lynch, 1960: pp. 62–63). An edge is introduced by the property
of isovist radii distribution, i.e., it is positioned where there is a moderate increase or decrease along the radii. Also, it
should be noted that where a constant level of isovists can be viewed, the location should be considered an important visual
border or an edge (Dalton, 2003, Benedikt, 1979)

Landmarks:
In Lynch’s mental image research, landmarks usually can be seen in the paths of important streets (Darken and Siebert,
1996; Magliano and Cohen, 1995; Darken and Siebert, 1993; Tlauka and Wilson, 1994; Payne et al., 1997). The landmarks
introduced to the citizens as common landmarks have an idiosyncratic isovist shape and the districts under their visual cover
are adjacent to axial lines with a high degree of integrity (Peponis et al., 1998). Therefore, by emphasizing the shape of
isovists and their adjacency to axial lines, these elements can be described (Dalton & Bafna, 2003).

This study considered Lynch’s theory of the image of the city alongside the theory of space syntax. In this regard, a
structural analysis of the elements of Lynch’s mental image, i.e., the first and second order elements, was performed using
the spatial descriptors of the theory of space syntax (axial lines and isovists). In this regard, the theoretical framework of the
research, can be depicted as follows.

3. METHODS
Bojnourd City was selected as the study area. The city is located in the Northern Khorasan province of Iran (Figure 3). Its
population is estimated to be 215,000 people. The development of the city has occurred gradually, in different directions,
mostly in radial and grid patterns (Naghsh Jahan Pars, 2010). The urban street network and topography of Bojnourd City are
the main factors that make it a suitable case study for this research. On the one hand, the street network pattern is radial and
regular and most of the main streets are straight. On the other hand, the city has developed in an almost completely flat area.
These two important factors reduced the limitations of space syntax analysis in relation to curved paths and topography.

3.1 Syntactical analysis

In this study, by representing the layout of the case study area as an axial map, a syntactic analysis of the spatial
configuration of the city was conducted. Then a global integration and connectivity map of Bojnourd City was created, with
red indicating the most integrated and connected lines and blue indicating the least integrated and connected lines. The city
was found to be composed of 2,323 axial lines. Figures 3 and 4 are the global integration and connectivity maps of Bojnourd
City. In addition, the isovist technique was used to indicate the degree of circularity and the distribution of isovist radial
length was determined.

3.2 The mental image mapping procedure

In this step, based on the Lynch methodology for a mental image map, an interview survey was conducted to obtain sketch
maps of the Lynchian elements. Taking the nature of the study into consideration and to avoid basic errors, such as
misunderstandings by study participants. Letters were given to 70 trained urbanism students asking them for their
cooperation in the survey. The students were residents of Bojnourd City and were trained in the use of Lynchian elements at
the faculty of art and architecture at the University of Bojnourd. Calculations were performed using the Cochrane
formulation by considering a population size of 85 people, i.e., the total number of trained urbanism students, with a 0.05%
margin-of-error. The final sample size was estimated to be 70 people.

The interviewees were asked to spend 30 minutes drawing a mental image map of Bojnourd City, showing the spatial layout
of the city. A wide range of competencies in drawing maps was evident among the participants. Figures 4 and 5 show a
relatively well drawn and a poorly drawn sketch map, respectively. There were a number of typical errors, including
incompleteness, variations, and differences in scale across the area. The maps were also sometimes too simple, highly
selective, distorted, and augmented. These typical errors were valuable because they enabled us to understand the syntactic
characteristics of mental image maps that reflect how people perceive and represent the real environment. In this study, to
elicit cognitive information from sketch maps, a conventional analysis was performed by disaggregating depicted Lynch’s
elements. Figure 12 shows the results of all mental image maps.

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The next section explains the extraction of the mental image map of the citizens of the Bojnourd City, and the first and
second order elements were then studied using the theory of space syntax and by comparing them to the mental image maps.

3.3 Lynchian analysis

Lynch’s mental image is shaped on the basis of the five elements of paths, nodes, landmarks, edges, and districts. In this
step, cognitive maps of the citizens (mental image maps) were constructed based on Lynch’s five elements, some of which
are shown in figures 5 and 6. The findings of the questionnaires and the cognitive map of the citizens were assessed. Finally,
a cognitive map of all citizens was developed based on the resulting overlaps of the two previous steps.
Lynch’s mental image is shaped on the basis of the five elements of paths, nodes, landmarks, edges, and districts. In this
section, the findings of the questionnaires and the cognitive maps of the citizens are presented. Finally, a cognitive map of all
citizens is presented based on the resulting overlaps of the two previous steps.

Paths:
In the mental map of the citizens, streets and alleys were divided into primary and secondary paths. Based on the findings of
the questionnaire, primary paths included the main streets (in terms of functionality and accessibility), which played a
significant role in shaping the cognitive map of the citizens. Secondary paths included secondary streets and alleys with
special extra functionality or historical characteristics. Figure 7 shows the path results from all mental image maps, with the
paths identified in the mental maps of the citizens given in Table 1.
Nodes:
In the mental map of the citizens, nodes were divided into main and secondary categories. Primary nodes included the main
intersections or main squares, which played a significant role in shaping the cognitive map of the citizens. Secondary nodes
were less important in the overall city structure. Figure 8 shows the node results from all mental image maps, with the nodes
identified in the mental maps of the citizens given in Table 1.
Landmarks:
Based on the findings of the questionnaire, this element in the cognitive map of the citizens includes places such as
commercial centers, administrative buildings, parks, and universities. Figure 9 shows the landmark results from all mental
image maps, with the landmarks identified in the mental maps of all citizens given in Table 1.
Edges:
Based on the findings of the questionnaire, this element was identified in the cognitive maps produced by the citizens in
relation to a watercourse passing along the western division of the city. Figure 10 shows the edge results from all mental
image maps, with the edges identified in the mental maps of the citizens given in Table 1.
Districts:
Based on the findings of the questionnaire, this element was identified in the cognitive maps produced by the citizens as
certain neighborhoods, e.g., Ferdowsi district, Ayne Khane district, and others. Figure 11 shows the district results from all
mental image maps, with the districts identified in the mental map of the citizens given in Table 1.

Mental image map

Based on the findings of the questionnaire and by emphasizing the overlaps, the mental image map of all citizens was found
to be as follows (Figure 12).

3.4 Lynch’s structural analysis

First order elements:
Paths:
With regard to the theory of space syntax, paths can be studied in comparison to axial lines (Kim & Penn, 2004). When
comparing the mental map of the citizens with the map of axial lines a high degree of similarity was observed (Figure 13).
This was similar to the matching of axial lines with a high degree of integrity to the main paths in the Lynchian analysis. For
clarity, some of the main paths in both maps (i.e., axial and cognitive) are matched by numbers in Figure 13.
Nodes:
Nodes in the axial map were often located at the intersection of axes with a high degree of integrity (at the global scale) or
paths with a high degree of connectivity. This can be verified by observing the nodes identified in the mental image map. For
clarity, the nodes in the cognitive map are determined by numbers (1 to 17) in the corresponding positions in the axial maps
(Figure 14). Nodes of potential importance were described by the property of circularity (Figure 16). The higher the
circularity of a node, the more important the node will be (Turner et al., 2001). This property was examined with respect to
the existing nodes in the mental image map of the citizens by excluding a limited number of the nodes (e.g., nodes 1 and 9).
The remaining nodes had a reasonable degree of circularity in terms of the shape of their isovists (Figure 16).

Districts:
It is possible to study the nature of a district using the distribution of the values of its axial lines by measuring the integration
at different scales (local and global) and determining their positioning in the global order of the city (Dalton & Bafna, 2003).
Comparing the amount of integration at the local and global scale in the four districts (the Nader, Park, Ferdowsi, and

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Masoomzadeh neighborhoods) that were common to most of the cognitive maps in terms of the R-square value indicated a
high level of significance in each district (Figure 17).

Second order elements:

Edges:
In the mental image maps produced by the citizens, only the watercourse was identified as an edge (Figures 10 and 18). An
edge can be described by the distributional property of the isovist radii in space syntax theory. As can be observed from the
following maps, in addition to a steady isovist level adjacent to the edges, a moderate decrease or increase in the lengths of
isovist radii were apparent from the distribution graph (Figures 20 and 21).

Landmarks:
Landmarks and the districts that can be seen from them (the isovist shape) were observed adjacent to the axial lines and had
a high degree of integration. This was apparent from the landmarks identified in the mental image map (Figure 22).

4. DISCUSSION
This paper addresses several points regarding the analyses conducted on cognitive and space syntax plans, and the probable
relations between them. The research findings are discussed in relation to each of the Lynch space descriptors in the
following text.

4.1 Paths
In the cognitive maps produced by citizens and the axial maps of the city, the paths had a high degree of similarity. This
could represent the legibility of the main streets of the city from the perspective of the citizens. However, there was a low
level of integration of some paths in the map of axial lines, which were interpreted as main paths in the Lynchian map,
which could be attributed to a limitation of axial lines to represent highly curved paths. The existence of visual constraints
and curved access routes reduced the connectivity of a path as well as the total connectivity.

4.2 Nodes
Nodes determine the circularity and relations between cognitive plans and the space syntax analysis of Bojnourd City in two
spatial directions used the center and visual lines. However, many nodes that were potentially located at the confluence of
central lines, with a high degree of integration and linkage, did not exist in the cognitive maps produced by citizens.
Accordingly, the visual characteristics of the available nodes were more important than the spatial characteristics from the
perspective of the citizens.

4.3 Districts
Due to the high significance level of the global and local values of axial lines in districts identified in the cognitive maps
produced by citizens, these districts were not structurally distinguished within the city and did not make a significant
difference. It was therefore very difficult to identify the nature of the domain in the city using the values of axial lines. In
other words, the concepts of districts and neighborhoods were configured based on citizens' experiences and memories, and
could not be recognized only from structural aspects.

4.4 Edges
In the cognitive maps produced by citizens, only the edge of the watercourse could be detected. As mentioned above, this
edge was described well in terms of the space syntax (isovist). The adjacency of the edges identified within the mental image
map, with a high degree of integration among the axial lines, was important (Figure 18). However, despite the watercourse
passing through other parts of Bojnourd City, e.g., northern and eastern parts of the city, it was not recorded in the cognitive
maps produced by citizens. Re-conforming the axial lines and watercourse plans in northern and eastern parts of the city
revealed that the watercourse in these parts was adjacent to axial lines with a low degree of integration.

4.5 Landmarks
In the cognitive maps produced by citizens, the placement of the landmarks in the vicinity of axial lines, with a high degree
of integration, demonstrated their structural relation in the city. The adjacency of the landmarks in the mental image maps to
the nodes, especially in the downtown area was important (Figure 12). This adjacency was thought to be related to the
unique isovist form of each node, which promoted the visual characteristics (isovist forms) of the landmarks.

On the one hand these findings indicate a strong connection between the two theories of the image of the city and space
syntax (cognitive plans of citizens and space syntax analysis). On the other hand, they indicate the interrelations between
mental image descriptors (i.e., nodes and signs), even though as Lynch recommended, these spatial elements were separately
considered.

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5. CONCLUSION
An assessment was made to determine how space syntax – by emphasizing the map of axial lines and isovists – can be useful
in the description and explicit prediction of the elements collected by citizens and trained observers during a field study. It
was found that of the five elements of Lynch’s mental image, two of them (paths and nodes) had a close connection with the
space syntax’s descriptors of a city. Other elements (e.g., edges) required a space syntax analysis, with the support of field
visual analysis. A space syntax analysis, supported by an axial lines map, is a good supplement for field observations and
cognitive maps and demonstrates the state of the roles and relations between the elements of the cognitive map. This can be
used to save time and resources in field studies.

In the case of Bojnourd City, this analysis was conducted to observe the relation between paths and nodes (with regard to
axial lines) and also between nodes and landmarks (in different isovist shapes). The nature of Lynch’s elements was divided
into two categories of space (first order) and visual (second order) elements based on Dalton’s categorization, and each
category was explored by the means of the descriptors of a space syntax analysis. It was observed that the properties of these
elements did not enable a common map to be constructed (such as a map of axial lines with respect to the analysis of isovist
shapes). In other words, the description presented by Lynch cannot be simply reduced to the characteristic types of space
syntax. Moreover, the impact of historical changes on the way people perceive the first and second elements is very
important. As the spatial structure of the city changes, the elements of the mental image of its citizens are shaped and altered.
For example, a node as a first-order element may vary from a public square to a main traffic intersection in terms of the
spatial structure over different periods of time, and thus its nature would change in the mental image of citizens.

The most important outcome of this study, which was stated in response to the main problem posed by this research, was the
two-sided visual-cognitive study of Lynch’s theory and the theory of space syntax in urban research and planning. In
addition, regarding the range of first order elements studied, it was possible to identify the relation between nodes and paths
– due to the strong connection of these two elements in the cognitive map and the map of spatial structure – and to protect
and strengthen the relation. Considering the identification of numerous districts in the cognitive map produced by citizens
and the impossibility of properly identifying them in the map of spatial structure, it is necessary to review and modify the
spatial order in the fiber of the neighborhoods in terms of the connection between mass and space. In relation to the second
order elements, it was suggested to strengthen the watercourse – as the only edge identified in the mental image map – to
ensure structural and spatial order. The connection of the landmarks with the nodes of the city should also be considered.

From the perspective of theoretical principles and methodology, the tools used in this study overcame many of the
restrictions in the investigation of urban structure in terms of using separate elements to provide cognitive and space syntax
maps. This study also provides practical assistance for preparing urban development plans, including master plans,
especially for the investigation of objective and subjective landscapes of the city. One of the neglected aspects of urban
development plans, especially in countries like Iran, is the lack of a proper method for interpreting and applying mental maps
of citizens in urban development strategies. This has probably led planners to a misinterpretation of citizens’ views, which
results in inappropriate interventions in the valuable elements of cities. Thus, a simultaneous interpretation of Lynch's mental
image indicators and a syntax map can lead to improved spatial planning in urban development projects, and thereby
increase the intelligibility of a city.

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Table Captions:
Table 1. All the Lynch’s elements that Identified by people (based on a questionnaire)

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025
Table 1. Lynch’s elements (Identified based on a questionnaire)
Element: Name:
Talghani, Emam Khomeini, shariati, ghiyam, Amirkabir,
Path Primary Amiriye, Sayad Shirazi, Shahid Beheshti, Eshteghlal, 17
Shahrivar, Chamran, Ferdowsi, Dolat, Shohada
Daneshsara, Hesari, Dabiri, Sabt, Jajarmi, Garmei, Alavi,
Secondary Dastpak, Berenji, Masoomzade, Zayeshgah
Khoramshahr, Shahid, Nader, Madar, Ferdowsi, Kargar,
Node Main Baskul, Dolat, Behdari, Talghani, Amiriye
Secondary Emam Reza, Ayne Khane, Defae Moghadas
Negin Hotel, Daneshju Park, Moalem Park, Shahr Park,
Landmark Main Afarinesh Park, Red Crescent, White Gold Complex, Eram
mall, Masoomzade, Tamin Ejtemai Hospital, Emam Ali
Hospital, Saderat Bank, Meli Bank, Sabze Square, Ayne Khane
Terminal, Gas Station, Azad University, Ferdowsi Restaurant
Secondary
Edge Watercourse
District Amusement Park, Masoomzade (Cemetery), Residential
Districts (Amiriye, Nader etc.)

Figure Captions:
Figure1. Research theoretical framework and the research stages.
Figure2. The geographical position of the case study in the province, access network pattern and also the city’s topography.
Figure 3. Global Integration map of the Bojnourd city, which produced by depth map software.
Figure 4. Connectivity map of the Bojnourd city, which produced by depth map software.
Figure 5. Some of the citizens’ mental maps which are considered as well drawn samples.
Figure 6. Some of citizens’ mental maps which are considered as poorly drawn samples.
Figure 7. The paths in citizens’ mental map, as one of the Lynchian elements, based on questionnaires.
Figure 8. The nodes in citizens’ mental map, as one of the Lynchian elements, based on questionnaires.
Figure 9. The landmarks in citizens’ mental map, as one of the Lynchian elements, based on questionnaires.
Figure 10. The edge in citizens’ mental map, as one of the Lynchian elements, based on questionnaires.
Figure 11. The districts in citizens’ mental map, as one of the Lynchian elements, based on questionnaires.
Figure 12. Mental image map of the city based on over-layering citizens’ sketching maps.
Figure 13. Simultaneous path analysis of axial map and mental map in the city.
Figure 14. Simultaneous path analysis of axial map and mental map in the city.
Figure 15. Simultaneous path analysis of the connectivity map and mental map in the city.
Figure 16. Circularity’s degree of the nodes in the map (15) according to the shape of Isovist.
Figure 17. The correlation between global and local integration values in four Neighborhoods (Nader, Park, Ferdowsi,
Masumzadeh).
Figure 18: defining the situation of the watercourse in relation to the axial map (global integration).
Figure 19: Defining watercourse sections (related to figures 20 and 21)
Figure 20: the Isovist radial length of the watercourse for the section 1 and 2 in the west part of the city.
Figure 21: the Isovist radial length of the watercourse for the section 3 and 4 in the west part of the city.
Figure 22. Simultaneous landmarks analysis of axial lines map and mental map in the city.

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning

 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jurdp.17.00025

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Urban Design and Planning