Food Chemistry 339 (2021) 128001

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Effects of xanthan and konjac gums on pasting, rheology, microstructure, T

crystallinity and in vitro digestibility of mung bean resistant starch
Siyu Lin†, Xiane Liu†, Yao Cao, Suchen Liu, Danwen Deng, Jinsheng Zhang, Ganhui Huang
⁎

State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The effects of different concentrations of xanthan and konjac gums on the pasting, rheological properties, mi-
Mung bean resistant starch crostructure, crystallinity, and digestibility of mung bean resistant starch (MRS) were investigated. Based on the
Gum results of pasting properties, the adjunction of gums increased the peak, breakdown, and final viscosities of
Pasting resistant starch. Compared with resistant starch, the addition of gum significantly increased the K value and
Rheology
dynamic moduli (G', G“) of MRS with increasing gum concentration. This finding indicates that the mixtures had
Microstructure
In vitro digestion
higher viscoelasticity. Mixtures with xanthan gum of MRS had larger starch particle compared with MRS, as
revealed by SEM. All starches showed B and V-type crystallinity with high crystallinity. MRS had the highest
summation of resistant starch (RS) and slowly digestible starch (SDS) of 71.89%. MRS had the lowest hydrolysis
rate, which obviously decreased from 71.89% to 57.71% with increasing konjac gum from 0 to 0.30%.

1. Introduction resistant starch because of its high amylose content.

As an important raw material for many food and industrial pro-
ducts, starch is mainly composed of amylose and highly branched
amylopectin. Native starch cannot adequately meet the special needs of
production. Starch is usually classified into slowly digestible starch
(SDS), rapidly digestible starch (RDS), and resistant starch (RS) to im-
prove its functional properties for nutritional purposes (Teixeira Nde
et al., 2016). RS is a part of starch and characterized by its inability to
be hydrolyzed in the upper gastrointestinal tract. RS is beneficial for
human health because it can prevent the cardiovascular diseases, re-
duce the responses to postprandial glycemia and insulinemia, modify
intestinal microbial communities to generate short-chain fatty acids,
and facilitate the growth of bacteria and the assimilation of mineral
(Kendall et al., 2008; Fuentes-Zaragoza, Riquelme-Navarrete, Sánchez-
Zapata, & Pérez-Álvarez, 2010; Perera, Meda, & Tyler, 2010). Mung
bean (Vigna radiata (Linn.) Wilczek) is one of the major legume crops in
China and has various functions, such as detoxification, antibacterial,
blood fat reduction, blood sugar lowering, anti-tumor, and cancer
prevention (Wang, Lin, Ye, Ng, Rao, & Ye, 2006; Wang, Wu, Ng, Ye, &
Rao, 2004; Shi, Yao, Zhu, & Ren, 2016). A positive correlation exists
between the RS content of native starch and the amylose content.
Therefore, mung bean starch is an excellent natural starch to produce
The pasting and rheological properties of starch have a great in-
fluence on the processing and food quality of starch products. Starch is
often combined with gums to improve the quality of the product by
overcoming the insufficient processing performance of the starch and
improving the quality and stability in the process. Xanthan and konjac
gums are common hydrophilic colloids that have potential as dietary
fiber resource. These gums are widely used in the complex systems of
starch and hydrocolloids because of their water solubility, pseudo-
plastic rheological properties, and high viscosity in solution. (Palaniraj
& Jayaraman, 2011; Zhang et al., 2014). Xanthan gum is a microbial
polysaccharide with primary structure extracted from the bacterium
Xanthomonas campestris. Xanthan gum has been approved by the United
States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in food additives
without any specific quantity restrictions. Xanthan gum has been used
in many foods due to its emulsion stability, temperature stability,
compatibility with food ingredients, and pseudoplastic rheological
properties. (García-Ochoa, Santos, Casas, & Gómez, 2000). Konjac gum
with abundant hydroxyl and carbonyl groups on its molecule chain is
abstracted from the herbaceous konjac underground tuber. Konjac gum
is a nonionic water-soluble neutral polysaccharide that exhibits good
thickening, film-forming, and stabilization properties (Zhang, Chen, &
Yang, 2014). Compared with other plant-based hydrocolloids, konjac

⁎
Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, No. 235 Nanjing East Road, Nanchang 330047, Jiangxi,
China.
E-mail address: huangganhui@163.com (G. Huang).
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128001
Received 19 May 2020; Received in revised form 30 July 2020; Accepted 1 September 2020
Available online 10 September 2020
0308-8146/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Lin, et al.
gum has a higher viscosity and molecular weight. High viscosity solu-
tion formed by konjac gum dissolved in water is often used as thickener.
Konjac gum has long been used as a food ingredient and additive in
Asian countries, such as China and Korea. Konjac gum has been allowed
to be used as a safe food additive in health foods in other places, such as
the United States and Europe, over the past two decades (Ma, Zhu, &
Wang, 2019). The mixture of starch and xanthan gum could be used to
enhance the pasting and rheological properties of starch (BeMiller,
2011; Heyman, De Vos, Van der Meeren, & Dewettinck, 2014). Konjac
gum has also been studied to have significant effects on the rheology,
microstructure, and retrogradation properties of native starch; such
effects include increased viscoelasticity and inhibition of starch pasting
(Sasaki & Kohyama, 2011; Schwartz et al., 2014). However, most stu-
dies focused on the interaction of gums with native starch. Information
on the interaction of gums with mung bean resistant starch is limited.
This study aims to evaluate the effects of xanthan and konjac gums
on the pasting, rheology, morphology, and crystallinity of mung bean
resistant starch by using RVA, rheometer, SEM, and XRD. Digestive
properties were assessed in vitro. Results could be used to expand the
application of mung bean starch in different food industries.
2. Materials and method
2.1. Materials
Food-grade konjac gum (KG) and xanthan gum (XG) were pur-
chased from Baiwei Biotechnology Corporation (Hebei, China). Mung
bean starch with 29.86% amylose, and 12.62% moisture was obtained
from Hengshui Fuqiao Starch Corporation (Hengshui, China).
Amyloglucosidase (300 U/mL), α-amylase (100,000 U/mL), and glu-
coamylase (100,000 U/mL) were provided by Yuanye Biological
Technology Co. Ltd (Shanghai, China). Pullulanase was purchased from
Jienengke Bio-Engineering Co. Ltd (Wuxi, China). Pancreatin (Cat. No.
P7545, activity 8 × USP) was purchased from Sigma Aldrich Chemical
Co. (St. Louis, MO, USA). All other chemicals and reagents were of
analytical grade.
2.2. Preparation of mung bean resistant starch
MRS was prepared using the methods of Lu, Belanger, Donner, and
Liu (2018) and Zhang, Zeng, Wang, Zeng, and Zheng (2014) with slight
modification. About 250 g (dry weight) of mung bean starch was sus-
pended in 1000 mL of citric acid buffer (pH 4.6) in a 2 L Erlenmeyer
flask. The suspension was heated at 121 ℃ for 10 min and then cooled
to 60 ℃. A citric acid solution (4 M) was used to adjust the pH to 4.5.
The paste was added with pullulanase (50 ASPU/g) and then placed in a
water bath at 60 ℃ for 6 h. The paste was then heated to sterilize en-
zyme activity at 100 ℃ for 10 min. The suspension was centrifuged at
4800 × g for 15 min after storing at 20 ℃ for 24 h. Precipitates were
collected, washed three times with distilled water, and dried at 80 ℃.
The dried residues were abraded and screened through a 149 µm mesh
screen to obtain MRS. All samples were stored in sealed bags until
further use.
2.3. Preparation of suspensions of MRS/XG or MRS/KG
Mixtures of MRS (6.0%, w/v) with xanthan gum or konjac gum (0%,
0.05%, 0.10%, 0.20%, and 0.30%, w/v; MRS/XG or MRS/KG) were
prepared as follows. KG or XG powder was primarily added to distilled
water and continuously stirred for 30 min to prepare KG or XG solution.
The mung bean resistant starch (6%, w/v) was added to KG or XG so-
lutions and continuously stirred to obtain mixtures. All suspensions
prepared for the following determinations were stored at room tem-
perature.
2
Food Chemistry 339 (2021) 128001
2.4. Measurement of resistant starch (RS) content
Resistant starch content was measured using enzymatic method
(AOAC 2002.02). The suspension was prepared by mixing 100 mg of
MRS (dry weight), distilled water, and α-amylase (500 U/g) and then
incubated at 93 ℃ for 30 min. Anhydrous ethanol was added to ter-
minate the reaction. Under the action of enzymes in the aging process,
glucose was produced by solubilizing and hydrolyzing non-resistant
starch. The mixture was cooled to 60 °C and added with glucoamylase
(5000 U/g). Hydrochloric acid solution (1 mM) was used to adjust the
pH to 4.5, and the mixture was placed in a 60 °C water bath for 30 min.
Enzyme activity was sterilized by heating the paste to 100 °C for
10 min. The suspension was centrifuged at 4800 × g for 15 min.
Sediments were washed three times with distilled water and dried at
80 °C. The dried residues were weighed to calculate RS content.
2.5. Pasting properties
The pasting property of the samples was determined by Rapid Visco
Analyzer (RVA, Newport Scientific, NSW, Australia). A mixed solution
(25 mL) was prepared using the method described above (section 2.2).
Starch sample (1.50 g) with or without KG or XG were added into the
aluminous canister. The mixture was added with distilled water. The
pasting properties of MRS and MRS/KG and MRS/XG suspensions were
determined by RVA. The slurries were stirred manually for 20–30 s
before they were inserted into the RVA. The programmed heating and
cooling cycle standard profile 2 was used. The samples were held at
50 °C for 1 min and heated to 95 °C within 3 min 42 s, then held at 95 °C
for 15 min, cooled from 95 ℃ to 50 °C within 2 min 48 s, and incubated
at 50 °C for 5 min. Peak viscosity (PV), breakdown viscosity (BV),
trough viscosity (TV), final viscosity (FV), setback viscosity (SV), and
peak time (PeT) were recorded. A pasting curve of the sample was
obtained by RVA. The samples were placed in the refrigerator for 24 h
at 5 °C after cooling to room temperature for the following determi-
nations.
2.6. Rheological measurements
The samples for rheological analyses were prepared by RVA (section
2.5). An ARES-G2 rheometer (TA Instruments Inc., USA) with a 40 mm
diameter stainless steel parallel plate was used to perform all the
rheological analyses of MRS/KG and MRS/XG. Shear stress and ap-
parent viscosity were determined at 25 °C at the shear rate from
0.01 s−1 to 1000 s−1. The relationships between shear stress and shear
rate of all samples were described by the Herschel–Bulkley [Eq. (1)]
equation. Complex correlation coefficient (R2) represented the fitting
accuracy of the equation (Liu et al., 2019; Viturawong, Achayuthakan,
& Suphantharika, 2008).
=K n
(1)
where τ is the shear stress (Pa), K is the consistency coefficient (Pa·sn), γ
is the shear rate (s−1), and n is the flow behavior index (dimensionless).
Dynamic shear data were obtained from the frequency sweeps range
of 0.1–126 rad/s at 25 °C in the linear viscoelastic region. The experi-
mental data of the storage modulus (G'), loss modulus (G''), and loss
tangent (tan δ = G''/ G') were obtained by TA rheometer Data Analysis
software.
2.7. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
The samples prepared as described in section 2.5 were cooled,
frozen, and freeze-dried by a lyophilizer (Labconco Co., USA) at
−80 °C. The starch granules were coated with gold in a vacuum eva-
porator. The microstructure of the samples were observed at a magni-
fication of 1000 × with SEM (JSM6701F, JEOL Ltd., Japan) operating
at an accelerating potential voltage of 5.0 kV (Gul, Riar, Bala, & Sibian,
S. Lin, et al. Food Chemistry 339 (2021) 128001

Fig. 1. Pasting behavior (A and B), flow behavior (C and D), storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G″) (E and F) of MRS/XG (A, C and E) and MRS/KG (B, D and F)
mixtures (■ MRS; ● 0.05%; ▲ 0.10%; ▾ 0.20%; ◆ 0.30%). The solid symbols represent the storage modulus (G′) and the hollow symbols represent the loss modulus
(G″).

2014). amorphous peak.

2.8. X-ray diffraction (XRD) 2.9. In vitro digestibility

The crystalline characteristics of the samples were evaluated with a
D8 Advance X-ray diffractometer (Bruker Inc., Germany) with Cu Kα at
a speed of 10°/ min at 40 kV and 40 mA (Koteswara Reddy, Vidya, &
Haripriya, 2015). The samples for XRD analysis were prepared as re-
ported in section 2.7 without gold coating, and then scanned over the
2θ diffraction angle range of 5° to 60°. Jade 6.0 software was used to
analyze the XRD diffractograms and calculate relative crystallinity (RC)
by using formula (2):
AC
RC % = × 100 %
AC + A
where AC is the area of the crystalline peak, and Aα is the area of the
According to the methods of Jiang et al. (2015) and Chen, He, Fu,
and Huang (2015) with some modifications, 200 mg of MRS (6.0%, w/
v) with XG or KG (0%, 0.05%, 0.10%, 0.20%, and 0.30%, w/v) mixtures
(MRS/XG or MRS/KG) were weighed accurately and suspended in
30 mL of sodium acetate buffer (0.2 M, pH 5.2) in 50 mL polypropylene
centrifuge tube. Each tube was added with pancreatin (3 × 103 USP)
and amyloglucosidase (40 U) after being shaken in water bath
(160 rpm/min) at 37 °C for 10 min. Samples (2.0 mL) were collected at
different times and placed in a water bath at 100 °C for 10 min to
terminate enzyme reaction and then centrifuged at 8000 × g for
(2)
10 min. Hydrolyzed glucose content was measured according to DNS
method at different times (10, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210, and

3
S. Lin, et al.
240 min) by using 1.0 mL of the supernatant liquid. The absorption of
the sample was recorded at 540 nm. Digested starch fractions are ex-
pressed as milligrams of glucose × 0.9. The values of slowly digestible
starch (SDS), rapidly digestible starch (RDS), and resistant starch (RS)
were estimated with formulas (3):
SDS(%) = (G240 G20) × 0.9 × 100
RDS(%) = (G20 G10) × 0.9 × 100
RS(%) = 100 (SDS + RDS) (3)
where G240 is the value of glucose released after 240 min, G20 is the
value of glucose released after 20 min, and G10 is the value of glucose
released after 10 min.
2.10. Statistical analysis
All measurements for each sample were conducted in triplicate. All
charts were plotted by Origin 2018. Tukey’s HSD test (P < 0.05) was
performed to the mean separations and one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA). SPSS 22.0 was used for statistical analysis.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. RS content
RS content provides useful information for the properties of re-
sistant starch. In this research, the RS content of mung bean resistant
starch (MRS) was 36.19%. The AOAC 2002.02 method, where RS is
included as dietary fiber, was used to evaluate RS content. The higher
the RS content is, the stronger the resistance to the digestion of resistant
starch and the capability to facilitate the growth of bifidobacteria will
be (Bao et al., 2017; Zhang, Wang, Zheng, Lu, & Zhuang, 2013).
3.2. Pasting properties
Fig. 1(A, B) presents the RVA curves of MRS with and without
xanthan gum (XG) or konjac gum (KG). The swelling and rupturing of
starch granules during the pasting process were usually characterized
by the pasting curve. As shown in Fig. 1(A, B), all pasting curves ex-
hibited gentle and atypical sigmoidal behavior (Palabiyik, Toker,
Karaman, & Yildiz, 2017). As shown in Fig. 1(B), in the heating step
(50 °C–95 °C), 0.05% and 0.10% KG did not significantly affect the
viscosity of MRS, and 0.20% KG increased the process viscosity. The
reason might be that starch granules cannot be covered by KG at low
addition concentrations, but could promote the ability of the granules
to swell freely. Therefore, the viscosity of MRS had a slight increase
(BeMiller, 2011). Meanwhile, XG significantly affected the pasting
properties of MRS, and the effect dependent highly on the concentra-
tion of XG [Fig. 1(A)]. XG and high concentration of KG affected starch
swelling at the beginning of pasting possibly due to the possible in-
teractions between starch granules and gums during the heating step.
The interaction between amylose and gums may be the main factor
responsible for the increase in viscosity (Fu & BeMiller, 2017). In ad-
dition, the viscosity of MRS/KG mixtures gradually increased faster
than that of MRS/XG as the paste was cooled from 95 ℃ to 50 ℃.
The pasting parameters of all samples are summarized in Table 1.
The addition of gums increased the peak viscosity (PV), final viscosity
(FV), setback viscosity (SV), trough viscosity (TV), and breakdown
viscosity (BV). A significant difference (p < 0.05) in pasting properties
was found among gums compared with MRS. PV is generally considered
to be related to the degree of starch swelling or the capacity to bind to
free water. The addition of gums with different concentrations in-
creased the PV of MRS. A higher value of peak viscosity contributed to
the increase in gum concentration, which reached the maximum when
0.30% KG was added. PV may be affected by two factors: amount of
amylose leaching and granule swelling, that is, high amount of amylose
4
Food Chemistry 339 (2021) 128001
leaching and degree of starch swelling could increase PV, resulting in
increased volume fraction; and reduction in the number of water mo-
lecules available for leached amylose and remaining ungelatinized
particles due to the competition for water absorption of the gums
(Chen, Tong, Ren, & Zhu, 2014). The addition of both gums sig-
nificantly increased the FV (from 11 to 102 & 201 mPa.s respectively).
PeT is related to the processing time of the expected gelatinization and
is not affected by gums in this experiment.
3.3. Rheological properties
3.3.1. Steady flow
The shear stress (τ) versus shear rate (γ) data for MRS/XG and MRS/
KG with different gum ratios at 25 ℃ are illustrated in Fig. 1(C, D). All
samples showed mainly pseudoplastic shear thinning behavior because
of the fact that the shear stress increased with increasing shear rate
(Garcia-Diaz et al., 2016). Gums could effectively affect the stable
rheological properties of MRS compared with pure MRS systems. The
effect of gums on the shear stress of MRS was related to the con-
centration. The shear stress of the mixtures increased with increasing
gum concentration from 0.05% to 0.30%, indicating that the addition of
gums strengthened the starch gel. Previous studies reported similar
results about starch–gum systems (Heyman, De Vos, Depypere, Van der
Meeren, & Dewettinck, 2014; Nawab, Alam, Haq, & Hasnain, 2016).
Steady rheological parameters of consistency coefficient (K), de-
termination coefficient (R2), and flow behavior index (n) for each flow
curve were calculated by power law model and summarized (Table 2).
All gels fitted well to the power law model (R2 = 0.976–0.999) and
behaved as pseudoplastic shear-thinning fluids because the n values
obtained for all samples were below 1.0 (Kumar, Brennan, Zheng, &
Brennan, 2018). Meanwhile, the consistency coefficient (K) obtained
from the power law model represented the resistance to flow, and the
flow behaviour index (n) was dimensionless. High K values suggested
difficulty in paste flow, and the higher n value indicated low shear-
thinning behavior of the fluid (Zhou, Zhang, Chen, & Chen, 2017). The
addition of increasing concentrations of the gums significantly in-
creased the K value of MRS. The K and n values of XG and KG sig-
nificantly differed compared with those of MRS, indicating that the
MRS gels are more pseudoplastic in the order XG > KG (Samutsri &
Suphantharika, 2012). Therefore, the effect of XG on the MRS could be
more effective with respect to changing flow rheological parameters (K
and n) probably due to increased interactions between leached mole-
cules and the remnants of swollen granule, leading to the formation of a
network structure.
The addition of gums has a significant effect on the steady rheolo-
gical properties of MRS due to the possible interactions between MRS
and gums. Gums can be added to control and improve the desirable
flow properties of MRS for industrial applications.
3.3.2. Dynamic rheological properties
Fig. 1(E, F) shows the relationship between storage modulus (G')
and loss modulus (G'') of MRS/gums as a function of frequency. The G′
and G″ values of 6.0% MRS (6.0%, w/v), MRS/XG, and MRS/KG mix-
tures increased with increasing angular oscillatory frequency. All of
MRS/XG mixtures showed a weak gel-like behavior due to the fact that
the magnitudes of G′ were higher than those of G″ and the slopes were
positive (Sun & Yoo, 2015). By contrast, a crossover between dynamic
moduli (G', G'') with 0.20% and 0.30% KG added was observed during
the whole frequency range. These results showed that the pre-
dominantly elastic behavior of MRS/XG mixture gels was ensured by
increasing concentrations of XG from 0.05 to 0.30%. As such, the elastic
property of MRS was greatly affected by the addition of XG. The G′ was
a measure of the stored energy in the material or each deformation
cycle recovered, and G″ was a measure of the lost energy by per cycle
viscous dissipation of deformation (Qiu, Yadav, Chen, Liu, Tatsumi, &
Yin, 2015). In addition, the magnitudes of G′ of MRS/KG gels were
S. Lin, et al. Food Chemistry 339 (2021) 128001

Table 1
Pasting properties of 6.0% MRS (6.0%, w/v), MRS/XG, and MRS/KG mixtures.
Sample PV (cp) TV (cp) BV (cp) FV (cp) SV (cp) PeT (min)

a a a a a
MRS 13.50 ± 2.12 8.50 ± 0.71 5.00 ± 1.41 11.00 ± 1.41 2.50 ± 0.71 1.09 ± 0.02a
0.05% XG 34.00 ± 5.67b 29.5 ± 7.78bc 4.50 ± 2.12a 35.50 ± 7.78bc 6.00 ± 0.00ab 1.10 ± 0.04a
0.10% XG 56.00 ± 2.83c 45.50 ± 4.95d 10.50 ± 2.12ab 54.50 ± 4.95c 9.00 ± 0.00ab 1.14 ± 0.09a
0.20% XG 93.00 ± 5.67d 67.5 0 ± 2.12e 25.50 ± 3.54bc 86.00 ± 2.83d 18.50 ± 0.71abc 1.17 ± 0.05a
0.30% XG 117.50 ± 3.54e 81.50 ± 2.12e 36.00 ± 1.14cd 102.50 ± 4.95d 21.00 ± 2.83bc 1.10 ± 0.42a
0.05% KG 15.00 ± 4.24a 9.00 ± 1.41a 6.00 ± 1.41a 23.50 ± 0.71ab 15.00 ± 4.24ab 1.17 ± 0.14a
0.10% KG 20.00 ± 2.83ab 11.00 ± 1.41a 10.50 ± 2.12ab 41.50 ± 7.78bc 33.50 ± 4.95c 1.07 ± 0.00a
0.20% KG 66.50 ± 0.71c 26.00 ± 1.41b 41.00 ± 0.00d 107.50 ± 7.78d 81.50 ± 3.36d 1.17 ± 0.14a
0.30% KG 126.50 ± 7.78e 42.5 ± 4.95cd 79.00 ± 9.90e 201.00 ± 7.07e 153.50 ± 9.19e 1.07 ± 0.00a

Values are means ± SD of triplicates.

Values in the same column with different superscript are significantly different (P < 0.05).

Table 2 3.5. X-ray diffraction (XRD)

Steady flow parameters for 6.0% MRS (6.0%, w/v), MRS/XG, and MRS/KG
mixtures. X-ray diffraction patterns were recorded to determine the crystal
Sample K n R2 structure characteristics of starch molecules. The X-ray diffraction
patterns and relative crystallinity (RC) of all samples are summarized in
MRS 0.0166b 0.7521g 0.9953 Fig. 3 and Table 3. The XRD spectra of the starch samples show three
0.05% XG 0.0607d 0.6709e 0.9986
patterns, namely, types A, B, and C. MRS displayed a B and V-type XRD
0.10% XG 0.2039f 0.5395c 0.9977
0.20% XG 0.7421h 0.3850b 0.9951 pattern with high crystallinity (52.01%) (Fig. 3), consistent with a
0.30% XG 2.4731i 0.2536a 0.9767 previous report (Shi & Gao, 2011). All mixed systems had strong dif-
0.05% KG 0.0150a 0.8204i 0.9980 fraction peaks at 2θ with values of about 5.6°, 14.2°, 15.1°, 17.1°, 19.6°,
0.10% KG 0.0258c 0.8189h 0.9996 22.2°, and 24.0°, showing that a mixed type of B and V was displayed by
0.20% KG 0.1448e 0.7029f 0.9993
0.30% KG 0.5147g 0.6191d 0.9997
all the samples. As a result, gums did not change the crystalline struc-
ture of MRS.
Values in the same column with different superscript are significantly different The relative crystallinity (RC) of all samples was different (Table 3).
(P < 0.05). K is consistence coefficient; n is flow behavior index; R2 is de- Compared with MRS (52.01%), mixed samples added with low amount
termination coefficient. of gums had obviously lower relative crystallinity; meanwhile, the
samples added with high amount of gums did not show significant
comparable with those of pure MRS gels upon the addition of 0.05% change in RC. The sample of 0.30% MRS/KG had the highest relative
and 0.10%. Meanwhile, the magnitudes of G′ of MRS/XG were about crystallinity (53.34%). For the low addition mixed systems, the de-
1.4–3.7 times higher at an angular frequency of 100 rad/s, suggesting struction of gums swelling may play a great role in changing the crystal
that MRS/XG gels were more elastic than pure MRS/KG gels. structure due to the movement of double helices.

3.6. In vitro digestibility

3.4. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
The values of slowly digestible starch (SDS), rapidly digestible
Changes in micromorphology were observed by SEM. The photo-
starch (RDS), and resistant starch (RS) of MRS, MRS/XG, and MRS/KG
graphs of mixed systems obtained from scanning electron microscope
mixtures are presented in Table 3. The gelatinized MRS had the lowest
are presented in Fig. 2. The morphology of MRS granules accorded well
RDS of 28.16%, and the highest sum of RS and SDS of 71.89%, re-
with the results of RS3 in previous studies (Mao et al., 2018). The MRS
spectively, which were in accordance with the result of the previous
granules exhibited irregularly shaped particles, suggesting that heating
research (Ambigaipalan, Hoover, Donner, & Liu, 2014). Gums sig-
debranching completely destroyed the structure of native starch and
nificantly affected the digestible properties of MRS, and the influences
lost the granular shapes of starch. Compared with the MRS/XG mixture,
depend on the concentration of the gum added. Although the content of
the MRS/KG mixture had larger starch particles, consistent with the
RDS did not change when XG was added, KG significantly increased the
results on the FV value (Table 1). This finding could be attributed to the
RDS content of MRS. For example; the addition of 0.30% KG increased
fact that KG was easier to crosslink with the leached or gelatinized MRS.
the RDS from 28.12% to 42.29%. The summation of SDS and RS are
good for human health, and high SDS makes the starch food suitable for

Fig. 2. SEM photographs of mixed systems (×1000, Bar=10 μm). (A) MRS, (B) 0.05% MRS/XG, (C) 0.10% MRS/XG, (D) 0.20% MRS/XG, (E) 0.30% MRS/XG, (a)
MRS, (b) 0.05% MRS/KG, (c) 0.10% MRS/KG, (d) 0.20% MRS/KG, (e) 0.30% MRS/KG.

5
S. Lin, et al. Food Chemistry 339 (2021) 128001

Fig. 3. X-ray diffraction spectra of MRS/XG (A) and MRS/KG (B) mixtures.

Table 3
Relative crystallinity (RC) and in vitro digestibility (RDS, SDS and RS) of 6.0% MRS (6.0%, w/v), MRS/XG, and MRS/KG mixtures.
Sample RC (%) RDS (%) SDS (%) RS (%) SDS + RS

b a a d
MRS 52.01 ± 1.18 28.12 ± 0.29 26.92 ± 0.43 44.97 ± 0.73 71.89 ± 0.29c
0.05% XG 47.35 ± 0.34a * * * *
0.10% XG 47.45 ± 0.39a 30.11 ± 0.35ab 30.30 ± 0.38a 39.59 ± 0.73d 69.89 ± 0.35bc
0.20% XG 52.35 ± 0.58b 30.41 ± 0.07ab 50.62 ± 3.42c 18.97 ± 3.49bc 69.60 ± 0.0.7bc
0.30% XG 52.95 ± 0.47b 32.20 ± 0.78ab 57.04 ± 0.55c 10.76 ± 2.77ab 67.80 ± 0.78bc
0.05% KG 47.58 ± 0.29a * * *
0.10% KG 52.67 ± 0.82b 36.28 ± 3.72abc 41.38 ± 1.20b 22.34 ± 4.92c 63.72 ± 3.72abc
0.20% KG 52.94 ± 0.98b 37.64 ± 4.3bc 50.94 ± 1.65c 11.43 ± 2.72abc 62.36 ± 4.36ab
0.30% KG 53.34 ± 0.72b 42.29 ± 1.6c 54.23 ± 1.93c 3.48 ± 2.93a 57.71 ± 0.36a

Values are means ± SD of triplicates.

Values in the same column with different superscript are significantly different (P < 0.05).
* means that the experiment was not performed due to the small concentration.

management of postprandial glucose and insulin response (Qiu, Yadav,
Zhu, Chen, Liu, & Yin, 2017). The SDS rapidly decreased from 71.89%
to 57.71% with increasing KG concentration from 0 to 0.30%, whereas
MRS/XG had a slight decrease from 71.89% to 67.80% with the addi-
tion of XG from 0 to 0.30%. These results suggested that the in-
corporation of gums promoted enzymatic hydrolysis.
4. Conclusions
The addition of xanthan and konjac gums had a great influence on
the pasting, rheological, microstructure, crystallinity, and digestive
properties of mung bean resistant starch. The pasting and rheological
properties of mung bean resistant starch/gums composite paste were
improved compared with pure resistant starch gel, and the effect was
found to be highly related to gum concentration. Konjac gum mainly
improved the rheological properties of the pastes under continuous
phase conditions, while xanthan gum exerted an indirect effect by
maintaining the granular structure. This finding corresponds with the
experimental results of the SEM. Moreover, all mixture powders dis-
played B and V-type XRD pattern with high crystallinity. Xanthan gum
and konjac gum exhibited different influence on in vitro digestibility.
The summation of SDS and RS rapidly decreased from 71.89% to
57.71% with increasing KG from 0 to 0.30%. Overall, this study will
provide basis for achieving desirable pasting, rheological properties,
and low digestibility to design and develop new RS-based products with
high gum ratios.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Siyu Lin: Data curation, Software, Writing - review & editing. Xiane
Liu: Conceptualization, Methodology, Visualization, Writing - original
draft. Yao Cao: Investigation. Suchen Liu: Software, Validation.
Danwen Deng: Supervision. Jinsheng Zhang: Resources. Ganhui
Huang: Supervision, Writing - review & editing, Project administration.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the the First Class Open Fund Projects
of Food Science and Engineering of Zhejiang Province
(JYTsp20142015) and the Graduate Innovative Special Fund Projects of
Nanchang University (No. CX2017135).
References
Ambigaipalan, P., Hoover, R., Donner, E., & Liu, Q. (2014). Starch chain interactions
within the amorphous and crystalline domains of pulse starches during heat-moisture
treatment at different temperatures and their impact on physicochemical properties.
Food Chemistry, 143, 175–184.
Bao, C., Zeng, H., Zhang, Y., Zhang, L., Lu, X., Guo, Z., ... Zheng, B. (2017). Structural
characteristics and prebiotic effects of Semen coicis resistant starches (type 3) pre-
pared by different methods. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 105(Pt
1), 671–679.
BeMiller, J. N. (2011). Pasting, paste, and gel properties of starch–hydrocolloid combi-
nations. Carbohydrate Polymers, 86(2), 386–423.
Chen, L., Tong, Q., Ren, F., & Zhu, G. (2014). Pasting and rheological properties of rice
starch as affected by pullulan. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 66,
325–331.
Chen, X., He, X., Fu, X., & Huang, Q. (2015). In vitro digestion and physicochemical
properties of wheat starch/flour modified by heat-moisture treatment. Journal of
Cereal Science, 63, 109–115.
Fu, Z., & BeMiller, J. N. (2017). Effect of hydrocolloids and salts on retrogradation of
native and modified maize starch. Food Hydrocolloids, 69, 36–48.
Fuentes-Zaragoza, E., Riquelme-Navarrete, M. J., Sánchez-Zapata, E., & Pérez-Álvarez, J.
A. (2010). Resistant starch as functional ingredient: A review. Food Research

6
S. Lin, et al.
International, 43(4), 931–942.
García-Ochoa, F., Santos, V. E., Casas, J. A., & Gómez, E. (2000). Xanthan gum:
Production, recovery, and properties. Biotechnology Advances, 18(7), 549–579.
Garcia-Diaz, S., Hernandez-Jaimes, C., Escalona-Buendia, H. B., Bello-Perez, L. A.,
Vernon-Carter, E. J., & Alvarez-Ramirez, J. (2016). Effects of CaCO3 treatment on the
morphology, crystallinity, rheology and hydrolysis of gelatinized maize starch dis-
persions. Food Chemistry, 207, 139–147.
Gul, K., Riar, C. S., Bala, A., & Sibian, M. S. (2014). Effect of ionic gums and dry heating
on physicochemical, morphological, thermal and pasting properties of water chestnut
starch. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 59(1), 348–355.
Heyman, B., De Vos, W. H., Depypere, F., Van der Meeren, P., & Dewettinck, K. (2014).
Guar and xanthan gum differentially affect shear induced breakdown of native waxy
maize starch. Food Hydrocolloids, 35, 546–556.
Heyman, B., De Vos, W. H., Van der Meeren, P., & Dewettinck, K. (2014). Gums tuning the
rheological properties of modified maize starch pastes: Differences between guar and
xanthan. Food Hydrocolloids, 39, 85–94.
Jiang, H., Zhang, Y., Hong, Y., Bi, Y., Gu, Z., Cheng, L., ... Li, C. (2015). Digestibility and
changes to structural characteristics of green banana starch during in vitro digestion.
Food Hydrocolloids, 49, 192–199.
Kendall, C. W., Esfahani, A., Hoffman, A. J., Evans, A., Sanders, L. M., Josse, A. R., ...
Potter, S. M. (2008). Effect of novel maize-based dietary fibers on postprandial gly-
cemia and insulinemia. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 27(6), 711–718.
Koteswara Reddy, C., Vidya, P. V., & Haripriya, S. (2015). Effect of chemical modification
on molecular structure and functional properties of Musa AAB starch. International
Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 81, 1039–1045.
Kumar, L., Brennan, M., Zheng, H., & Brennan, C. (2018). The effects of dairy ingredients
on the pasting, textural, rheological, freeze-thaw properties and swelling behaviour
of oat starch. Food Chemistry, 245, 518–524.
Liu, S., Xiao, Y., Shen, M., Zhang, X., Wang, W., & Xie, J. (2019). Effect of sodium car-
bonate on the gelation, rheology, texture and structural properties of maize starch-
Mesona chinensis polysaccharide gel. Food Hydrocolloids, 87, 943–951.
Lu, Z. H., Belanger, N., Donner, E., & Liu, Q. (2018). Debranching of pea starch using
pullulanase and ultrasonication synergistically to enhance slowly digestible and re-
sistant starch. Food Chemistry, 268, 533–541.
Mao, X., Lu, J., Huang, H., Gao, X., Zheng, H., Chen, Y., ... Gao, W. (2018). Four types of
winged yam (Dioscorea alata L.) resistant starches and their effects on ethanol-in-
duced gastric injury in vivo. Food Hydrocolloids, 85, 21–29.
Ma, S. P., Zhu, P. L., & Wang, M. C. (2019). Effects of konjac glucomannan on pasting and
rheological properties of corn starch. Food Hydrocolloids, 89, 234–240.
Nawab, A., Alam, F., Haq, M. A., & Hasnain, A. (2016). Effect of guar and xanthan gums
on functional properties of mango (Mangifera indica) kernel starch. International
Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 93(Pt A), 630–635.
Palabiyik, İ., Toker, O. S., Karaman, S., & Yildiz, Ö. (2017). A modeling approach in the
interpretation of starch pasting properties. Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 272–278.
Palaniraj, A., & Jayaraman, V. (2011). Production, recovery and applications of xanthan
gum by Xanthomonas campestris. Journal of Food Engineering, 106(1), 1–12.
Perera, A., Meda, V., & Tyler, R. T. (2010). Resistant starch: A review of analytical pro-
tocols for determining resistant starch and of factors affecting the resistant starch
Food Chemistry 339 (2021) 128001
content of foods. Food Research International, 43(8), 1959–1974.
Qiu, S., Yadav, M. P., Chen, H., Liu, Y., Tatsumi, E., & Yin, L. (2015). Effects of corn fiber
gum (CFG) on the pasting and thermal behaviors of maize starch. Carbohydrate
Polymers, 115, 246–252.
Qiu, S., Yadav, M. P., Zhu, Q., Chen, H., Liu, Y., & Yin, L. (2017). The addition of corn
fiber gum improves the long-term stability and retrogradation properties of corn
starch. Journal of Cereal Science, 76, 92–98.
Sasaki, T., & Kohyama, K. (2011). Effect of non-starch polysaccharides on the in vitro
digestibility and rheological properties of rice starch gel. Food Chemistry, 127,
541–546.
Schwartz, J. M., Le Bail, K., Garnier, C., Llamas, G., Queveau, D., Pontoire, B., ... Le Bail,
P. (2014). Available water in konjac glucomannan–starch mixtures. Influence on the
gelatinization, retrogradation and complexation properties of two starches. Food
Hydrocolloids, 41, 71–78.
Samutsri, W., & Suphantharika, M. (2012). Effect of salts on pasting, thermal, and
rheological properties of rice starch in the presence of non-ionic and ionic hydro-
colloids. Carbohydrate Polymers, 87(2), 1559–1568.
Shi, M.-M., & Gao, Q.-Y. (2011). Physicochemical properties, structure and in vitro di-
gestion of resistant starch from waxy rice starch. Carbohydrate Polymers, 84(3),
1151–1157.
Shi, Z., Yao, Y., Zhu, Y., & Ren, G. (2016). Nutritional composition and antioxidant ac-
tivity of twenty mung bean cultivars in China. The Crop Journal, 4(5), 398–406.
Sun, D., & Yoo, B. (2015). Effect of tapioca starch addition on rheological, thermal, and
gelling properties of rice starch. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 64(1), 205–211.
Teixeira Nde, C., Queiroz, V. A., Rocha, M. C., Amorim, A. C., Soares, T. O., Monteiro, M.
A., ... Junqueira, R. G. (2016). Resistant starch content among several sorghum
(Sorghum bicolor) genotypes and the effect of heat treatment on resistant starch
retention in two genotypes. Food Chemistry, 197(Pt A), 291–296.
Viturawong, Y., Achayuthakan, P., & Suphantharika, M. (2008). Gelatinization and
rheological properties of rice starch/xanthan mixtures: Effects of molecular weight of
xanthan and different salts. Food Chemistry, 111(1), 106–114.
Wang, S. Y., Lin, J., Ye, M. Y., Ng, T. B., Rao, P. F., & Ye, X. Y. (2006). Isolation and
characterization of a novel mung bean protease inhibitor with antipathogenic and
anti-proliferative activities. Peptides, 27, 3129–3136.
Wang, S. Y., Wu, J. H., Ng, T. B., Ye, X. Y., & Rao, P. F. (2004). A non-specific lipid
transfer protein with antifungal and antibacterial activities from the mung bean.
Peptides, 25, 1235–1242.
Zhang, C., Chen, J. D., & Yang, F. Q. (2014). Konjac glucomannan, a promising poly-
saccharide for OCDDS. Carbohydrate Polymers, 104, 175–181.
Zhang, Y., Wang, Y., Zheng, B., Lu, X., & Zhuang, W. (2013). The in vitro effects of
retrograded starch (resistant starch type 3) from lotus seed starch on the proliferation
of Bifidobacterium adolescentis. Food & Function, 4(11), 1609–1616.
Zhang, Y., Zeng, H., Wang, Y., Zeng, S., & Zheng, B. (2014). Structural characteristics and
crystalline properties of lotus seed resistant starch and its prebiotic effects. Food
Chemistry, 155, 311–318.
Zhou, D. N., Zhang, B., Chen, B., & Chen, H. Q. (2017). Effects of oligosaccharides on
pasting, thermal and rheological properties of sweet potato starch. Food Chemistry,
230, 516–523.