CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Study

Citrus fruits are one of the largest fruit crops in the world. About 30% of citrus fruits are

processed to obtain various products, mainly single strength juice and juice concentrates (Izquierdo,

2003) . Similarly, the citrus industry is the second largest fruit-processing industry, surpassed only

by the grape industry, which produces mainly wine. Oranges, lemon, limes, grape fruits and

tangerines are member of the class of fruit known as citrus fruits (Olife et al., 2015). It is

universally acknowledged that citrus fruits emanated from north eastern India (Ortese et al., (2012).

The Federal Department of Agriculture and Missionaries introduced citrus fruit to Nigeria in the

1930s. Since its introduction the cultivation of citrus fruit has spread to every part of the country

and recently ranked as the most extensively cultivated fruit tree in the country particularly in South-

Western Nigeria (Oyedele & Yahaya, 2010).

Plants in the genus Rutaceae produce citrus fruits, the most popular amongst the varieties are

orange (Citrus sinensis), tangerine (Citrus tangerina), grape (Citrus pavadisi), lemon (Citrus

limon), and lime (Citrus oryantifolia) . Other less prominent fruits produced are bitter orange

(Citrus aurantium), blood orange (Citrus x sinesis var.), mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata),

citron (Citrus medica), kunquat (Citrus japoncia), pummelo (Citrus maxima), ugli fruit (Citrus

reticulata x C. Paradisi), yuzu tree (Citrus junos).

The genus Citrus has many species which extends beyond the above listed ones; the

differences among them are of great interest to specialists. However, from a general point of view,

the similarities are greater than the differences, which is not surprising when considering species of

the same genus. The economic importance also differs among species and composition of the main

species have been studied more frequently. Thus, data on Citrus sinensis (sweet orange) are more

extensive than those on C. reticulata (tangerine), C. limon (lemon), or C. paradisi (grapefruit). In

the same vein, data from these species are more comprehensive than from the other lesser known

Citrus species (Young R.H., 1986).

Citrus fruits are of great relevance both in economic and health terms. Consequently, great

efforts have been expended to understand the complex processes that take place during the ripening

of the Citrrus fruits, which is responsible for the attractive color and flavor. These attributes, as well

as their well-known nutrition and health-promoting values contribute to the wide acceptance of

citrus fruits by consumers all over the world. They are a good source of dietary antioxidants, which

are vital for both health promotion and in the prevention of various human chronic and degenerative

diseases.

There are two clearly differentiated markets in the citrus sector: (a) the fresh citrus fruits

market, with a predominance of oranges and mandarins; and (b) the processed citrus products

market, mainly for orange and grapefruit juice. The current annual worldwide citrus production is

estimated at over 105 million tons, with more than half of this being oranges (Blasco et al, 2016).

About a third of citrus fruit production goes for processing, and more than 80% of this is for the

production of orange juice.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Citrus fruits are generally known to have poor shelf life and face the problem of postharvest

losses (Panesar et al., 2009). This is due to the ‘non-climateric’ nature of citrus fruits. Changes in

texture and composition occur concomitantly with a ‘climacteric rise’ in respiration and ethylene

production by the fruits (Theologis et al., 1992). In citrus fruits, such changes are slow and gradual.

In addition, respiration declines continuously throughout fruit development and ethlene production

is extremely low.

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 Due to the continuous metabolic activity in citrus fruits, it is imposible to store and preserve

citrus for an extended period of time without deterioration. Furthermore, high mositure content and

poor postharvest handling also contribute greatly to the relatively short shelf-life of citrus fruits.

These aforementioned reasons call for processing of citrus fruits into juice and concentrates.

In the past, fruits were processed and stages involved include peeling with knife and

squeezing the juice out with bare hands. This method of processing is unhygienic and has low

efficiency, and contributes to human drudgery. Problems associated with this are:

(a) Deterioration sets in almost immediately due to metabolic activities which continue even

after harvest. The perishable nature makes it difficult to store and preserve fruits; hence

there is gradual loss of flavour and nutritional values.

(b) The local way of extracting fruit juice is prone to contamination, and as such reduces the

quality of juice produced.

1.3 Objectives of Study

The objectives of this study are:

i. To develop a device for extracting juice from citrus fruits, and

ii. To evaluate the performance of the extractor and determine its optimum operating

conditions.

1.4 Scope of Study

This present work is aimed at designing a citrus juice extractor that will be suitable for use

by both small and medium scale citrus juice processors in Nigeria at a preferred cost compared to

an imported extractor of similar capacity. As well as improving the machine capacity of the

motorized juice extractor.

Therefore, this work presents the design, construction and performance evaluation of a

locally fabricated citrus (orange) juice extractor for small and medium scale citrus juice processing

plants in Nigeria.

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1.5 Justification

With the high demand for fruits and allied products, it has become necessary to evolve a

means of preserving as well as satisfying the need of domestic and industrial users of citrus fruits.

The juice extractor is being developed as an easily affordable machine that is environmentally

friendly, energy efficient and versatile in the processing of fruits.

The outcome of this effort will go a long way;

i. In providing local alternatives to imported brands of processed fruit juices;

ii. This will significantly reduce the amount of fruit being wasted as a result of spoilage;

iii. The commercial needs of farmers and customer satisfaction will be met.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Citrus Fruits

Citrus is an evergreen shrub or small trees belonging to the family of Rutaceae, grown in

tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions, citrus including oranges, mandarins, tangerines, limes,

grapefruits, lemons, and citrons, as well as many hybrids and varieties. Fruits reach to maturity

stage between mid-December and April in the Northern Hemisphere particularly oranges and

grapefruit, also, the fruit available around the year approximately.

Citrus fruit one of the most important fruits all over the world, due to health-related

elements and valuable components which involves vitamins C, carotenoids, flavonoids, pectin,

Calcium, Potassium etc. Citrus fruits considered a precious resource of soluble and insoluble fiber

with numerous benefits such as removing the toxic effects in the body. Fiber improves the gastric

adsorption in the small intestine, decrease the energy absorption process, and maintain the

performance of the bile duct and liver. Citrus products have received much attention in recent years,

because of potential therapeutic benefits associated with high levels of flavonoids, terpenes,

phytonutrients, and range of phenolic compounds, vitamins C and carotenoids.

There are various active compounds extracted from citrus fruits like lemons, grapefruits,

sweet oranges, used in treatments of hypertension, other citrus species considered a source of

potential antioxidant against heart diseases, anticancer, inflammation, antiviral, antibacterial and

antifungal activity. Each part of citrus fruit contains active ingredients, it is present in fruit flush,

juice, even peel and seed depend upon varieties and maturity stage.

Although consumption of fresh citrus fruits is popular in all producing countries, processed

products must still be considered almost as luxury products. Breakfast with orange juice is only

common in developed countries. Thus, citrus industries process value-added products whose

quality, nutritional characteristics, and purity are appreciated. Since these three aspects are closely
related to composition, the analysis of citrus constituents is a frequent subject of research work,

supported by governments and industries.

Organic acids present in citrus fruits, such as citric acid, malic acid, oxalic acid, succinic

acid, and malonic acid also provide calories, and are easily metabolized as they are the part of

metabolic pathways in the human body. Citrus fruits do not increase the body's acid content. These

acids are very mild compared to the hydrochloric acid present in stomach. Most of the acids are

present in the form of salts of potassium (with K or Na cation). Sodium and potassium are alkaline

metals; their salts are excreted by the body in the form of sweat or urine.

Citrus fruits have very low fat content and can substitute the snack eaten between meals.

Thus a person can avoid eating saturated fats and cholesterol, which increase the risk of heart

disease. However, citrus fruits are not a good source of proteins like many other foods, and thus

from a nutrition point of view citrus fruits do not form a protein source in the diet.

2.1.1 Classification of Citrus Fruits

Citrus fruit are divided into different groups as follow:

(c) Sweet Orange (Citrus sinensis L.): including Common orange, Navel orange, Blood

orange, and Valencia orange.

(d) Sour orange (Citrus aurantium): bitter orange and their varieties

(e) Mandarin and Tangerine (Citrus reticulata of Swingle) or (Citrus deliciosa of Tanaka):

this group are category of easy-to-peel citrus, involves varieties with yellow and orange

peel, like Satsuma mandarin, Dancy tangerine, some varieties may ripen as early as

December such as Clementine and satsuma mandarin, however, late varieties may be

harvested at August or September as Murcott and Pixie mandarins.

(f) Lemon (Citrus limon): Fruits mature throughout year, this group including Eureka, Lisbon

and Meyer lemon.

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(g) Lime (Citrus aurantifolia): including Mexican lime, Indian lime, Tahitian lime, Bearss

lime, key lime, the fruit mature all-over the year.

(h) Other kinds: like Citron, Kumquat, and Pomelos.

These citrus fruits are the precious resource of phytochemicals which are beneficial for the human

bosy as vital biactive medicines, Phytochemicals are naturally present in citrus juices and play a

role in physiological functions and metabolic change of human body, also Citrus fruits and juice has

a unique value of essential nutrients, and these nutrients protect against several chronic diseases.

Citrus has potential health benefits like antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, antiviral and anticancer,

besides that, Citrus juice contains a lower amount of cholesterol that helps for diabetes patients.

2.2 Nutritional Values and Importance of Citrus Fruits

In addition thirst-quenching ability and refreshing taste, citrus fruits also have therapeutic

value. This chapter covers the nutritive and medicinal values of citrus fruits with special reference

to the fruit of the genus Aegle of the Rutaceae family, Bael (Aegle marmelos). It is a close relative

of citrus and they share similar tree, fruit, and leaf characteristics. Citrus fruit and juice are excellent

sources of health-promoting substances like vitamins. Even a small amount of vitamins can prevent

the appearance of sub-clinical signs of deficiencies.

However, the role of citrus fruits in providing other nutrients and factors of medicinal value

cannot be underestimated. Nutrients from a fresh source are immediately available to the body in a

small amount. Citrus fruits contain carbohydrates in the form of sugars: sucrose, glucose, and

fructose. The ratio of sodium and potassium in orange juice plays an important role in maintaining

electrolyte balance. An average-size orange can provide 0.8 g of fiber in the diet. Fiber has its own

importance for the people of industrialized nations who eat high-fat, low-fibre diets full of highly

refined and processed carbohydrates that move slowly through the intestines. The role of citrus fruit

in reducing risk of human diseases like heart diseases, cancer, and urinary disorders is discussed.

7
 Citrus fruits have a wide range of biological activity for maintaining body health (Table 1).

Also, Sweet orange and lemon fruits have a vast range of bioactive compounds which reported a

60–70% control of liver diseases.

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Table 2.1: Role of different components in citrus fruit.

Component Health Promoting role

Ascorbic acid Formation of connective tissues, collagen, absorption of iron

(Vitamin C) and properties of antioxidants

Thiamin (Vitamin Heart, brain, nervous system, co-factor in gastrointestinal,

B1) muscular functions

Riboflavin (Vitamin Reduction reactions and coenzyme in oxidation

B2)

Niacin (Vitamin B3) System metabolism, maintained circuitry system

Piridoxina (Vitamin Its balance the body, fluid, metabolism, hemoglobin

B6)

Folic acid (Vitamin It plays a role in an acid, nucleic acid and metabolism balance

B9)

Potassium (K) Role in fluid system and assists in nervous system

Calcium (Ca) It is main part in bones, teeth and major role in metabolism

Phosphorus (P) It is involving in DNA and part of energy distributions

Magnesium (Mg) Muscles contraction

Manganese (Mn) It involves in metal enzymatic activity and fat metabolism

Zinc (Zn) Blood circulation and metabolism in body

Selenium (Si) Antioxidants role in body process

Copper (Cu) Copper is trace element for essential in health

Sodium (Na) Its balance the human body and nerves and muscles functions

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 However, Citrus juice particularly grapefruit juice contains enzymes particularly P-45

enzyme which considered a natural tool for obesity control and contained a range of different

protein which burns human fats (Ono E. et al 2011).

The lemon fruits have numerous bioactive compounds, and the juice of lemon possesses more than

200 compounds which involve regulators of the human body (Wareem and Rafia 2019). However,

lemon and sweet orange juices have a wide range of bioactive compounds controlled about 60-70%

of liver diseases through control lipids.

2.2.1 Main Health Benefits of Citrus Fruits

iii. Anti-carcinogenic Properties: Citrus flavonoids posses anti-carcinogenic and anti-tumor

activities. (Li et al 2006)

iv. Cardiovascular Properties: Citrus flavonoids show an anti-adhesive and anti-aggregation

action against red cell clumping. Robbins RC (1974)

v. Hyperglycemia: Citrus flavonoids play important roles in preventing the progression of

hyperglycemia, partly through binding with starch, increasing hepatic glycolysis and the

glycogen concentration, and lowering hepatic gluconeogenesis. (Shen et al 2012)

vi. Anti-inflammatory, Antiallergic and Analgesic activity: Citrus flavonoids like

hesperidin, diosmin, quercetin, and other flavonoids have shown dose-dependent anti-

inflammatory activity by influencing metabolism of arachidonicacid and histamine release

(Galati et al 1994).

vii. Anti-microbial activity: One of the properties of flavonoids with their physiological action

in the plants are their antifungal and antiviral activity (Calomme et al 1996)

viii. Anti-anxiety, antidepressant, and antiallergic activity: Apigenin shows antidepressant

activity, some flavonoids show antiallergic (Matsuda 1991).

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2.3 Fruit Processing

Fruits are grown primarily for fresh consumption but significant and increasing portion of

the crop is now being canned as either fruit segment or juices.

Processing is a process carried out on agricultural products to make them more hygienic for

consumption and also to preserve them for longer period of time without spoilage (Ihekoronye and

Ngoddy 1985).

Processing alone is the post-harvest treatment that is performed on agricultural products

right from where it was harvested to the point where it is to be processed as foods. It is also aimed

at quality preservation or improvement of crop quality after being worked upon by various

processing means (Adegoke, 1991).

All major fruit producing areas have regulation which outlines the physical qualities and the

chemical maturity level of fruits for processing. Fruits used should be whole, mature and recently

harvested. The fruit should contain no “drops” (daft, stale fruit that had fallen to the ground and

subsequently picked up during harvesting) or “splits” (fruits with peek breaks), and be free from the

internal insect infestation and mole damage. In order to ensure optimum quality, standards have

been established based on colour break, minimum juice content, minimum acid content and

minimum percentage of total soluble solids.

2.3.1 Orange Juice: Types and Characteristics

Juice is the cell sap that is present in the cell vacuoles and expressed from sound fruits by

squeezing. Orange juice is consumed in a natural cloudy state. The clarification would impair the

appearance and flavor of the juice. Different types of orange juices are available in the market. The

chilled single-strength orange juice has limited shelf life and requires installation of expensive

refrigerated tanks. Concentrated juices are distributed in large containers as a base for the

manufacture of a variety of soft drinks. The same is reconstituted to single-strength juice for direct

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consumption. Comminuted orange products are prepared for use in beverages. Dehydrated juices in

powder form are also available in the market.

A. Fresh Juice

Freshly squeezed, un-pasteurized orange juice is very desirable for the consumer because of

its fresh aroma and flavor, but the shelf life is less than 20 days at 1 OC, as it is highly susceptible to

microbial spoilage.

The manufacturing operations from fruit washing to packaging must be exceptionally clean

to minimize product spoilage. Pectin esterase activity in un-pasteurized juice results in loss of

cloudiness (Wicker et al., 2003). Due to this reason, product has to be maintained near freezing

point throughout its distribution, however, cloud separation, flavor changes due to reactions with

oxygen, and color instability still occur, although at slower rate. After several days of packaging,

flavor from diacetyl, fused oils, and other microbiologically generated off-flavors, make the product

inferior to good quality pasteurized juice. There is a risk of food-borne illness from consumption of

un-pasteurized packaged fruit juice. This includes serious incidence of salmonellosis from the

consumption of contaminated fresh orange juice. FDA has proposed juice regulations to mandate

the use of Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) by most juice-producing

companies and procedures for implementing HACCP have been published (Schmidt et al., 1997).

The distribution of volatile compounds in pulp, serum, and cloud of freshly squeezed orange

juice, has no relationship between the retention of aroma compounds in pulp or cloud and their lipid

content or composition (Brat et al., 2003). Juice monoterpene and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons are

primarily present in the pulp (74.0% and 87.2%, respectively) and cloud (7.3% and 14.9%,

respectively). Esters and monoterpene alcohols are mainly found in the serum (90.4% and 84.1%,

respectively).

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B. Pasteurized Juice

The consumer preference is increasing towards single-strength chilled juice. The necessity

for food safety and quality requires pasteurization of juice before packaging and distribution. Many

important nutrients in citrus juices including sugar, acid, vitamins, minerals, some flavonoids, and

other components are quite heat stable under the conditions of pasteurization. Pasteurization process

is designed to inactivate the thermally stable isoenzyme of pectin esterase.

The temperature necessary for enzyme inactivation is higher than that required for killing

the microbes. At a lower pH, the enzyme inactivation is achieved in a shorter time, thus producing a

better quality juice. Juice treatment with carbon dioxide at above supercritical conditions, has the

advantage of enzyme inactivation without heat, thus preserving the natural flavor. The juice

maintains color and cloud stability throughout its shelf life (Lotong et al., 2003).

C. Aseptic Single-Strength Juice

Now the technology is available on a large scale to extract, process, and store single-strength

juice in bulk aseptic refrigerated tanks, minimizing microbial spoilage and product quality

deterioration. This technology enables provision of blended juices to consumers on a year-round

basis, when the fruit is not in season. Depending on the processing capacity of plant, number of

tanks of capacity 950–3800m 3each, are installed in refrigerated rooms or insulated with

refrigeration. With proper nitrogen blanketing and mixing, the juice quality may be maintained for a

year or more (Wilke, 2002).

D. Single-Strength Juice from Concentrate

A significant amount of orange juice is packaged from reconstituted concentrate as chilled

juice. Because of the economics of storing large bulk quantities of concentrated citrus juice and the

consumer preference for a ready-to-serve product, the volume of this product is large now.

Pasteurized juice is packaged in cartons or glass containers and is microbiologically stable.

The flavor of juice from reconstituted concentrate is not comparable with single-strength juice

13
because of the two thermal treatments and the loss of volatiles during the concentration process.

Addition of aromas and essences can improve the quality of the finished product (Ranganna et al.,

1983).

E. Frozen Concentrated Juices

Concentrated orange juice with soluble solids content of 65. Brix is now largely produced in

the world. The primary water removal technology is high-temperature short-time evaporation,

although freeze concentration and membrane processes are also used.

The concentration process is accompanied by aroma recovery. The concentrate is blended

with a small amount (less than 0.01%, v/v) of cold-pressed oil to mask the off-flavors that develop

during storage.

The small quantity of fresh juice can also be added back to concentrate to make up the losses

of flavor during concentration process. The concentrate is chilled to −9 ◦ C by passing through heat

exchanger and pumped to large stainless steel tanks maintained at desirable temperature in cold

rooms. This concentrate is blanketed with nitrogen and carefully monitored for quality

characteristics, so that the juice with different characteristics may be accurately blended to produce

a uniform-quality finished product. Under these conditions, the concentrate can be stored for over a

year with little loss in quality (Ranganna et al., 1983).

2.3.2 Juice Production

1. Harvesting

Fruits of suitable quality may be harvested manually using clippers or mechanically,

depending upon the facilities available. Manual harvesting may be preferred in the countries where

cheap labor is available and comparatively small acreage of orchards is managed. In developed

countries, mechanical harvesting is practiced and a number of abscission chemicals are applied to

facilitate detachment of fruits from the tree. Care should be taken to avoid any damage to fruit

during handling. The fruits are packed in bags or bins and transported to the processing factory. A

14
detailed description of types of harvester used and important factors related to mechanical

harvesting of citrus fruits is given by Whitney (1995).

2. Receiving

After reaching the processing plant, the fruit goes through inspection lines for removal of

bruised or damaged fruits. The sorted fruits are conveyed to storage bins and sufficient quantity is

accumulated for continuous operation of the processing plant. The laboratory draws a small portion

of fruit at this stage for testing the titratable acidity, Brix, and juice yield.

The tests for fruits have been discussed by Miller and Hendrix (1996) and Kimball (1991).

The testing record of individual lots is maintained to determine which bins are to be blended for

uniform product quality.

3. Washing

Fruits from the bins are conveyed to a washer. The fruits are first soaked briefly in water

containing a detergent, scrubbed by revolving brushes, rinsed with clean water, and inspected again

to remove the damaged ones. Sanitizing is essential for control of spoilage microbes, which may

contaminate conveying equipment and juice extractors, and affect the juice quality. Applied citrus

plant sanitation requirements have been published (Winniczuk, 1994).

A HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) plan should be followed for

complete sanitization of fruits during washing (Schmidt et al., 1997). The fruits are then separated

automatically depending on their sizes and allowed to enter into the juice extractors.

4. Extraction

The development of automatic orange juice extractors has been a major breakthrough in the

progress of the fruit juice industry. Various types of extractors and finishers including Rotary Juice

Press, FMC In-Line Extractor, and various Brown Model extractors have been discussed by

different workers (Sigbjoern, 1975; Woodroof and Luh, 1975; Sutherland, 1977; Nagy et al., 1977).

The juice extractor and finisher are both important to the nature, yield, quality, and

15
characteristics of the orange juice and concentrate and can be adjusted to control the amounts of

pulp, oil, etc., in the final products. According to Florida state regulation, the orange juice should

not contain suspended pulp more than 12% for USDA Grade A (Braddock, 1999). The finishing

process removes the excess of pulp, bits of peel, rag, and seeds. The yield is important to the grower

who wants the highest return of his fruit, and to the processor who is responsible for the quality of

the finished product.

A machine for extracting juice from citrus fruits, particularly oranges, is described by

Antonio (1992). It includes an inclined chute conveying the fruit to be squeezed against a step, a

spoon for raising the fruit resting on the step, and two squeezing plates below the step. The front

plate is pivoted at the top and is pulled towards the back plate by a spring. The back plate is joined

to a connecting rod and crank, which is driven by a speed reducer used to slide the back plate either

towards or away from the front plate. As the two plates converge, fruit between them is squeezed.

Extracted juice is collected, as it drips from the fruit, in an underlying hopper from which it

is collected in a container. After squeezing, as the plates separate, the fruit residue falls down an

inclined grill over the hopper and is collected in a drawer.

5. Blending

Processors are aware of variations in the color of juice from different varieties and different

seasons of fruit. The color of juice obtained from the fruits harvested in early season is poor. The

poor color of early season juice can be improved by blending juice or concentrate from the oranges

rich in color. Attention is given to the blending of different lots to achieve a balance of solids,

acidity, color, and flavor. After finishing, the juice flows to large stainless steel tanks where it is

checked for acidity and soluble solids; and sugar may be added to increase sweetness, if needed.

6. Deoiling

Previously, the oil level in juices was controlled only by adjusting the extractor setting or by

choice of the type of extractor. The oil content could be controlled by softening the peel by

16
 immersing fruits for 1–2 min in hot water, but the oil in the juice varied from lot to lot and the

control became difficult. Deoilers have been developed to control the peel oil level in citrus juices.

Currently, deoiling in commercial operations is done by using small vacuum evaporators

where the juice is heated to about 51.4 ◦ C and about 3–6% of the juice is evaporated. After the

vapors are condensed, the oil is separated by centrifugation or decantation, and the aqueous layer is

returned to thejuice. With this treatment, about 75% of the volatile peel oil can be removed.

7. Deaeration

The single-strength juices are deaerated because dis- solved oxygen lowers the vitamin C

levels and causes flavor deterioration. The current tendency is to recommend that oxygen levels be

kept low in all processed citrus juices. Dissolved oxygen disappears rapidly in canned juices,

particularly at high temperatures. A definite benefit from deaeration has been a decrease of frothing

in the filler bowl. Vacuum deoilers simultaneously deaerate juice and hence modern juice canneries

do not have separate deaerators.

Deaeration methods are known to affect the quality attributes of orange juice with respect to

browning, vitamin C, sensory and Hunter Lab color values (Mannheim and Passy, 1979). Hot-

filling and storage at less than 15OC gives bottled citrus juices a shelf life of almost 1 year.

8. Pasteurization

The pasteurization is aimed at inactivating the spoilage organisms and enzyme pectin

methylesterase (PME) (pectin esterase) responsible for loss of cloud stability and discoloration in

juice. Citrus juices are sensitive to heat. Their vitamin content and delicate fresh aroma and flavor

may be lost or damaged by undue exposure to heat, so they are usually pasteurized as rapidly as

possible. pH plays an important role in pasteurization of juice. Optimization of microbial

destruction, enzyme inactivation, and vitamin C retention during pasteurization of pH-adjusted

orange juice, is reviewed by Uelgen and Oezilgen (1993). The pH–temperature optimum

determined by response surface methodology in the ranges 65–75OC and pH 2.5–4.0 has shown that

17
no pectin esterase activity below pH 3.5 is observed. Leuconostoc mesenteroides had its maximum

and minimum thermal resistances at pH 3.5 and 2.7, respectively. For an ideal theoretical process

requiring four-log cycles of microbial reduction, the optimum pasteurization conditions are 12 min

at 75OC and pH 2.7. The natural pH of juices varies with the variety of oranges.

With the aim of optimizing pasteurization temperature for orange juice, thermal death

characteristics of Aspergillus niger spores, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Lactobacillus fermentum

have been studied by Hasselbeck et al. (1992). Thermal inactivation of all investigated

microorganisms occurred at about 75OC. D values at 75 OC were 0.004 s for S. cerevisiae and

0.53 s for L. fermentum in orange juice. Chemical and sensory tests showed that thermal treatment

in the investigated time–temperature regime (65–95OC, 3–30 s) did not lower the orange juice

quality. Time–temperature relationships are also important for heat inactivation of enzyme pectin

esterase in orange juice under different conditions (Lee et al., 2003).

Commercially, the juice is rapidly heated to about 92 OC and the exact temperature depends

on the type of equipment used and on rate of juice flow. Juice may be in the pasteurizer from a

fraction of a second to about 40 s.

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 HARVESTING

RECEIVING/SORTING

WASHING

PEELING

SIZE REDUCTION

EXTRACTION

BLENDING

DEOILING

DEAERATION

PASTEURIZATION

PACKAGING

STORAGE

Figure 2.1: Flow Chart of Fruit Processing

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2.4 Packaging and Storage of Orange Juice

Different types of packaging including cans, bottles, cartons, drums, and barrels made up of

glass, metal, plastic, or laminates are used for the packaging of orange juice and concentrates. The

packaging and stoage of orange juice have been studied extensively.

Packaging of orange juice in metal cans is becoming obsolete. The latest trends are towards

aseptic packaging in flexible plastic films and laminates.

2.4.1 Canning

Plain tin cans are used for single-strength orange juice, because they prevent discoloration of

juice upon storage and are least expensive. Enamel-lined cans or lids have been used, but appear to

be unnecessary. The cans varying in sizes from about 200 ml to over a liter are used for packing.

Hot juice from the pasteurizer is pumped to the large stainless steel filler bowl and filled

directly into the cans. The juice is kept in the filler bowls for a minimum time to prevent damage of

flavor by the heat. The cans are filled automatically by opening the valve as they pass around the

turntable beneath the filler bowls. It is desirable to minimize the amount of oxygen in the final

container. Much of the air in the juice is removed by deoiling or deaeration process. Live steam

injected into the headspace as the can is closed replaces the air and helps to create a vacuum during

closure. They are closed automatically as they leave the filling machine. The cans are inverted for

about 20 s to sterilize the lid by the heat of the juice, then, while spinning in a roller conveyer, the

cans are rapidly cooled to 37.8OC by cold water spray to facilitate drying and prevent subsequent

rusting of

the outside of the can. High speed filling and closing machines handle up to 500 cans/min (Kefford

et al., 1959).

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2.4.2 Storage

The orange juice undergoes various physical and chemical changes, depending on the type

of packaging and storage conditions. When orange juices are compared, immediately after canning,

with samples of the original juice, changes in flavor and other quality factors during the actual

canning procedure are minimal. Changes during storage of canned juice, however, are much more

profound. The storage temperature is the major determinant influencing the flavor and vitamin

content of the juice. Kefford (1973) summarized studies of ascorbic acid retention and flavor

stability in canned citrus juices during storage at different temperatures, and stated that from the

point of view of practical nutritionists, canned citrus juices should be stored at the coolest possible

temperature.

Some workers reported, in different studies, that over 90% of ascorbic acid was retained and

flavor deteriorated little in canned citrus juices stored at 21.1OC for 1 year or longer (Freed et al.,

1949; Riester et al., 1945). Other workers indicated that ascorbic acid retention decreased and flavor

deteriorated at higher temperatures (Martin et al., 1995; Petersen et al., 1998). Khan and Khan

(1971) found that canned orange juice had better retention of color, better flavor, and higher

retention of vitamin C than bottled orange juice. Hashimoto et al. (1995) reported that exclusion of

dissolved oxygen before heat treatment and filling into epoxy resin coated cans effectively

preserved fresh flavor during storage at 10 OC or 23OC for up to 12 weeks.

Some studies have indicated that tin content may reach 150–200 ppm in canned orange juices stored

at temperatures approaching 30OC for 6 months or longer (Bielig, 1973). The Codex Alimentarius

proposed a maximum of about 150 ppm tin in orange juice for infants. Omori et al. (1973) reported

that high concentration of tin in orange juice is a major cause of toxicity. They reported that tin in

excess of 300 ppm, can cause undesirable physiological reactions in large animals and human

beings.

21
 Changes in dissolved oxygen concentration, during storage of packaged orange juice were

studied by Manso et al. (1996). Single-strength Valencia orange juice aseptically packaged and

stored up to 5 months at 4–50OC was analyzed for dissolved oxygen. Dissolved oxygen

concentration reached equilibrium in a few days from an initial level of approximately 2 ppm;

equilibrium concentration was independent of temperature of storage.

Sorption of food components, particularly volatile compounds, by polymeric packaging

materials is an unsolved problem for the food industry. The food itself develops an unbalanced

flavor profile (termed flavor scalping), and the pack if recycled (e.g., PET bottles), can transfer the

adsorbed aroma compound to the next product. Sensory properties of orange juices are highly

related to their levels of d-limonene.

The effect of packaging and storage conditions on the quality of orange juice has been

summarized in Table 19.4. Decreases in sensory quality (overall scores for color, appearance,

aroma, and flavor) found during storage in glass bottles, are greater at higher storage temperature

and with exposure to light. Significant deterioration in sensory quality occurred after 3 months at

ambient temperature, and after 1–2 months at 30 ◦ C. Changes in bitterness are similar to those of

oxidized flavor, but less pronounced, while no significant differences were found for sourness.

2.5 Juice Extractor Machines

A juicer is a machine that has the capacity of producing juice from fruits, leafy green and

vegetables. Several kinds of fruits or vegetables extracted are dependent on the type of fruit juicer

developed (Mushtaq, 2018). A juice extractor is an implement that can extract juice from both fruits

and vegetables. A juice extractor is a machine designed and fabricated to snap out fluid (juice) from

the fruit, either by squeezing, pressing or crushing for the purpose of drinking. The juice extractors

are classified into different types based on their mode of operation.

Fruit juice extractor is an enhanced agricultural device which uses the pressing mechanism

to extract juices from some fruit (Farnworth et al., 2001). The fruit juice extraction unit

22
 operational processes are: sorting, grading, rinsing, peeling, cutting, juice formulation,

clarification, storage and packaging (Farnworth et al., 2001). This practice of squeezing, pressing

and crushing of fruits just to obtain the juice and reduce the draw-back of waste and pulp is referred

to as fruit juice extraction. The orange fruit can be eaten raw, or possibly extract its juice or fragrant

peel as produce. Approximately 70% of citrus productions in 2012 were as a result of sweet

oranges. In 2014, countries like California and Florida in United States of America with Brazil have

ubiquitous rate of production of oranges with 70.9 million metric tons of oranges grown worldwide.

Orange extraction started with hand extraction of juice which is rather slow, tedious and

unhygienic, the use of machine came into being as the demand for juice consumption increased

(Jiang, 2014). The benefits of using machine for extraction are: saves time, improves efficiency,

increase capacity and reduced spoilage and waste (Boylston, 2010). Physical operated juice

extractors have been developed for home use but it has limited output (Eyeowa et al., 2017).

Generally, electric powered juice extractors have accessories like electric motor, switch, belt,

pulley, gears and bearings and components parts like a hopper which introduces the fruit to the

machine compressing chamber, a housing unit (compressing chamber) which incorporates an array

of pressersexceptionally arranged, a strainer (for sieve off waste), a juice collector container

and a

waste bin built-in for the orange waste (pulps, skin and seeds) disposal.

As there are no better ways to preserving this orange fruits, preservation of the orange fruits

through extraction of the juice has been established as the most effective technique so far. With this

extraction mechanism fruit juices can be stored and preserved for months or even years before

expiration (Farnworth et al., 2001).

A simple machine produced from locally sourced materials for extraction of juice from the

orange fruits effectively and efficiently at an affordable price so as to encourage a healthy living

through consumption of fruit juice and longer preservation of the fruit during its harvest was

necessary.

23
2.5.1 Classification of Juice Extractors

A juice extractor also known as a juicer, is an implement used for extracting juice from

fruits, leafy greens and other types of vegetables in a practice referred to as juicing. It crushes

squeezes and grinds the juice out from its fleshy tissue (Ashurst, 1999). They are different types of

juice extractors; each works best for some variety of fruits and vegetables. Presently, juice

extractors are classified into four essential types: masticator, centrifuge, triturating juicers (twin

gear), and press juicer.

A. CENTRIFUGAL JUICER

Centrifuges designed as the fastest and most affordable of all motorized fruit juice extractor

has mesh chamber where sharp blades rotate at a super-sonic speed to slice the fruits and extract the

juice from the pulp. These machines have advanced features that can process juice within seconds.

Normally with a large feeding chute it can chow down larger volumes of fruit items even

without pre-processing, this juicer reduces time sent on preparation work. Due to their very high

speed noise, heat, and oxidation of the juice are observed. The heat generated breaks down certain

enzymes and nutrients, while plenty air introduced oxidizes the juice their by causing a loss of

nutrient thus reducing the juice quality as well as the shelf life. The basic component parts are

plunger, top cover, top latch assembly, top blade, bottom blade, basket, juice bowl and mesh screen

Centrifugal juicers are produced by Breville, Omega, Hamilton, Black and Decker. They

have speedy, short prepping, juicing, and cleaning time as advantage.They are simple to

assemble/disassemble, compact for processing and also affordable.

B. MASTICATING JUICER (COLD PRESS JUICER)

A masticating juicer has a screw worm shaft that works to press and crush the orange into

lesser bit before pressing it against the juice extraction compartment for juicing. Masticating juicers

are also referred to as single auger juicers or slow juicer, since it takes long time to produce fruit

24
juice and vegetable juice as weighed alongside centrifuges. These machines are in two main

varieties namely vertical and horizontal masticating juicers. Vertically configured models have

larger auger and feeding chute while the horizontal juicers have feeding chute with smaller

footprints, but are prone to blockage due to the placement of the pulp ejector. To avoid these small

chutes problems which emanates pre-cutting of every produce before feeding is paramount.

Masticators serve a multi-functional purpose of a grocery processor and grinder. Mostly

found in kitchens as juice maker and grain mills. Even with their slow speed, they perform very

well on both hard and soft agricultural produce of kale and orange; with exceptional juice quality

occasioned by heat absences which naturally destroy both the enzymes and antioxidants in the

juice.

Masticators are seen as the best juicers for leafy greens. Basic components of masticating

juicers are pusher, hopper, auger, perforated screen, spinning brush and silicon brush. They have

high juice yield with improved juice quality. They function with tough and yielding materials but

are generally costly.

C. TRITURATING JUICER

The triturating juicer comprises of two gears coupled closer to each another, with the

intention of crushing, grinding and extracting juice from the agricultural produce using a low speed.

The extracted juices are smooth, pulsating, and excellent in nutrients.These machines have a knob

that you can adjust to achieve the necessary back pressure which gives more control over different

ranges of produce with varying firmness as to making it more efficient at extracting a lot of juice.

Triturating juicer is similar to single-gear juicers, with additional functions like it has

separate kits for noodles making, nuts and seeds grinding, and chopping vegetables while in other

juicers they are all incorporated as a single unit.Triturating juicers are mostly heavy and bulky,

mainly desired for commercial activities.

25
D. PRESS JUICER (CITRUS JUICER)

Citrus juicers are of several types: vertical hand-press type, pneumatic or hydraulic juice

press type, press bowl type, and spinning bowl type, with others not mentioned. They are produced

both as manual and electric juicer at different prices, categorized in every shapes, sizes, and

materials. Citrus juicers are mainly preferred for orange juice processing, but a good number of

juicers can also process lime, lemon, grapefruit, and even pomegranate. This citrus juicer requires

the fruits to be cut into half across the middle and then place on the juicer. Manual citrus juicers

some of them have handle for pressing of the fruit and squeeze out the juice, while others have a

cone like cup for pressing the fruit until it extracts the juice. The juicer can be considered as cold-

pressed processing in absence of heat, even though they are motorized machine. These juicers most

of them have detachable parts, which make them very easy to couple, dismantle, and tidy up. They

are the more preferred juicer among families that make their own fresh orange juice because it

takes them less than 3minutes to process and even clean up the mess from the juice. Omega, Black

and Decker are the renowned manufacturers of this juicer.

2.6 Manual Citrus Juice Extractor Operational Assessment

2.6.1 Hand Presser/Squeezer

The manual Juicers classified as hand juicing presser, are usually built with a rigid

corrugated cone which presses down on half of any fruit be it orange, lime, lemon, tomato or other

citrus fruit to extract its juice. This juicer requires your own muscle to squeeze the juices out from

the fruits, but if it does not add heat to the juice, the result is a juice that is very nutrient-dense.

26
Plate 1: [a] Image of lever action Hand juicer;

27
[b] Image of hand squeeze Juicer

Source: Mushtag, 2018

28
 Hand Juice Press is a commercial grade juicer with a heavy-duty cast iron body and a 304

stainless steel strainer. It has a long, lightweight handle with a comfortable rubber grip to reduce

any stress on your hand. This handle is in an upright position moving vertically downward at 90

degrees with a sturdy base that ensures no slipping or tilting during use. It has provided a safety hat

to lock it into place so that it will not fall on you accidentally. This juicer is super-easy to use. It

only takes three steps to process the fresh juice. First, cut your fruit into half, place the flat side

down on the pressing plate, and press down the handle. The fruit juice is collected effortless. The

strainer and funnel are both removable from the unit, making the units clean-up a breeze. This

juicer leaves a lot of pulp in your juice. The overall dimensions are (220 x 180 x 370) mm and

container diameter 120mm.

2.6.2 Hand Squeeze Juicer

The Stainless-Steel orange squeezer is a heavy, 378grams, stainless steel juicer with

superior strength. It has the right size of cup for any small citrus fruit to fit into. Larger oranges and

grapefruit are too big for this unit. We noticed that the cup showed some pitting after minimal use.

This unit has long, thick, silicone- bonded handles to ensure the best comfort for your hand,

and give you the best leverage to get the most quantity of juice. There is an issue with the handles,

though. This orange squeezer is safe for easy cleaning, but the rubber on the handles is not molded

on. That means if you throw it in the dishwasher, water will get in under the rubber coating and

allow it to slip off. Juice squeezer has several models.

2.6.3 Hand-held Juicer

This is a 71-gram unit with its own measuring cup, and a strainer built into the reamer. The

reamer fits on the top of the measuring cup, but it does not lock in its position very well. You may

have to help hold it in place with the same hand you are using to hold the cup.

29
 The measuring cup has a drip-free pour spout, so you can transfer your juice into

whatever container you like without making a mess. The measuring cup and reamer is both

Bisphenol A -free for your good health. The reamer can be removed from the cup for easy

cleaning. The reamer is a bit easy to clean, but the cup takes a little more effort. This juicer is

pretty small, not leaving a whole lot of room for your hand to fit into. What makes it even more

challenging is that the cup has a slightly narrowed neck, which makes the opening even smaller.

It can still be named oxo good grip citrus juicer which is manufacturers’ trade name.

30
Plate 2: [a] Image of Hand –held citrus juicer; [b] Component parts of dome shape hand
juicer
Source: Eyeowa et al., 2017

31
2.6.4 Dome Shape Juicer

This juicer has multiple functions. If the reamer is facing up, it’s suitable for

juicing lemons, oranges, and other citrus fruits. When you flip the reamer over and have it

pointing downward, it does excellently at juicing watermelon, pomegranate, and large

fruits. The juice is caught in a cup that holds one cup of liquid. It is consisted of middle

seat, Juice cup and upper cover. This juicer is easy to assemble and take apart to clean, but

it does have a lot of pieces to keep. See Plate 2b

2.6.5 Cup Hand-held Juicer

It is not a standard juicer. The top cup helps to hold your fruit, while you can use

the collection container for drinking of juice. The lid can be flipped over, so that it stores

neatly inside the cup, but it can also act as an egg separator when in this inverted position.

The unit consists of two different sizes of reamers, one 12-tooth reamer developed

to extract juice optimally by fully pressing each lemon, lime or any other smaller citrus

fruit; and the other is one 3-claw large reamer for juicing bigger fruits and orange. There

is also a large 476gram capacity cup for collection of juice. At times referred to as

manufacturer of the product like sunhanny orange squeezer.

2.6.6 Orange Juice Extractor

A designed and constructed orange juice extractormachine with diameter of 160 mm and

a height of 350 mm have small blades sharpened that is coupled to a shaft which rotates with the

bevel gear drive mechanism to actualize the fruit extraction (Aye and Ashwe, 2012). The turning

of the handle rotates the machine designed for high efficiencyand ease of operation, which

combine the extraction and beating often by macerating. The orange juice extractor encompasses

of two main component parts a goblet and a physically operated mechanism. The physically

operated shafts all in a casing. The following components were fastened to make up the drive

32
mechanism, handle, small sharpened blades, impeller shaft, bearing, dynamic seal and the goblet

for leak proof.

33
Plate 3: (a) Illustrating the Cup hand-held citrus juicer operation (b) component parts of a cup
hand-held citrus juicer
Source: Eyeowa et al., 2017

34
2.7 Electric Power Operated Orange Juice Extractors

2.7.1 Masticating Machines

The mass of juice in waste product was ascertained using the technique of American Society

of Agricultural Engineers (1982), which involved oven drying the chaff at 130˚C until a constant

weight was reached. A stop watch and weighing balance were both used to obtain the time of

extraction and measure the mass of the extracted fruit and chaff. The experiment was replicated

five time using orange, while for multipurpose extraction machine it is replicated thrice for each

fruit. The test was carried out at different extraction speeds with the aid of gear arrangement. The

juice yield, extraction efficiency and extraction loss of these machines are calculated using

equations.

A. Juice Pulping Machine

A juice pulping machine is an electrically powered juicer (Emelike and Ebere, 2015). It

consists of an auger-sieve combination placed above an aluminum frame, a handle for manual

operation and produces juice free of seed and skin. The fruit press consists of a crusher mounted on

components like screw-thread, crusher and slated cage. The machine is a lever operated press that

grinds and crushes in one operation with an output of about 25 litres of juice per hour when

operated by one person. The machine is using a masticating process.

35
Plate 4: Image of Juice pulping machine

Source: Ashurst, 1999.

36
2.7.2 Juice Extractor Machine

Juice Extractor machine has been developed with the performance evaluation conducted as

a function of its extraction efficiency (Odewole et al., 2018). The extractor components parts are as

follows: screw jack, screw connecting rod, pressing mechanism, frame, interlock, hopper, and

discharge mechanism. The performance evaluation tests showed an improved juice yield of 76%,

with extraction efficiency of 83% and low extraction loss of 3%. It is a masticating machine with

the same basic component parts.

37
Plate 5: Mini orange juice extractor with component parts as follows 1 - Hopper; 2 – Extraction
compartment; 3 – Disc plate; 4 – Bearing housing; 5 – Frame support; 6 – Juice conveyor; 7 –
Base stand; 8 – Electric motor; 9– Transmission belt; 10 – Pulley
Source: https://www.goodnature.com/blog/types-of-juicers/

38
A. MINI-ORANGE JUICE EXTRACTOR

Mini orange juice extractor was constructed with locally available fabrication materials for a

small scale processing (Olaniyan, 2010). The mastication machine components parts includes

hopper for feeding in orange, a lid cover, auger shaft, strainer, juice conveyor, trash outlet,

transmission belt, frame support, pulleys and bearings.

During processing, the auger shaft transmits, compresses, squashes and constrict the fruit to

extort the juice which in turn passes through the juice sieve for filtration and then to the juice

conveyor while the remaining waste is pushed to a trash bin. An average juice yield of 41.6 % and

juice extraction efficiency of 57.4 % were recorded. The machine has a 2 horse power electric

motor with juice extraction capacity of 14 kg/h.

B. MOTORIZED FRUIT JUICE EXTRACTOR

A motorized fruit juice extractor machine was developed with the orange fruits washed and

weighed (as 1kg, 1.5kg and 2kg respectively) of fruit sliced into 8 and 16 parts using the extractor

to process the juice (Bamidele, 2011). The juice yield, extraction loss and extraction efficiency of

the machine were obtained using equations 4.1- 4.3 above. Normal juice yield of 64.6 % extraction

efficiency of 68.2 % and corresponding extraction loss of 7.05 % were obtained from the 16 slice

lengths of orange fruit. From the test result carried out using the juice extractor and the hand

squeezing method, it was obvious that the rate of extraction increases as the weight of fruit

increases with a corresponding increase in the juice yield and extraction efficiency. The juice

extraction efficiency average and capacity were 57.70 % and 25.83 % respectively. This study

reveals that juice yield and extraction efficiency reduces while extraction loss rises with amplified

size of fruit slices. Juice yield, extraction efficiency and extraction loss from 16 slice lengths

oranges ranged between 48.90 – 64.60 %, 50.00 – 68.20 % and 0.6 –7.35 % respectively. The

higher extraction efficiency (mean value) of 57.70 % of the juice extractor reported the extraction

rate to be more proficient than that of the hand squeezing method which has extraction efficiency

39
(mean value) of 28.5 %. The motorized juice extractor components includes Hopper, Transmission

Belt, Power Shaft coupling, Bearing, residual Outlet, Juice conveyor, Shaft housing, Seal,

Cylindrical Drum, Electric Motor, Bolt, Adjustable Port and Frame Support.

C. MULTI-FRUIT JUICE EXTRACTOR

Multi-fruit juice extractor design and construction with performance evaluation on fruits of

pineapple, orange and melon were conducted (Odewole et al., 2018). The extractor functions on the

principle of compressive and shear squeezing force wielded through an auger transmission system.

The associated component parts consists of a tool frame, collection channel, gear box, juice

extraction chamber, tapered auger shaft, perforated screen base, and electric motor. The

components design analysis provided the parameters incorporated in the sizing, fabrication and

coupling of the machine. Performance evaluation of peeled or unpeeled fruits of pineapple, orange

and water melon indicated percentage juice yield of 79.1, 68.7 %, and 77 or 69.2 %, 89.5 and 89.7

% respectively, while extraction efficiency of 96.9 %, 94.3%, and 96.6 % for peeled pineapple,

oranges and water melon respectively and 83.6 %, 84.2 %, and 97.1 % respectively for unpeeled

and extraction losses of peeled and unpeeled fruits of pineapple, oranges and water melon are 2.1

and 2.7 % , 2.1 and 2.5 %, and 2.9 and 2.6 % respectively. The machine is recommended for

households and local fruit juice vendors because its operation is simple, easy and maintenance

friendly.

40
Plate 6: Image of a multi Fruit juice Extractor

Source: https://healthykitchen101.com/types-of-juicers/

41
D. MECHANIZED FRUIT JUICE EXTRACTOR

This extractor machine serves as both slicer and extractor of fruits and vegetable (Gbasouzor

and Okonkwo, 2014) with the assistance of the slicing blade, screw conveyor shaft, hopper, electric

motor, gear train, conical resistor, juice collector, waste collector, barrel and ball bearings it exerts

contact shear and compressive force. The fruits fed into the machine are continuously crushed by a

metal crusher against the metal surface that separates the juice from the waste which then is

collected through a unique channel while the wastes are pushed to the trash bin. The efficiency of

the machine is 67% output and the throughput of 4.8 litres per Minute. It is a masticating machine

with a robust construction and convenient design. It appears as table top machine with the

dimensions as 500mm x 300mm, therefore there are available for domestic and commercial

activities.

42
Plate 7: Image of Fruit juice extractor machine

Source: Emelike and Ebere, 2015.

43
E. FRUIT JUICE EXTRACTOR MACHINE

This machine is divided into two basic compartments: the chopping and the juice extracting

compartments (Boih, 2015). The performance evaluation results reported a typical juice yield of

pineapple, orange and ginger were 74 %, 72 % and 34 % respectively; while juice extraction

efficiencies of 84 %, 80 % and 71 % respectively; and juice extraction losses of 18 %, 16 % and 9

% respectively at optimum machine speed of 335 rpm for pineapple and oranges whereas 476 rpm

is for ginger. This Extractor with 3hp electric motor has the capacity of process 30 litres/hr of

oranges.

F. MODIFIED FRUIT JUICE MACHINE

A manual fruit juice machine fabricated by Onyene was modified by the addition of electric

motor (Nwoke, 2017). Then performance evaluation to ensure that the already existing extraction

parts can work well with the new amount of power that the motor produces when compared with

human power. The auger transmits, crushes, presses and constricts the fruits to extract the juice. The

juice extract passes through the sieve for filtration and collection in the juice collector while the

waste is trashed into the basket. When tested for freshly harvested orange and pineapple fruits,

results show that the normal juice yield for orange and pineapple were respectively 23.20% and

24.75 % as against 17.47% and 17.50% of the manual extractor; juice extraction efficiencies were

respectively 60.22% and 65.76% as against 50.32% and 53.76% of the manual extractor; and juice

extraction losses were respectively 12.86% and 14.04% as against 12.06% and 11.34% of the

manual extractor at 1.2kg/min feed rate. The modified machine was calculated to be 21.04% more

efficient than the manual operated machine. This extractor is powered by a 3hp electric motor with

a process capacity of 16.2 litres/hr of orange.

44
Plate 8: Image of Hand modified Fruit juice Extractor

Source: Adewumi, 2005.

45
G. AUTOMATIC ORANGE JUICE EXTRACTOR

An Automatic orange juice extractor is a 120 watt electric juicer which processes an

astounding 22 to 30 oranges per minute. It weighs between 44kg - 46 kg as durable machine with

the dimensions 508 x 890 x 508 mm, and is enclosed in a corrosion resistant, stainless steel housing.

Although it is an ‘orange’ juicer, but can still be used for your other citrus fruits extraction,

such as limes, grapefruit or succulent lemons for lemonade. This juicer has a strainer that collects

the pulps and seeds as well as filter for your fresh juice, giving you the juice, and keeping the rest in

a waste basket. This juicer has a very easy operational and cleaning approach with a safety cut-off

switch. In operation, fruits are introduced into the machine through the hopper. They are received

by the orange collector and sliced into two halves by means of a knife placed between the two

collectors. Each half of the orange enters the collector is then pressed by the rotary balls. Thus, the

machine transports, slices and presses the fruit inside the extraction chamber until juice is pressed

out of the fruit. The juice extracted is drained through the perforation provided at the bottom of the

extraction chamber. The halved squeezed orange residual waste is thrown out through the pulp

outlet on both sides of the machine. The component parts of this machine included gear drive,

Reamers (knaggy balls), Remaining collectors, knife, sieve, hopper, waste bucket and electric

motor.

The orange juice extraction machines have existed for a very long time now but the

limitations associated with the once in use have raised concern for a review and best way to harness

the fruits available during its season. Orange juice extraction is still a serious issue that desires

attention, since a greater percentage of the fruit turns as waste during its season. In Nigeria for

instant there is a large-scale cultivation of orange fruits, which requires a suitable mechanism to be

identified and developed for the fruit optimal harvest. Several attempts have been made in the past

to mechanize the extraction of orange juice. Those attempts produced both manually and

electrically operated machines. Some of the machines were gigantic, uneconomical, time and

46
energy consuming. There is a great need to explore these existing mechanisms which apparently

would be both economical and satisfactory to end users. Depending upon the needs of farmers and

consumers, a suitable mechanism must to be selected.

2.8 Food Machinery and Chemical Corporation (F.M.C) Citrus Extractor

This is an extractor used widely in all citrus producing areas. Plate 2 gives an overview of the FMC

extraction process. A plug is cut in the center of the fruit and a strainer pushed up inside the orange.

A mechanical hand presses the juice and pulp against this strainer keeping the juice away from the

exterior of the fruit and strongly flavored peel oils. The juice exits out the bottom of the FMC

Extractor after being separated from the pulp and the peel is pushed up and out from the front. At

the precise moment the peel is being put under pressure and a fine mist of water is sprayed on the

peel making an emulsion of the peel oil that is being forced from the peel. Thus in one stroke five

oranges are separated into juice, pulp, peel, peel oil, seeds and rag. The juice and any remaining

pulp are sent to specially designed finishers to remove any small seeds, bits of peel and excessive

pulp from the juice prior to evaporation.

47
Plate 9: Citrus Extractor Diagram

Source: (FMC, 2000)

48
2.9 Bicycle Powered Citrus Extractor

The bicycle or small engine powered reamer uses two standard juice reamers.

Alternative fruit grinders for different types of fruit could be powered by a similar system. This

extractor uses 5 or 6 people and will extract about 70 kg of citrus per hour. This will give a juice

yield of about 30 L/ hour which is only 1/3 as fast as the flow rate of the tubular pasteurizer at

90 L/hour. Three sets of bicycle reamers will keep one tubular pasteurizer operating on 100

percent juice or the extraction can start and get 40 to 50 L of juice ready before pasteurizing

starts. Alternatively other juice and flavourings can be used to increase the volume of juice

going to the pasteurizer. The whole rear bicycle axle, tire, rim and chain drive sprockets are first

removed. An 18-cm threaded shaft with a toothed rear wheel-driving sprocket, two reamers and

a bearing are used to replace the rear bicycle axle. The bicycle chain is placed around the

threaded shaft, fitted to the driving sprocket and tightened in the rear wheel axle mounting

brackets in the bicycle frame. Metal or plastic troughs are constructed to protect the bearing

from the acid fruit juice and to direct the extracted juice into a collection bucket. A stand made

from old bicycle handle bars is used to elevate and stabilize the reamers. Plate 3 illustrates a

bicycle-powered reamer in operation and a close up of the reamer.

After the citrus has been thoroughly cleaned, one person cuts the fruit in half between

the stem and blossom ends. A second person rides the bicycle or operates a small engine

powering a drive chain providing power to vertical mounted reamers. A third and fourth person

press the cut cup halves against the reamer and collect the juice in a bucket. A fifth person

presses the juice through a metal colander, a perforated metal cone with a wooded dasher; to

remove the excess pulp and seeds that would plug the pasteurizer coils (plate 4). This juice is

now ready to be pasteurized or can be blended with other juices and flavourings to make a citrus

beverage.

49
Plate 10: Bicycle powered citrus extraction

Source: (FMC, 2000)

50
Plate 11: Juice strainer and pasteurization coil.

Source: (FMC, 2000)

51
2.10 Rotary Juice Press

The fruit is placed into the machine via a hopper. A handle, attached to the machine, is

turned to press the fruit and extract the juice as shown in Figure 5. This self-contained machine

will grind and press all types of fruit. Eight rows of stainless steel teeth are embedded in a

hardwood tub. All pulped fruit drops directly into a basket. Basket capacity: 0.035m³.

52
Plate 12: A rotary fruit press.

Source: www.fao.org

53
2.11 Victorio Strainer

This purees soft fruits and vegetables. No peeling or coring is necessary for this machine, as the juices

and fruits are separated from the seeds. The fruit or vegetables are placed in the hopper as shown in

Figure 6 and the handle is turned. Seeds, skins and cores are continuously separated from the puree. The

machine works best with tomatoes and apples but accessories are available for grapes, berries, pumpkins

and squash.

54
Plate 13: A Victorio Strainer

Source: www.fao.org

55
2.12 Hydraulic Juice Press

These manually-operated presses extract juice from soft fruit, e.g. grapes. Hydraulic pressure is used to

extract the juice. This is illustrated in plate 5 below

56
Plate 14: A Hydraulic Juice Press

Source: www.suppliers.jimtrade.com

57
2.13 Screw-Type Juice Extractor

This is designed for medium-scale juice extraction, this machine in Figure 7 is driven by a 0.75kW

(1hp), three-phase, 440V motor. All contact parts are fabricated from stainless steel and there are two sets

of sieves. A hand operated version is also available. Throughput: 1000 oranges or 800 lemons per hour.

58
Plate 15: Screw – Type Juice Extractor

Source: www.fao.org

59
2.14 Roto Rotary Orange Juicer

This is a table-sized automatic orange juicer in a self-contained unit. Oranges are fed

into the juice hopper of Figure 8 below for automatic selection and slicing in half. The orange

halves are then mechanically reamed. The seeds are strained and the pulp is compressed to

maximize the yield of juice. All waste is deposited in a disposable unit. Throughput: 2640-3960

oranges per hour. Dimensions: length 40.6 x width 22.9 x height 55.9cm.

60
Plate 16: Roto Rotary Orange Juicer

Source: www.fao.org

61
2.15 Domestic Rubber-Type Extractor

This extractor is better than extracting juice with bare hands. It is a cone-shaped

instrument made either of rubber or plastic. This machine is used in the homes, not for

commercial production. For its operation, the already peeled fruit is cut into two halves, placed

on the apex of the instrument, pressed down a bit and turned in a clockwise direction

continually until all the juice is extracted through perforated holes on the instrument and is

collected in small tank below it. There is the problem of frequent blockages of these holes

during operation which hampers extraction at times. Moreover, a lot of energy is expended

during the proper extraction. The upper part of this machine is detachable after the small tank is

full of the juice.

62
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Material Selection

Generally, in order to avoid Citrus fruit juice contamination resulting from corrosion effects

of mild steel, plastic will be chosen for the shaft, hopper, press cage housing and the press cone.

Mild steel (steel with its carbon content up to about 0.25%) will be chosen for the extractor stand

because it is easy to weld and fabricate (Ibhadode, 2001). Due to their low carbon content, they are

not hardened by heat treatment process, and as such, weld and heat affected zone (HAZ) do not

have hardened zones even though there is quick cooling (Holdren et al., 1997).

Mild steel is also known for its good ductility, plasticity which enables it to be easily

worked into shapes by rolling, bending or pressing. It has good malleability, which enables it to be

substantially hammered without too much energy dissipation (Ibhadode, 2001).

The following properties also will be considered in selecting the materials needed for the

construction of the extractor:

(i) Physical properties such as size, shape, density etc.

(j) Mechanical properties which include; strength, toughness, stiffness, fatigue, hardness and

wear resistance

(k) Chemical properties: this includes resistance to oxidation and all forms of corrosion since

the machine is to be used in processing food.

(l) Material availability: the materials used were selected based on their availability such that

they can be obtained from the market with ease.

(m)Cost of materials: materials used can be made available at a cheaper price to peasant farmers

(n) Cost of maintenance: replaceable parts were not welded to the machine frame in order to

allow for easy replacement of parts.

 (o) Strength of material: to avoid operational failure, the strength of the materials to be used

will be ascertained. These will be determined by establishing data and formulae. Based on

the data and formulae applied, the strength and size of parts such as central shaft, power of

electric motor required, size of bearing and thickness of the sieve materials were

determined.

(p) Durability and Hygiene: the machine will come in contact with easily oxidized food (liquid

substance). It is therefore necessary to ensure all these parts coming in contact with the juice

be made of stainless steel of appropriate strength. The use of stainless steel material for

constructing the auger, shaft, perforated drum and collector will enhance the durability of

the machine because of its corrosive resistance. However, for construction of the proto-type,

ordinary, mild steel was used but painted to reduce corrosion.

3.2 Design Consideration

The engineering properties of the materials that are relevant to the design, development and

performance evaluation will be considered. The properties include

ix. High juice yield: high extraction efficiency; low extraction loss; high quality of juice;

availability, quality and cost of construction materials.

x. Desire to make the extraction chamber and juice outlet with stainless steel to ensure quality

and safety of juice;

xi. Desire to design the extraction chamber to accommodate the require quantity of mango fruit.

xii. Desire to design the screw conveyor to ensure maximum conveyance, abrasion maceration

of the mango fruit mesocarp.

xiii. Desire to have a strong main frame to ensure structural stability and strong support

for the machine.

64
3.2.1 Economic Factors and Safety Considerations

Construction materials will be selected based on economic factors and safety consideration.

These factors are:

iv. Availability and the cost of construction and materials

v. Durability and strength of materials

vi. Manufacturing /fabrication methods that will be employed in construction.

vii. Efficiency of extraction and minimizing juice contamination

viii. Corrosion resistant properties

3.3 Design Evaluation

Intended Efficiency of 95% is anticipated for the machine at engine speed N1= 1400 rpm

95% Efficiency of 1hP will become

95
x 1 hp = 0.95 hp
100

But 1hP = 0.75kW

0.95hp → 0.95 x 0.75kW = 0.713kW

The fruit extraction machine consists of the following components; one solid shaft, feeding

hopper, auger, two bearings and bearing housing, two sprockets (driven and driving sprocket),

chain, a bicycle frame, the main frame, juice outlet and fruit chaff outlet.

The following factors will be considered when designing and developing the machine:

Juice yield: This is determined from the formula given below

W je
Juice yield = x 100 %
W fs

(3.1)

Where Wje is the average weight of the juice extracted (g) and W fs is the average weight

of the feed sample/peeled orange per batch (g).

Efficiency of juice extraction: This is determined from the formula below

65
 W je
Efficiency = x 100 %
W rp

(3.2)

Where Wje is the average weight of the juice extracted (g), W rp is the average weight of

the residue pulp, seed and skin (g).

Juice extraction loss: This is determined using the formula,

Extraction loss = W fs − ( W je +W rp/ W fs ) x 100 % (3.3)

3.4 Materials and Equipment for Performance Evaluation

The materials/equipment that will be used in conducting the experiments are;

i. Weighing Balance

ii. Stop Watch

iii. Fruit Samples such as Orange, Watermelon and Pineapple

iv. The Juice Extractor (the fabricated machine)

v. Collector Pan

vi. Metal Plate

vii. Vernier caliper

viii. Micrometer screw gauge

3.5 Machine Description

1. The Hopper

This is the inlet in which the halved peeled fruits are admitted into the pressing chamber. It

is square in shape at the top and slanting as it enters through the upper chamber into the

compressing unit. This is located at the left top side on the upper housing. Galvanized material is

used for the “hopper” nevertheless stainless steel or aluminum alloy can also be used as alternative.

2. The Main Housing

This is the chamber in which the main operation of the juice extraction is carried out. It

houses the shaft on which the pressers are arranged along its length alternatively. It consists of the

66
two points upper and lower halved cylindrical shape chambers. They are made of 1.5mm thick

stainless plate.

The upper chamber will withstand pressure from the shaft and presser while the lower

chamber (perforated sheet) will not; it will only act as the juice sieve. The lower chamber is situated

below the upper chamber and it is almost exactly of the same size with the upper chamber except

that it is perforated to allow passage of the extracted juice.

3. The Driven Shaft

This is a rotating member of the system. It is of circular cross sectional bar. The material can

be steel or galvanized steel. The pressing accessories which are of the same material (stainless steel)

with the shaft (except the rubber tips) were mounted upon the shaft, arranged alternatively and

uniformly at equal intervals along its length. The driven shaft has diameter 32mm and of length

1040mm. It was machined at one end to diameter 30mm by 50mm and step turned to diameter

25mm by length 45mm in other to admit the industrial bearing and the pulley respectively.

The shaft was firmly bolted to the machine base with the aid of two sets of bearings.

4. Pressers

They are made up of stainless steel but galvanized steel can also be used. They consist of

22mm diameter round stainless steel bar, a flat rubber material pieces was securely fixed to its ends

with the aid of bolts and nuts. The length of the presser depends on the size of the compressing

chamber. For effective pressing, four pairs were employed.

5. Machine Base and Support (Frame)

The weight of the shaft, the housing and the hopper are carried by the machine based and

supports, they were made of 40 x 40mm angle iron mild steel material with a thickness of 2mm.

6. The Motor Base

The motor base is equally made of angular bar of mild steel material. The bars were cut to

required sizes and welded carefully to require shape.

67
7. The Pulley

The pulley is a two-way V-grooved type. It is made of cast iron of diameter 200mm and

thickness of 40mm.The ready-made type was obtained for this construction.

8. Bearing

Bearings were used to support and align the shaft. They carry the shaft to absorb torque and

make the operation almost frictionless.

9. Motor

The motor supplies the power needed to drive the extractor. It is mounted on the machine

frame below the shaft pulley and has its pulley connected to that of the shaft through a v-belt.

10. Beating Chamber

The beating chamber consists of a cylinder which encloses a shaft to which flat iron bars are

welded at an angle of 45O . This was done so that the beaters can combine both the function of

beating and conveying the fruits towards the right side of the beating chamber from where they drop

into the extraction chamber.

3.6 Mode of Machine Operation

The juice extractor will be designed to work on the principle of compression and squeezing

due to the gradual reduction of clearance between conveyor housing and screw conveyor. It will

make up five units, namely tool frame, feed hopper, juice extraction unit, collecting unit, and power

and transmission unit

Prior to the operation of the machine, inspection will be carried out to ensure that all parts

are well set, fixed and bolted appropriately. The oranges will be peeled and cut into two halves and

these half oranges will be loaded into the hopper. The prime mover transmits power to the shaft and

presser in the compression chamber. The half oranges will travel radially along the presser. The

presser presses the half oranges against the perforated cylindrical sieve and the separated juice will

be collected at the collector unit. The hull of fruits will be ejected from the incorporated outlet.

68
3.7 Design Calculation

An engine pulley diameter of 76mm diameter will be chosen from standard table with belt

thickness of 0.12mm.

Engine pulley diameter, d1= 7.6mm or 0.076m

Radius, r1 = 0.038m

Angular velocity of engine (motor),

2πN1
w 1= 60

Where N1 = Speed of the engine.

2 π × 1400
w = = 146.6 ∼ 147 rad / sec (i)
1
60

The linear velocity of the engine,

V = w r1

(ii)

Substitute the value of w1 in (i) into (ii) we have,

V = 146.6 × 0.038 = 5.6 m / s (iii)

3.7.1 Belt and Pulley Selection

A speed reduction ratio of 3 is chosen

N1
μ=
N2

Where N1 = Speed of driver pulley

N2 = Speed of driven pulley

μ= Reduction ratio = 3

69
 N1 1400
N = = = 466.7 ∼ 467 rpm (iv)
2
μ 3

Diameter of driven pulley d2

N1 d2
= {this equation is given by Khurmi and Gupta, 2005} (v)
N2 d1

Where N1 = Speed of driver pulley

N2 = Speed of driven pulley

d1 = diameter of driver pulley

d2 = diameter of driver pulley

Substitute the value of N2 in (iv) into (v) we have,

N1 d 1 1400 × 0.076
d = = = 0.22 ∼ 0.2 m (vi)
2
N2 466.7

Radius of driven pulley, 0.2

= = 0.1 m
r2 2

Angular velocity of the driven pulley, ω2

2πN
=
2
(vii)
60

Substitute the value of N2 in (iv) into (vii) we have,

2 π × 466.67
ω2= = 48.87 rad / sec
60

3.7.2 Size of Belt

For an efficient torque in V-belts, a minimum angle of contact of the belt on the smaller

pulley should not be less than 120O (Reshetor, 1978). Therefore an angle of 165O is chosen for the

smaller pulley.

70
Figure 3.1: Belt Arrangement

sin ( α ) =O 1 m/ O1 O2 = r2 − r 1 / x = d 2 − d1 / 2 x {this equation is given by Khurmi and Gupta.

2005}

(viii)

r1 and r2 are radii of smaller and larger pulleys

x is the distance between the centers of the two pulley (i.e O1O2)

the angle of contact, θin this case is 165O

But θ = 180 − 2 α

180 − θ = 180 − 165 =

α= 15 /2 =7.5o
2 2
π
or7.5 x rad = 0.13 rad
180

But sin α = d2 − d1/ 2 x → 2 x= d 2 − d1/ sin α

0.2 − 0.0076 0.124

2 x= sin 7.5 → 2 x = 0.13

0.124
x= =0.48 m
2 × 0.13

An A55 V – belt size will be selected

Angle of contact, θis selected to be 165O

71
 π
θ = 165 x =2.88 rad
180

We know that
T
2.3 log T
1
2
(= μ⋅θ

)
Coefficient of friction, μfor rubber belt material on dry cast iron is 0.3

T
2.3 log ( T
1
2
= μ ⋅ θ = 0.3 × 2.88 =0.864

)
T = 0.864 = 0.376
log ( T
1
2 2.3

)
T1
= log =2.37 (ix)
T2

Power transmitted by belt,

P = ( T 1 − T 2) v

Where P = Power in watts

T1– T2 = Overall belt tension

T1 = Tension in tight side of belt

T2 = Tension in slack side of belt

0.713 x 103 = (T1 –T 2 ) 5.6

T1−T
2 = 0.713 × 1000 =
5.6 127 N

(x)

From equation (ix), T1 = 2.37T2

Substituting the value of T1 into equation (x)

72
We have,

2.3 T 2 − T 2 = 127 N

1.37 T 2 = 127 N
127
T= = 92.7 N
2
1.37

(xi)

Substituting T2 in (xi) into (x) we have,

T 1 − 92.7 =127

T 1 = 127+ 92.7 =220 N

3.7.3 Length of Belt

π
L= d
2
( 2 + ) +2 x + ( − )2 / 4 x {this equation is given by R.S. Khurmi and J.K.
d
1 d2 d1

Gupta, 2005}
π
L= ( 0.2+ 0.076 ) + 2 ( 0.48 ) + ( 0.2 −
2
0.076 ) / 4 ( 0.48 )
2
0.0154
L = 0.4336 + 0.96 + =1.40 m
1.6

3.7.4 Hopper Design Specification

The following assumptions will be made so as to choose the dimensions for the

hopper

Volume of material

Shape of material

Angle of repose

The hopper is considered to be a frustum. The height is 350 mm and the top and base radii 220

mm and 120 mm respectively.

73
Figure 3.2: Image of Frustum and Full Projection

Area of Big Triangle,

AB= ½ b. h

h – Altitude

AB = ½ x 0.22 x 0.46 = 0.0506 m2

Area of Small Triangle, AS = ½ b. h

Where b = base radius

h – Altitude

AS = ½ x 0.12 x 0.11 = 0.0066 m2

Area of the truncated hopper, AT = AB - AS = 0.0506 – 0.0066 = 0.044 m2

Volume of hopper = Area x width of section = 0.044 x 0.22 = 0.00968 or 9.7 x 10-3 m 3
But density of steel sheet = 7850kg / m3

Mass of hopper = 7850 x 9.68 x 10-3 = 75.99 kg

Weight of hopper = 75.99 x 9.81 = 745.4 N

Assumed mass of fruits = 5 kg

74
 Bulk density = =

5 kg
9.68 × 103

Bulk density of fruits = 516.5 or 517 kg / m3

Weight of fruit = 5 kg x 9.81 = 49. 05 N

3.7.5 Shaft Design

The shaft will be made of ductile material to resist cyclic load. It will be designed against

bending and torsion failures and the design is governed by the maximum shear stress theory.

Figure 3.3: Shaft Design

Torque transmitted by shaft, T is given by

T= = 0.713 x 103 x 60 / 2 x 466.7 = 14.60 x 103 Nmm

T = 14.60 x 103 Nmm (xii)

Tangential force acting on pulley, FTA is given by

FTA = T / RA where RA is the radius of the pulley (xiii)

Substitute the value of T in (xii) into (xiii) we have,

FTA = =146 N

Total load acting downwards on the shaft at A = FTA + WA + weight of spiral rods +

blades on shaft

75
Where WA is the weight of the pulley

Assumed mass of pulley = 1 kg

Therefore, weight of pulley = 1 x 9.81 = 9.81 N

Assumed weight of spiral rod + blades = 1 x 9.81 = 9.8 N

The total load acting on the shaft at A = 146 + 9.81 +9.81 = 165.62 N
RB and RC are the reactions at B and C respectively

A little consideration will show that the reaction RB will act upwards while the reaction

RC acts downward as shown in the figure above.

Now taking moments about C,

RB x 810 = 165.62 x 910 = 150714.2

RB = 150714.2 / 810 = 186.06 or 186 N

For equilibrium of the shaft RC + 165.62 = RB

RC + 165.62 = 186.06 N

RC = 186.06 – 165.62 = 20.44 N

We know that bending moment, B. M. at A

and C = 0 MA = MC = 0

Bending moment, B. M. at B

MB = 165.62 x 100 = 16562 Nmm

Therefore bending moment, = M = MB = 16562 Nmm

d = diameter of shaft
T = torque = 14600 Nmm

Equivalent twisting moment, Te =

Where Km = combined shock and fatigue factor due to bending = 1.5

76
 Kt = combined shock or fatigue factor due to tensional moment = 1.0 (for

gradually applied loads on rotating shaft)

Equivalent bending moment, Me =

Me = [Km x M + Te] = [1.5 x 16562 + 28815.5] = 26829.25

Me = 26829.25

b = 56 Mpa (maximum tensile or permissible stress)

π
Me = xσ
32 b x d3 x 26829.25

3
= x 56 xσ d

d3 =

= 4880 mm3 d3

= 4880 mm3

d= = 17 mm say 25 mm

77
Figure 3.4: Bending Moment and Shearing Force Diagram

78
3.7.6 Auger Conveyor Specification

The shaft will be translated into an auger with crushing blades mounted at an angle of 900

on the circumference of the spiral rods at equal distance in helical arrangement and made parallel to

each other. These blades strike the fruit which are displaced. These blades will repeat impact and

rubbing actions on the crushed mass and perform series of cyclic operations. Figure 9 shows the

auger design and table shows the design specifications.

Blade length = 25 mm

Thickness = 1 mm Width =12 mm

79
Figure 3.5: An auger design and specification

A – Auger pitch

D – Outside diameter of auger

d – Outside diameter of auger shaft

E – Length of intake opening

L – Effective length of

conveyance B – Blade length

T – Blade thickness

W – Blade width

80
3.7.7 Design of the Theoretical Capacity of the Extractor

The theoretical capacity of the extractor will be determined using a modified

form of equation given by Onwualu et al (2006) as:

Qe = 60× (D 2 - ds 2) PsN φs s (xiv)

Where:

Qe = theoretical capacity of the extractor in kg/hr

Ds = diameter of the screw of auger m

ds = base diameter of the screw shaft in m

Ps = pitch of auger in m

Ns = rotational speed of auger in rpm

φ = filling factor

3.7.8 Design of the Volumetric Capacity of the Extractor

The volumetric capacity of the machine is given by Onwuala et al (2006) as:

Qvc = (xv)

Where:

Qe = the theoretical capacity of the extractor

ρ = the density of fruit in kg/m3

3.7.9 Design of the Power Requirement for Extraction

The power requirement of the machine for extraction can be calculated using the

equation adapted from Hall et al (2002) as:

Pe = 4.5×Qvc×ls×ρ×g×F (xvi)

81
 Where:

Pe = power requirement for extraction

Qvc = volumetric capacity

ls = length of screw shaft
ρ = density of the material
g = acceleration due to gravity
F = the material factor.
Therefore, the total power requirement is the sum of the power required for chopping and

that required for extraction:

Pt = P c + Pe (xvii)

Where:

Pt is the total power requirement of the machine.

The power of the electric motor to drive the system can be estimated from the equation

given by Onwuala et al., (2006) as:

Pm = (xviii)

Where:

Pm = power of the prime mover and

ἠ = the drive efficiency.

3.8 Performace Evaluation of the Extractor

The machine will be tested in the Department of Food Science and Technology Fabrication

Workshop. The test will be carried out into two different stages. Stage 1, the free test run (without

load) and stage 2 involves testing with load (i.e. fruits) under different weights (1kg, 1.5kg and 2kg)

of fruit slice (8 and 16 slices). The test will be replicated six (6) times (i.e. 3 weights for each

individual slice lengths of 8 and 16 respectively). A stop watch and weighing balance will be used

to ascertain the time of extraction and measuring the quantity of the extracted fruit and cake.

82
Performance parameters: This included juice yield, JY(%), juice extraction efficiency, JE(%) and

extraction losses, EL(%).

3.9 Method of Construction

The following constructional operations will be carried out on the components before the

machine will be finally assembled. These are: marking out, drilling of components, bending and

folding of metal sheet, welding of components, machining – pulley and shaft, filling and

smoothening, painting and assembly.

The hopper will be fabricated from a standard length of 1 mm thick stainless steel. Four

pieces of dimension 2 mm × 40 mm will be cut from the stainless steel plate and welded together to

form the hopper. The shaft with blades in the chopping unit will be fabricated from stainless steel

rod of diameter 24 mm and length 145 mm. A stainless steel plate of thickness 2 mm will be welded

spirally round the extraction shaft to form a screw system of uniform pitch. The main frame will be

made from angle iron of 4mm thickness and dimension 6200 mm × 20 mm × 20 mm and welded

together.

3.10 Machine Maintenance

The maintenance of the machine is imperative in order to ensure the smooth-running and

durability of the machine. Therefore, the following stated preventive maintenance tips and

precautions should be followed.

i. Cleaning of both the inner and outer part of the machine before and after use as well as the

regular lubrication of the ball bearings through the grease nipple provided.

ii. Confirming that all bolt and nut is well tightened chiefly the ones securing the compression

chamber and the collector unit to prevent vibration and leakage.

iii. The machine hopper should not be loaded above recommended capacity in order not to

hamper the operation in the compression unit.

iv. The belt should be well tensioned and secured on the pulleys.

83
v. The hopper should be covered when the machine is not in operation to prevent access to

foreign materials.

84
3.11 Isometric Projection of the Machine

Figure 3.6: Orthographic Projection of the Extractor

85
Figure 3.7: Isometric View of the Extractor

86
3.12 Components of the Extractor

ALPHABET NAME

A Hopper
B Transmission Belt

C Power Shaft Assembly

D Bearing

E Pulp Outlet

F Juice Outlet

G Shaft Protection

H Seal

I Cylindrical Drum

J Electric Motor

K Frame and Support

L Bolt

M Adjustable Port

Table 3.1: Components of the Extractor

87
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